THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 
OF  CALIFORNIA 


PRESENTED  BY 

PROF.  CHARLES  A.  KOFOID  AND 
MRS.  PRUDENCE  W.  KOFOID 


PANTOLOGY; 


OB, 


A    SYSTEMATIC    SURVEY 


HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE; 


PROPOSING 


A  CLASSIFICATION  OF  ALL  ITS  BRANCHES,  AND  ILLUSTRATING  THEIR 
HISTORY,  RELATIONS,  USES,  AND  OBJECTS ; 


Synopsis  of  their  Leading  Facts  and  Principles; 


&  Select  (Tntalotjuf  of  ttooiis  an  all 

SUITABLE    FOR    A    CABINET    LIBRARY: 

THE  WHOLE  DESIGNED  AS  A 

GUIDE  TO  STUDY  FOR  ADVANCED  STUDENTS, IN  COLLEGES,  ACADEMIES,  AND 

SCHOOLS  ;    AND  AS  A  POPULAR  DIRECTORY  IN  LITERATURE, 

SCIENCE,  AND    THE    ARTS. 


BY  ROSWEIX  PARK,  A.  M., 

PROFESSOR  OF  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  AND  CHEMISTRY,   IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF 
PENNSYLVANIA,  AND  MEM.   AM.  PHIL.   SOCIETY. 


PHILADELPHIA: 
HOGAN    &    THOMPSON, 

30  NORTH  FOURTH  STREET. 

1841. 


ENTERED  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1841,  by 

UOSWELL   PARK, 

in  the  Office  of  the  Clerk  of  the  District  Court  of  the  Eastern  District  of 
Pennsylvania. 


<2,/77 
P37  :, 


TO  THE 

REV.  SAMUEL  B.  WYLIE,  D.D. 

VICE  PROVOST  AND  PROFESSOR  OF  LANGUAGES, 

IN  THE 
UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA, 

WHOSE  LIFE  HAS  BEEN    DEVOTED  TO  THE  ADVANCEMENT  OF   LEARNING 
AND  THE  INTERESTS  OF  HUMANITY, 

THIS  WORK 

13 

WITH    HIS    PERMISSION 
MOST  RESPECTFULLY  AND  AFFECTIONATELY  DEDICATED. 


PREFACE. 


THE  present  work  is  offered,  as  a  guide  book,  to  those  who  are 
seeking  to  explore  the  vast  expanse  of  human  knowledge.  It  aspires 
to  be  to  Pantology,  or  knowledge  in  general,  what  a  map  of  the  world 
is  to  Geography :  an  outline,  and  nothing  more :  but  such  an  out- 
line as  may  be  serviceable  to  all  who  are  seeking  to  acquire  general 
views  of  this  wide  region ;  by  showing,  however  imperfectly,  the 
relations  of  its  parts,  and  their  comparative  extent  and  importance. 
And  as  the  emigrant,  who  proposes  to  settle  in  a  new  country,  first 
travels  over  it,  and  examines  its  different  regions,  before  selecting  a 
location ;  so,  it  is  believed,  may  the  student,  before  choosing  a  pro- 
fession, derive  benefit  from  a  general  survey  of  all  the  regions 
of  knowledge,  such  as  is  here  attempted  to  be  presented.  Or,  as  the 
traveller,  in  pursuit  of  health  and  pleasure,  does  not  rest  satisfied  with 
his  native  state,  rich  and  fruitful  though  it  be ;  so  may  the  philosopher 
derive  strength  and  relaxation  from  an  occasional  excursion  beyond 
his  own  immediate  pursuits,  or  a  systematic  tour  around  the  whole 
intellectual  world. 

The  primary  object  of  the  following  pages,  was  to  present  a 
Natural  Classification  of  human  knowledge,  so  full  as  to  furnish 
a  place  for  every  topic  of  thought,  and  so  simple  that  it  might  be  of 
general  and  practical  application.  It  would  thus  include  what  Sir 
James  Mackintosh  so  appropriately  terms  an  "Exhaustive  Analy- 
sis'1 of  Human  Knowledge ;  in  which  all  the  fragments,  even  of  minor 
importance,  would  find  a  distinct  and  proper  place.  It  would 
also  serve  as  a  Mnemonical  System,  to  aid  in  impressing  and 
retaining  ideas  ;  as  an  Index  Rerum,  or  method  of  arranging  topics 
of  study;  and  as  a  Model  for  Libraries,  by  bringing  those  books 
which  relate  to  the  same  subjects,  into  juxtaposition,  whether  in  the 
catalogues,  or  on  the  shelves.  Such  a  classification,  it  is  futher  con- 
ceived, would  be  the  best  of  all  arrangements  for  Encyclopedias : 
the  whole  advantage  of  their  usual  form,  being  still  preserved,  by 
means  of  a  copious  alphabetical  index ;  while  they  would  exhibit  the 
information  which  they  contain,  in  a  connected  and  systematic 
manner. 

A3  5 


6  PREFACE. 

But  while  proposing  a  classification  of  Human  Knowledge,  it 
seemed  to  the  writer  that  its  value  would  be  greatly  enhanced,  and 
better  appreciated,  if  connected  with  a  brief  summary  of  the  know- 
ledge which  it  was  proposed  to  classify.  The  attempt  has  therefore 
here  been  made,  to  present  such  leading  ideas  of  each  branch,  as  would 
give  just  views  of  its  nature,  extent,  and  relative  importance;  thus  in 
some  degree  gratifying  curiosity,  while  stimulating  it  to  farther  inqui- 
ries. Conscious,  however,  of  the  imperfect  manner  in  which  this  has 
been  done,  the  writer  has  appended  a  bibliographical  catalogue,  drawn 
up  with  great  care,  and  referring  to  a  few  of  the  best  authors,  as  far 
as  he  could  ascertain,  in  each  branch  of  knowledge  ;  whose  works, 
if  carefully  perused,  will  amply  supply  any  deficiencies,  and  correct 
any  occasional  faults  or  errors  in  this.  It  is  hoped  that  such  a  cata- 
logue, however  incomplete,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  undertaking, 
may  be  of  real  assistance  to  those  who  are  seeking  the  best  books, 
either  to  read  or  to  purchase,  for  themselves  or  for  Libraries. 

Although  this  work  is  especially  intended  for  advanced  Stu- 
dents, who  are  about  leaving  our  Colleges,  Academies,  or  Schools, 
it  seeks  also  to  be  useful,  even  to  those  who  have  entered 
the  full  career  of  life;  by  recalling  elementary  facts,  and  adding 
such  reflections  on  the  various  topics  glanced  over,  as  will  im- 
press them  most  strongly  upon  the  mind.  In  short,  to  convey  ac- 
curate views  of  general  knowledge,  in  a  methodical  and  attractive 
form,  and  to  apply  that  knowledge  philosophically  and  practically, 
has  been  the  writer's  constant  aim :  but  how  far  he  has  succeeded 
therein,  a  candid  public  can  alone  decide. 


CONTENTS. 


For  farther  particulars,  see  the  Alphabetical  Index,  at  the  close  of  the  work. 


INTRODUCTION,  page  15  : — Chap.  I.  SUBJECTS  OP  HUMAN  KNOW- 
LEDGE, 15  : — Chap.  II.  SOURCES  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE,  19  ; — The  Ancient 
Schools  of  Philosophy,  19; — Modern  Learned  Societies,  22; — Libraries,  23  ; 
.—Encyclopaedias,  26 : — Chap.  III.  CLASSIFICATION  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE, 
28  ;— Former  Classifications,  28 ; — The  Proposed  Classification,  32. 


FIRST  PROVINCE;  PSYCHONOMY,  page  39. 

I.  Department;  GLOSSOLOGY,  page  40: — Chap.  I.  GENERAL  GRAM- 
MAR, 42  ; — Orthology,  43  ; — Lexicology,  44 ; — Accidence,  45  ; — Syntax,  47; 
— Prosody,  47  : — Chap.  II.  ORIENTAL  LANGUAGES,  49  ; — Coptic,  and  Hiero- 
glyphics, 49; — Semitic,  and  Hebrew,  50; — Arabic,  51; — Sanscrit,  52; — 
Chinese,  54: — Chap.  III.  EUROPEAN  LANGUAGES,  55;   Pelasgic,  and  Greek, 
55; — Latin,   57; — Italian,   58; — Spanish,  59; — French,  60; — Gothic,  and 
English,  62 ;— German,  63  ;— -Celtic,  64 ;— Sclavonic,  65 :— Chap.  IV.  BAR- 
BAROUS LANGUAGES,  66 ; — American,  66 ; — African,  67 ; — Oceanic,  68. 

II.  Department;  PSYCHOLOGY,  page  69: — Chap.  I.  RHETORIC,  70; 
— Qualities  of  Style,  71 ;— -Figures  of  Speech,  72 ;— Principles  of  Taste,  73 ; 
— Objects  of  Composition,  74 ; — Management  of  a  Discourse,  75 ; — Princi- 
ples of  Elocution,  76: — Chap.  II.  LOGIC,  77; — Terms,  and  Conception,  77; 
Propositions,  and  Judgment,  78 ; — Syllogisms,  and  Reasoning,  79 ; — Fal- 
lacies, or  Sophisms,  80 ; — Grounds  of  Judgment,  81  ; — Uses  of  Reason, 
81:  Chap.  III.  PHRENICS,  82; — Phrenology,  83 ; — Propensities,  84;— Sen- 
timents, 84 ; — Perceptive  Powers,  85  ; — Reflective  Powers,  86 : — Chap.  IV. 
ETHICS,  87 ; — Personal  Duties,  88 ; — Cognate  Duties,  89 ; — Social  Duties, 
90  ; — Religious  Duties,  91  : — Chap.  V.  EDUCATION,  92; — Physical,  93; — In- 
tellectual, 94 ;— Secular,  95  ;-— Religious,  96 ; — Public  and  Private  Educa- 
tion, 96. 

III.  Department;  NOMOLOGY,  page  98 : — Chap.  I.  POLITICAL  PHILO- 
SOPHY, 100; — Theory  of  Government,  101 ; — Principles  of  Legislation,  102; 
— Of  Adjudication,   103; — Of  Administration,  or  Statesmanship,   104: — 

7 


8  CONTENTS. 

Chap.  II.  INTERNATIONAL  LAW,  105;  Laws  of  Nations  in  Peace,  106; — In 
War,  107; — Maritime  Law,  108; — Commercial  Law,  109: — Chap.  III. 
CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW,  110; — Legislative  Powers  of  the  United  States,  112; 
—Executive  Powers,  113;— Judicial  Powers,  113;— State  Rights  and  Re- 
strictions, 114;— United  States  Statutes  and  Treaties,  115:— Chap.  IV. 
MUNICIPAL  LAW,  116;— Laws  of  Persons,  118; — Of  Property,  119; — Of 
Crimes,  120;— Of  Procedure,  120: — Chap.  V.  POLITICAL  ECONOMY,  121; 
— Production  of  Wealth,  122 ;— Distribution  of  Wealth,  123 ;— Exchanges 
of  Wealth,  124;— Consumption  of  Wealth,  125. 

IV.  Department;  THEOIiOGTT,  Page  127 : — Chap.  I.  PAGANISM,  129; 
— Egyptian  Mythology,  130; — Aramaean  Mythology,  131 ; — Classic  Mytho- 
logy, 132; — Hindoo  Mythology,  133; — Scandinavian  Mythology,  135; — 
Ind-American  do.,  136: — Chap.  II.  MOHAMEDANISM,  137; — History  of  Mo- 
hamedanism,  137  ; — Doctrines  of  Mohamedanism,  138 ; — Practice  of  Mo- 
hamedanism,  139  : — Chap.  III.  JUDAISM,  140 ; — History  of  Judaism,  140 ; — 
Jewish  Scriptures,  141 ; — Jewish  Doctrines  and  Ceremonies,  142  ; — Jewish 
Sects,  143: — Chap.  IV.  CHRISTIANITY,  144; — Ecclesiastical  History ,  145; 
— Christ  and  the  Apostles,  145  ; — Persecutions  and  Toleration,  146 ; — Divi- 
sion of  the  Church,  147; — Early  Missions,  148; — Biblical  Divinity ,  148; — 
Biblical  Criticism,  148; — Patristic  Theology,  149; — Apologetic  Theology, 
and  Evidences,  150  '.—Sectarian  Polity,  152;— Catholic  Churches,  153;— 
The  Reformation,  and  Early  Protestants,  154 ;— Later  Protestants,  156. 


SECOND  PROVINCE;  ETHNOLOGY,  page  159. 

V.  Department;  GEOGRAPHY,  page  160 ;— Physical  Geography, 
162: — Chap.  I.  ASIATIC  GEOGRAPHY,  165  ; — Asiatic  Turkey,  166  ; — Persia, 
168;— Hindoostan,  168;— China,  169;— Tartary  and  Siberia,  170: — Chap. 
II.  EUROPEAN  GEOGRAPHY,  171; — Turkey  and  Greece,  172; — Italy  and 
Spain,  173; — France,  174; — Great  Britain  and  Belgium,  175; — Germany, 
176 ;— Austria  and  Prussia,  177;— Sweden  and  Russia,  178:— Chap.  III. 
AFRICAN  GEOGRAPHY,  178  ; — Egypt,  179 ; — Barbary,  Sahara,  and  Nubia, 
180; — Nigritia,  and  Guinea,  181; — Southern  and  Eastern  Africa,  182; — 
African  Islands,  183 : — Chap.  IV.  NORTH  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY,  183  ; — 
Greenland,  184; — British  America,  185; — The  United  States,  186; — 
Mexico,  188;  West  Indies,  188: — Chap.  V.  SOUTH  AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY, 
189; — Brazil,  189; — Venezuela,  New  Grenada,  and  Peru,  190; — Bolivia, 
and  La  Plata,  191; — Patagonia,  192: — Chap.  VI.  OCEANIC  GEOGRAPHY, 
192 ;— Malaysia,  193; — Australasia,  194; — Polynesia,  194. 

VI. 'Department;  CHRONOGRAPH1*,  page  196;— Chronology,  198: 
— Chap.  I.  EUCLASSIC  CHRONOGRAPHY,  201 ; — History  of  the  Jews,  202; — 
History  of  Ancient  Egypt,  203 ; — Of  Assyria  and  Persia,  204 ; — Of  Syria  and 
Carthage,  205 ; — History  of  Ancient  Greece,  206 ;-— Of  Rome,  207 ; — By- 
zantine History,  209: — Chap.  II.  ORIENTAL  CHRONOGRAPHY,  210; — Arabian 


CONTENTS.  9 

History,  210; — Moorish  History,  211 ;— Turkish,  212; — Modern  Persian 
History,  213; — East  Indian,  214; — Chinese,  215; — Abyssinian,  216; — 
South  African,  and  Oceanic  History,  217 : — Chap.  III.  EUROPEAN  CHRONO- 
CRAPHY,  217; — History  of  Italy,  218 ;— Of  Spain,  221 ; — Of  France,  222, 
History  of  Great  Britain,  224 ; — Of  Germany,  227  ; — Of  Austria  and  Prussia 
229;— Of  Denmark,  230;— History  of  Sweden  and  Poland,  231; — Of 
Russia,  232: — Chap.  IV.  AMERICAN  CHRONOGRAPHY,  233; — History  of  the 
British  Provinces,  233  ;— Of  the  United  States,  234 ; — Of  Mexico,  237  ;— 
Of  the  West  Indies,  and  Brazil,  238  ;— Of  New  Grenada,  and  Peru,  239 ; — 
Of  Chili  and  La  Plata,  240;— Of  Paraguay,  241. 

VII.  Department ;    BIOGRAPHY,    page    242 ; — Heraldry,    243  :— 
Chap.  I.  EUCLASSIC  BIOGRAPHY,  248  ; — Jewish.  248  ; — Egyptian,  249  ; — 
Assyrian,  250  ; — Grecian,  250  ;— Roman,  252  ;— Byzantine,  254 : — Chap.  II. 
ORIENTAL  BIOGRAPHY,  254  ; — Arabian,  255; — Turkish,  and  Persian,  256; — 
East  Indian,  256  ; — Chinese,  257  : — Chap.  III.  EUROPEAN  BIOGRAPHY,  257 ; 
— Italian,  258  ; — Spanish,  260  ; — Portuguese,  261  ; — French,  261 ; — British, 
264 ;— Dutch,  267 ;— Swiss,  268; — German,  269; — Danish,  and  Swedish, 
271 ; — Polish  and  Russian,  272  : — Chap.  IV.  AMERICAN  BIOGRAPHY,  272; 
— United  States  Biography,  272 ; — Mexican,  276  ; — Brazilian,  277 ; — Co- 
lombian and  Peruvian,  277 ; — Chilian  and  Buenos  Ayrean,  278. 

VIII.  Department;    CALLOG-RAPHY,    page   279 ;— Poetry,   280; 
— Romance,    281  : — Chap.   I.    EUCLASSIC    C ALLOGRAPH Y,    283  ; — Grecian 
Poetry,  283 ;— Grecian  Oratory,  286  ;— Roman  Poetry,  286 ;— Roman  Ora- 
tory, 288  : — Chap.  II.    ORIENTAL    CALLOGRAPHY,  288  ; — Arabian  Poetry, 
and  Romance,  289;— Turkish  and  Persian,  290  ;— Hindoo,  291 ;— Chinese, 
292  : — Chap.  III.  EUROPEAN   CALLOGRAPHY,  293  ; — Italian    Poetry,   294  ; 
— Italian  Romance,  295  ; — Spanish  Callography,  296  ; — Portuguese,  297 ; 
—French,   298 ;— British,    301 ;— Dutch,    305 ;— German,   306 ;— Danish, 
and  Swedish,   308  ; — Polish,  and  Russian,   309 : — Chap.   IV.  AMERICAN 
CALLOGRAPHY,  310; — United  States  Poetry,  310; — American    Romance, 
312  ; — American  Eloquence,  312. 


THIRD  PROVINCE;  PHYSICONOMY,  page  313. 

IX.  Department;  MATHEMATICS,  page  314: — Chap.  I.  ARITH- 
METIC, 316; — Ground  Rules,  317; — Denominate  Numbers,  318; — Frac- 
tions, 319; — Proportion,  320; — Mercantile  Rules,  321; — Powers  and 
Progressions,  321 : — Chap.  II.  ALGEBRA,  322; — Preliminary  Rules,  323; — 
Equations,  324; — Powers  and  Roots,  325  ; — Theory  of  Equations,  326  ; — 
Series,  and  Logarithms,  326  : — Chap.  III.  GEOMETRY,  327; — Elements  of 
Geometry,  328  ;— Plane  Figures,  329 ;— Solid  Figures,  330 ;— Descriptive 
Geometry,  331: — Chap.  IV.  ANCYLOMETRY,  332; — Trigonometry,  334  ;— 
Coordinates,  335; — Conic  Sections,  335  : — Chap.  V.  RHEOMETRY,  337;—- 
Differential  Calculus,  338  ; — Integral  Calculus,  340. 

2 


10  CONTENTS. 

X.  Department ;  ACROPHYSICS,  page  342  :— Chap.  I.  MECHANICS, 
345 ; — Statics,  346 ; — Dynamics,  347  ; — Hydrics,  348  ; — Pneumatics,  349  : 
— Chap.  II.  ASTRONOMY,  350; — Descriptive  Astronomy,  352; — Siderial, 
354  ;_Physical  and  Practical  Astronomy,  355  : — Chap.  III.  OPTICS,  356  ; 

Catoptrics,   358  ; — Dioptrics,   358 ; — Physical    Optics,   359 ; — Practical 

Optics,  360: — Chap.  IV.  CERAUNICS,  361  ;— Calorics,  363 ;— Electricity, 
363 ;— Galvanism,  364; — Magnetism,  365 ;— Electro-Magnetism,  366; — 
Meteorology,  366: — Chap.  V.  CHEMISTRY,  367; — Non-Metallic,  368 ; — 
Metallic,  370; — Organic,  371  ; — Analytic  Chemistry.  372. 

XL  Department ;  IDIOPHYSICS,  page  373 : — Chap.  I.  ZOOLOGY,  375 ; 
— Zoonomy,  377  ; — Mazology,  378 ; — Ornithology,  379  ; — Herpetology, 
379; — Ichthyology,  380 ;— Malacology,  381; — Arthrology,  382 ;— Acti- 
nology,  383  : — Chap.  II.  BOTANY,  383  ; — Botanical  Terminology,  384  ; — 
Phy tonomy,  385 ; — Systematic  Botany,  386 ;— Descriptive  Botany,  388: — 
Chap.  III.  MINERALOGY,  389 ; — Crystallography,  390  ; — Idiographic  Mine- 
ralogy, 391 ;  Systematic  and  Descriptive  Mineralogy,  393  : — Chap.  IV. 
GEOLOGY,  395 ; — Introductory  Geology,  396 ; — Systematic  Geology,  397  ; 
— Physical  Geology,  400; — Descriptive  Geology,  401. 

XII.  Department ;  ANDROPHTTSICS,  page  402  : — Chap.  I.  ANDRO- 
NOMY,  (Anatomy  and  Physiology),  404  ; — General  Anatomy,  406  ; — Osteo- 
logy, 406 ; — Myology,  407 ; — Neurology,  408 ; — Angiology,  409 ; — Splanch- 

nology,   410: — Chap.   II.    PHARMACOLOGY,    412: Therapeutics,   413; — 

Materia  Medica,  414; — Pharmacy,  416;— Toxicology,  417  :— Chap.  III. 
THEREOLOGY,  418  ; — Hygienics,  420  ; — Febrile  Diseases,  421 ; — Eruptive 
Diseases,  422  ; — Nervous  Diseases,  423  ; — Secretive  Diseases,  424  : — Chap. 
IV.  CHIRURGERY,  425  ; — Vulnar  Surgery,  425 ; — Normal  Surgery,  427  ; — 
Topical  Surgery,  428 


FOURTH  PROVINCE ;  TECHNOLOGY,  page  430. 

XIII.  Department ;  ARCHITECHNICS,  page  431 :— Chap.   I.  HY- 
LURGY,   433 ; — Metallurgy,   434  ; — Earthy  Materials,  435  ; — Organic   Ma- 
terials, 436 ; — Strength  of  Materials,  437  : — Chap.  II.  MACHINERY,  438 ; — 
Elements  of  Machinery,  440; — Water  Power,  440; — Wind.  Power,  441 ; 
Steam  Power,  442  : — Chap.  III.  ARCHITECTURE,  443 ; — Elements  of  Archi- 
TECTURE,  444  ; — Oriental,  445  ; — Classic,  445  ; — Gothic,  447  : — Chap.  IV. 
VIATECTURE,  447  ; — Roads,   449  ; — Railroads,   449  ; — Canals,  and  Water 
Works,  450 ; — River  and  Harbor  Improvements,  450  : — Chap.  V.  NAVI- 

TECTURE,  451 ; — Ship  Building,  452 ; — Rigging,  453  ; — Steamboats,  454  : 

Chap.  VI.  NAVIGATION,  455 ;— Seamanship,  456 ; — Dead  Reckoning,  457 ; 
Astronomical  Navigation,  458. 

XIV.  Department ;  CHREOTECHNICS,  page  459  :— Chap.  I.  AGRI- 
CULTURE, 461 ; — Agricultural  Implements,  462  ; — Preparing  Land,  463  ; 


CONTENTS.  11 

Fertilizing  the  Soil,  463 ;— Cultivation  of  Vegetables,  464 ; — Rearing  of 
Animals,  465  : — Chap.  II.  HORTICULTURE,  466  ; — Landscape  Gardening, 
467  ; — Kitchen  Gardening,  468  ; — Botanical  Gardening,  468 : — Chap.  III. 
DOMICULTURE,  469  ; — Housekeeping,  470  ;— Cookery,  470; — Butlery,  472  : 
— Chap.  IV.  VESTITURE,  472  ; — Linen  Manufacture,  474  ; — Cotton,  474  ; — 
Woollen,  475  ; — Silk  Manufacture,  476  : — Chap.  V.  FURNITURE,  477  ; 
Vitrefactures,  478  ; — Metallifactures,  478  ; — Horology,  and  Musical  Instru- 
ments, 479; — Cabinet  and  Carriage  Work,  480: — Chap.  VI.  COMMERCE, 
480; — Principles  of  Commerce,  481 ; — Sources  of  Commerce,  482  ; — Cam- 
bistry, 483 ; — Book-keeping,  484. 

XV.  Department ;  MACHETECHNICS,  page  485  :— Chap.  I.  Ho- 
PLISTICS,  487; — Ordnance,  489  ; — Ammunition,  490  ; — Equipments,  491  : — 
Chap.  II.  FORTIFICATION,  493 ; — Field  Fortification,  494  ; — Permanent  Forti- 
fication, 495; — Attack  and  defence  of  Places,  497 : — Chap.' III.  GEOTACTICS, 
498 ;— -Infantry  Tactics,   499 ; — Artillery,  501 ;— Cavalry  Tactics,  502 : — 
Chap.  IV.  STRATEGY,  503 ; — Preliminary  Operations,  504 ; — Marches,  506  ; 
Battles,  507: — NAVITACTICS,  508  ; — Naval  Armaments,  510; — Naval  En- 
gagements, 511 ; — Manoeuvres  of  Fleets,  512. 

XVI.  Department;     CALLOTECHNICS,     page     514:— Chap.     I. 
PRINTING,  516 ; — Writing,  517 ; — Common  Printing,  518  ; — Engraving,  519 ; 
—Paper  Making,  520 ;— Telegraphs,  521  :— Chap.   II.  PAINTING,  521;— 
Drawing,  523; — Shading,  524  ; — Colouring,  525  ; — Pinacography,  525: — 
Chap.  III.  SCULPTURE,  527 ; — Modelling,  528  ; — Carving,  529  ; — Casting, 
530; — Glyphography,  530  :— Chap.  IV.  Music,  531; — Physical  Theory 
of  Music,  533; — Musical  Notation,  534 ;— Musical  Composition,  535; — 
Musical  Productions,  535: — Chap.  V.  ARGICS,   536; — Field  and   Water 
Sports,  538 ; — Gymnastics  and  Calisthenics,  539  ; — Games  of  Chance  and 
Skill,  540. 


APPENDIX. 

BIBLIOGRAPHY,  page  541 :— Glossology,  542 ;— Psychology,  543; 
— Nomology,  544; — Theology,  545; — Geography,  547; — Chronography, 
549; — Biography,  550; — Callography,  552; — Mathematics,  553; — ^Aero- 
physics,  554 ; — Idiophysics,  555  ; — Androphysics,  557 ; — Architechnics, 
558; — Chreotechnics,  559  ;— Machetechnics,  561 ;— Callotechnics,  562. 


LIST   OF   PLATES. 


Plate  I.  Frontispiece.  Pantology ;  or  a  synopsis  of  the  various  branches 
of  Human  Knowledge,  in  the  form  of  a  tree.  The  four  principal  divisions  of 
the  trunk  represent  the  four  provinces,  in  the  proposed  classification. 

Plate  II.  Fronting  page  54.  Glossology.  The  Egyptian,  Arabic,  and 
Sanscrit  alphabets;  with  specimens  of  Egyptian,  Arabic,  Sanscrit,  and 
Chinese  words,  explained  in  the  pages  preceding  the  plate. 

Plate  III.  Fronting  page  84.  Phrenology.  The  Organs  of  the  Brain, 
according  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Phrenologists,  as  presented  in  the  latest 
Boston  edition  of  Combe's  Phrenology. 

Plate  IV.  Fronting  page  132.  Mythology.  Six  of  the  principal  classic 
deities,  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Pluto,  Juno,  Minerva,  and  Ceres,  are  here 
represented,  with  their  appropriate  symbols. 

Plate  V.  Fronting  page  162.  Geography.  A  Map  of  the  World  as 
known  to  the  Ancients,  copied  from  the  original  by  Agathodagmon, 
prepared  expressly  for  Ptolemy's  Almagest.  It  will  be  seen  that  the 
Baltic  Sea  was  confounded  with  the  Arctic  Ocean ;  and  the  Island  of 
Ceylon  with  Southern  Hindoostan. 

Plate  VI.  Fronting  page  246.  Heraldry.  The  principal  elements  of 
Heraldry  are  exhibited  in  this  plate,  and  explained  in  the  pages  immediately 
preceding  it. 

Plate  VII.  Fronting  page  330.  Mathematics.  This  plate  is  devoted  to 
the  most  important  figures  and  diagrams  referred  to  in  Geometry  and  the 
succeeding  branches. 

8  13 


14  LIST    OF    PLATES. 

Plate  VIII.  Fronting  page  356.  Astronomy.  A  map  of  the  circum- 
polar  stars,  as  they  appear  annually,  on  the  fifth  of  August,  at  nine  o'clock 
in  the  evening ;  and  on  other  days,  at  other  hours  of  the  day. 

Plate  IX.  Fronting  page  -400.  Geology.  Restorations  of  Ancient 
Animals,  the  bones  or  shells  of  which  are  found  imbedded  in  the  earth, 
but  all  of  which  are  now  extinct.  The  drawing  of  the  Mastodon,  or  mam- 
moth, was  made  by  Mr.  W.  G.  Armstrong,  from  the  skeleton  found  in 
Ulster  County,  N.  Y.,  now  in  Peale's  Museum,  Philadelphia. 

Plate  X.  Fronting  page  446.  Architecture.  Grecian  and  Roman  mould- 
ings; and  standard  Models  of  the  three  Grecian  Orders;  of  which  the 
proportions  have  been  carefully  collated  from  the  best  ancient  speci- 


Plate  XL  Fronting  page  496.  Fortification.  Plans  and  sections  of 
works  both  of  Field  and  Permanent  Fortifications,  referred  to  in  the 
text. 

Plate  XII.  Fronting  page  534.  Music.  The  elements  of  Musical 
Notation,  or  the  modern  method  of  writing  music  ;  with  the  most  approved 
names  of  the  notes  in  Solmization. 


INTRODUCTION. 


CHAPTER  I. 

SUBJECTS  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE. 

THE  intelligent  Reader,  whose  eye  these  pages  may  reach,  has 
doubtless  already  been  led  to  reflect  on  the  great  variety  and  vast  ex- 
tent of  human  knowledge.  In  the  country,  he  has  probably  observed 
the  wondrous  works  of  nature,  fresh  from  the  hand  of  their  Divine 
Author;  and  in  the  city,  he  has  viewed  those  works,  modified,  in  a 
thousand  ways,  by  the  less  plastic  labors  of  art.  In  society,  he  has 
probably  studied  mankind  in  their  diversified  aspects  ;  and  in  solitude, 
has  endeavoured  to  know  himself,  and  to  trace  his  origin,  and  that 
of  all  created  things,  back  through  the  range  of  time,  and  upward 
through  the  chain  of  secondary  causes,  to  the  first  and  sole  Great 
Cause  of  all.  To  such  Readers,  a  review  of  these  various  subjects, — 
so  classified  as  to  show  their  mutual  relations  or  dependencies,  and 
accompanied  by  some  distinct  views  of  their  facts  and  principles,  his- 
tory and  uses, — cannot  fail  to  be  interesting,  if  not  entertaining. 

We  will  commence  by  reconnoitring  the  field  of  knowledge,  that 
we  may  afterward  survey  it  in  a  more  methodical  manner.  Mind 
and  matter,  active  or  passive,  separate  or  combined,  form  the  subjects 
of  all  our  ideas  ;  body  and  spirit  being  the  only  modes  of  exist- 
ence with  which  we  are  acquainted.  The  mind  is  of  course  concern- 
ed in  the  acquisition  of  all  human  knowledge ;  so  that  the  study  of 
matter  is  distinct  from  mind,  only  as  regards  the  objects  which  are 
studied.  And  as  we  cannot  comprehend  the  nature  or  essence  of 
our  own  minds,  neither  can  we  understand  the  nature  of  matter,  nor 
the  mode  nor  the  origin  of  its  existence  ;  but  only  its  phenomena  and 
properties,  so  far  as  they  are  discoverable  by  the  agency  of  our 
senses. 

In  examining  the  properties  of  matter,  we  have  frequent  occasion 
to  measure  distances,  bulks,  or  weights ;  and  to  express  the  same  by 
numbers,  with  reference  to  some  standard  unit ;  as  five  miles,  ten 
cubic  feet,  or  fifteen  pounds.  To  express  and  compare  these  numbers, 
in  various  ways,  was  the  object  of  Arithmetic:  and  to  represent  un- 
known numbers  by  symbols,  and  afterwards  discover  their  value  from 
their  relations  to  certain  known  numbers,  was  the  higher  office  of 
Algebra.  It  was  also  found  desirable  sometimes  to  express  quanti- 
ties by  extent  or  magnitude,  having  particular  reference  to  figure  or 
shape  :  and  hence  the  origin  of  Geometry.  The  application  of  num- 
bers to  measure  various  figures  and  curves,  was  a  still  higher  step  in 
these  auxiliary  sciences  ;  and  the  mode  of  discovering  the  relations 

15 


16  INTRODUCTION. 

of  mutually  dependent  quantities,  by  supposing  them  to  vary,  and 
observing  their  relative  changes,  was  the  last  and  highest  step  in 
Mathematics. 

In  analyzing  the  material  world,  we  first  observe  the  great  distinc- 
tion between  animate  and  inanimate  bodies :  the  latter  having  no  in- 
nate principle  of  life,  nor  power  to  move  or  act,  or  cease  from  action, 
except  when  influenced  by  some  external  cause,  or  force.  The  study 
of  these  forces  and  their  laws  of  action  is  the  object  of  Natural  Phi- 
losophy;  which  shows  us,  that  light,  heat,  and  electricity, — even 
clouds  and  storms,  lightning  and  thunder, — are  all  subject  to  the  same 
general  laws  ;  and  that  the  stars  of  heaven,  rolling  on  through  countless 
ages,  with  the  earth  itself,  the  star  which  we  inhabit,  obey,  in  all  their 
motions,  the  simple  law  of  gravitation,  which  causes  the  uplifted 
stone  to  fall  to  the  ground.  Before  leaving  inanimate  matter,  it  re- 
mains to  consider  its  composition  :  and  we  find  in  it  an  immense 
variety  of  compounds,  all  resulting  from  a  few  simple  elements.  This 
leads  to  the  study  of  the  means  by  which  those  elements  may  be 
compounded  or  disunited,  with  the  nature  and  uses  both  of  the  ele- 
ments and  of  their  compounds ;  in  all  of  which  consists  the  science 
of  Chemistry. 

In  studying  animated  nature,  we  find  a  principle  of  life,  modifying 
the  laws  of  inanimate  matter.  Hence  we  have  a  new  class  of  pheno- 
mena, in  the  origin,  growth,  and  decay  of  organic  bodies,  whether 
plants  or  animals  ;  and  hence  a  higher  interest  attaches  to  the  studies 
of  Botany  and  Zoology.  In  the  animal  races,  we  find  an  additional 
principle  of  life,  inciting  them  to  action,  and  though  far  inferior,  yet 
in  many  respects  similar  to  the  human  intellect.  This  principle  be- 
comes more  prominent,  as  we  rise  to  the  higher  orders  of  animals ; 
and  as  they  approach  the  human  race  in  outward  form  and  physical 
constitution.  The  fact  that  many  of  these  organic  forms  are  found 
buried  in  the  depths  of  the  earth,  here  arrests  our  attention  ;  and  leads 
us  to  investigate  the  structure  of  our  globe ;  first  in  its  homogeneous 
elements,  and  afterwards  in  their  massive  aggregations.  Hence  arose 
the  sciences  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology  ;  which,  in  connection  with 
those  relating  to  organic  life,  complete  the  range  of  Natural  History. 

Man,  being  essentially  compounded  of  mind  and  matter,  seems  to 
form  the  great  connecting  link  between  the  material  and  the  spiritual 
world.  Considering  his  material  nature,  we  are  first  led  to  study  the 
structure  of  the  human  body;  especially  as  affording  the  means  of 
detecting  the  diseases  to  which  it  is  liable,  and  suggesting  their  appro- 
priate remedies.  If  the  study  of  Medicine  originally  preceded  that 
of  Jlnatomy  and  Physiology,  it  could  have  made,  but  little  progress 
until  these  studies  were  considerably  advanced,  and  some  theoretical 
views  adopted  concerning  the  action  of  remedial  agents,  by  which 
they  might  be  classified  and  compared.  The  Jlrt  of  Healing  was 
thus  improved  empirically,  until  it  became  a  science  ;  resting  on  ac- 
knowledged principles,  though  of  difficult  application  :  and  the  intro- 
duction of  mechanical  agency,  or  the  practice  of  Surgery,  rendered 
its  functions  complete. 

The  human  body,  owing  to  its  physical  constitution,  requires  shel- 
ter, food,  and  clothing:  to  supply  which,  has  exercised  the  ingenuity, 


SUBJECTS    OF    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  17 

and  incited  the  labors  of  the  greater  portion  of  our  race.  Hence  have 
arisen  the  Arts  of  Construction  and  Conveyance;  by  which  not  only 
man  himself,  but  the  objects  to  which  he  attaches  the  greatest  value, 
may  be  protected  from  the  elements ;  or  transported  from  place  to  place, 
though  mountains  rear  their  crests,  or  oceans  roll  between.  Hence 
Agriculture,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce,  have  sprung  from  the 
bosom  of  the  earth ;  and  with  linked  hands,  and  united  labors,  they 
have  increased  and  developed  the  productions  of  nature,  or  moulded 
and  modified  them,  to  suit  the  wants  of  humanity : — then  sent  them 
forth  into  all  lands,  in  exchange  for  other  commodities  ;  until  the  world 
has  become  as  it  were  a  family  of  nations,  each  engaged  in  contri- 
buting to  the  general  welfare. 

Unhappily  for  the  cause  of  human  improvement,  this  concord  is 
liable  to  interruptions  ;  when  nations,  like  individuals,  yield  to  their 
angry  passions,  and,  deaf  to  the  voice  of  reason  and  justice,  rush  to 
the  battle  field  ; — far  oftener,  to  gratify  their  unhallowed  ambition,  or 
to  avenge  fancied  wrongs,  than  to  defend  the  sacred  cause  of  freedom. 
Thus,  the  Arts  of  War  have  become  a  part  of  human  knowledge, 
necessary  in  self-defence  ;  though  for  this  sacred  object  alone  can  we 
deem  their  practice  justifiable,  or  allowable.  By  their  potent  aid,  a 
feeble  nation,  though  powerless  to  carry  its  attacks  abroad,  and  commit 
aggressions  upon  others,  may  yet  be  strong  to  resist  aggressions,  amid 
its  mountain  fastnesses,  or  behind  its  fortified  walls.  Thus  provided 
and  protected,  the  human  mind  gives  scope  to  other  wants,  more  re- 
fined and  intellectual ;  and  in  the  assemblage  of  beautiful  forms,  rich 
colors,  harmonious  sounds,  and  graceful  exercises,  it  seeks  for  occupa- 
tion and  amusement.  To  leisure,  inspired  by  genius,  and  guided  by 
taste,  do  the  Fine  Arts,  the  last  which  relate  to  material  objects,  owe 
their  interest,  and  their  being. 

Considered  intellectually,  man  was  evidently  destined  for  a  state  of 
society :  and  hence  the  gift  of  speech  was  bestowed,  which  so  far 
exalts  him  above  the  brute  creation.  The  cultivation  of  this  faculty, 
led  to  the  study  of  Grammar,  and  of  the  various  Languages  which 
have  arisen  among  men ;  emanations,  doubtless,  from  one  primitive 
tongue.  By  their  aid,  history  has  recorded  its  facts  ;  philosophy,  its 
speculations ;  science,  its  principles ;  and  art,  its  processes  :  in  short, 
by  their  aid,  most  of  the  knowledge  has  been  preserved  and  diffused, 
which  forms  the  boast  and  distinction  of  our  race.  From  the  means 
of  communicating  our  thoughts,  we  naturally  ascend  to  the  source 
from  which  they  spring :  and  thus  we  arrive  at  the  study  of  the  human 
mind,  with  its  varied  faculties  and  relations  ;  which  collectively  form 
the  subject  of  the  Mental  Sciences ;  including  Rhetoric,  Logic, 
Mental  and  Moral  Philosophy,  and  Education. 

Regarded  as  social  beings,  we  owe  certain  duties  to  our  fellow- 
men,  and  claim  certain  rights  from  them  in  return.  The  enforcement 
of  these  duties,  and  the  preservation  of  these  rights,  is  found  to  require 
the  exercise  of  power,  lodged  in  some  proper  hands.  Hence  govern- 
ments have  originated,  and  laws  been  framed;  the  study  of  which  has 
expanded  into  the  extensive,  and  important  science  of  Jurisprudence  ; 
associated  with  Politics  and  Political  Economy.  Again,  viewing  man 
in  relation  to  his  Creator,  new  duties  arise,  which  indeed  include  all 
3  B2 


18  INTRODUCTION. 

the  others ;  and  of  which  a  right  understanding  is  essential,  both  to 
our  present  and  future  happiness.  Hence  the  origin  of  Theology; 
in  whose  sublime  inquiries,  the  light  of  nature  is  aided  by  the  light 
of  Revelation,  shining  on  the  straight  and  narrow  path  to  life  eternal. 
Beyond  this  light,  and  up  to  the  higher  orders  of  being,  darkness  still 
surrounds  us ;  and  probably  it  will  continue,  until  this  mortal  shall  put 
on  immortality,  and  this  dawn  give  place  to  perfect  day. 

The  principles  involved  in  these  intellectual  sciences,  find  their  ap- 
plication, as  well  as  their  illustration,  in  the  study  of  mankind  at 
large, — nations  and  individuals.  This  study  naturally  commences 
with  Geography,  or  a  description  of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  : 
tracing  their  locations  ;  manners  and  customs  ;  resources  and  improve- 
ments ;  as  derived  from  statistical  records,  and  the  accounts  of  Voy- 
agers and  Travellers.  From  Geography  we  naturally  proceed  to 
History :  whose  voluminous  records  display  the  varied  fate  of  nations, 
during  the  lapse  of  time  ;  unfolding  the  causes  of  their  rise  and  advance- 
ment, or  of  their  decline  and  destruction :  thus  proving  that  pure 
religion  and  virtue  are  the  only  safeguards  of  a  state;  while  wealth, 
producing  luxury,  is  a  temptation  to  invasions  from  abroad  and  dissen- 
sions within. 

The  study  of  nations  is  greatly  elucidated,  by  tracing  the  career  of 
those  remarkable  individuals,  who  have  guided  the  current  of  public 
events,  or  opened  new  fountains  of  knowledge  ;  and  thereby  stamped 
their  character  upon  their  own  times,  or  exerted  an  influence  upon 
succeeding  ages.  Thus,  Biography  supplies  those  details  which  are 
beyond  the  limits  of  History  ;  and  each  aids  the  other  in  exhibiting  a 
full  picture  of  human  nature,  both  in  its  darker  and  its  brighter  aspects. 
This  picture  may  also  be  seen  by  reflected  light,  in  the  pages  of 
Poetry  and  Romance :  which  represent  human  character  and  actions 
according  to  the  ideas  of  the  poet  and  the  novelist :  often  imbodying 
the  shadowy  forms  of  fancy,  as  well  as  the  sober  realities  of  truth ; 
while  showing,  as  in  a  mirror,  the  views  which  they  have  entertained 
of  life,  in  all  its  vicissitudes.  Their  writings  possess  various  degrees 
of  merit ;  but  a  selection  from  the  best  of  them  can  by  no  means  be 
omitted,  in  completing  the  cycle  of  human  knowledge. 

Thus,  passing  from  the  material  to  the  intellectual  world,  we  have 
glanced  hastily  over  the  most  prominent  of  those  subjects,  for  the 
arrangement  and  examination  of  which,  the  present  work  was  under- 
taken. If  this  survey  has  been  too  brief,  to  give  an  adequate  idea  of 
the  object  in  view,  it  should  be  remembered  that  the  greatest  objects 
appear  small,  when  seen  in  distant  perspective.  Could  a  volume  be 
substituted  for  every  page  of  the  present  work,  it  would  still  be  in- 
sufficient to  contain  the  sum  total  of  human  knowledge  ;  the  most 
important  points  of  which  may  yet  be  comprehended  in  a  single  tome  ; 
as  the  widest  landscape  may  be  seen  through  a  single  pane  of  glass. 


SOURCES    OF    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  19 

CHAPTER  II. 

SOURCES  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE. 

OF  all  the  information  which  we  possess,  a  large,  if  not  the  larger 
portion,  is  derived,  either  directly  or  indirectly,  from  our  fellow-men. 
Hence  arises  the  distinction  between  original  and  communicated  know- 
ledge ;  founded  on  the  manner  in  which  it  is  obtained.  The  term 
original  knowledge,  strictly  applies  to  that  which  was  first  discovered 
by  its  possessor;  being  previously  unknown  to  any  person  whatever: 
while  such  knowledge  as  has  been  derived  from  others,  but  afterwards 
verified  by  ourselves,  may  properly  be  called  personal  knowledge, 
though  it  be  not  original.  The  knowledge  of  events,  which  we  ac- 
quire from  others,  and  which,  owing  to  their  transient  nature,  can  be 
verified  or  proved  only  by  testimony,  may  be  distinguished  as  histo- 
rical ;  in  contradistinction  from  which,  the  knowledge  of  general  facts 
may  be  called  experimental;  and  the  knowledge  of  general  princi- 
ples, obtained  by  reasoning  or  calculation,  may  be  termed  scientific. 

We  may  acquire  a  personal  knowledge  of  scientific  facts,  and 
principles,  at  any  time,  by  voluntary  application :  but  a  persona), 
knowledge  of  transient  events,  must,  from  its  nature,  be  confined  to 
those  who  witnessed  them ;  though  others  may  know  them  histori- 
cally. Another  distinction  of  knowledge,  especially  in  regard  to 
the  arts,  is  that  of  speculative  and  practical.  Speculative  knowledge 
may  be  communicated,  or  derived,  by  study;  but  practical  knowledge 
can  only  be  acquired  by  an  actual  performance  of  the  process  in 
question  ;  whatever  it  may  be.  Personal  knowledge,  then,  may  be 
acquired  by  observation  or  experiment ;  by  reasoning  or  by  calcula- 
tion :  and  that  knowledge  which  has  been  verified  by  others,  as  well 
as  by  ourselves,  is  perhaps  the  most  certain  of  all. 

Communicated  knowledge  may  be  derived  from  monuments, 
statues,  coins,  or  other  antiquities  ;  from  books  or  manuscripts,, 
pictures  or  engravings  ;  and  from  conversation,  gestures,  or  signals, 
in  immediate  intercourse  with  our  fellow-men.  Of  all  these  sources 
of  knowledge,  books  and  conversation  are,  at  the  present  day,  much 
the  most  important.  .  Conversation  may  produce  the  liveliest  impres- 
sions upon  the  mind  ;  but  those  impressions,  once  effaced,  cannot 
always  be  restored  :  while  books  have  the  countervailing  advantage, 
that  we  can  recur  to  them  at  pleasure,  and  revive  the  ideas  which 
they  have  furnished,  although  long  lost  or  forgotten.  In  developing 
this  subject  farther,  we  shall  treat,  1.  Of  the  Ancient  Schools  of 
Philosophy ;  2.  Of  Modern  Learned  Societies ;  3.  Of  Libraries ; 
and,  4.  Of  Encyclopedias. 

The  Ancient  Schools  of  Philosophy. 

Philosophy  was  formerly  understood  to  comprehend  the  principles 
of  all  human  knowledge ;  or,  in  the  words  of  Cicero,  "  the  knowledge 
of  things  divine  and  human,  and  of  the  causes  by  which  they  am 


20  INTRODUCTION. 

-3* 

governed."  It  extended  therefore  to  God  and  spiritual  beings  ;  man 
and  all  animals  ;  the  earth  and  the  starry  heavens  ;  matter  and  mind, 
and  all  their  properties  or  attributes.  The  name  philosopher,  is 
derived  from  the  Greek,  <t>t\os,  a  friend  or  lover ;  and  <™0oj,  a  sage, 
magus,  or  wise  man.  It  was  introduced  by  Pythagoras  ; — who 
modestly  declined  the  title  of  sophist,  or  wise  man,  but  styled  him- 
self a  lover  of  the  wise,  or  of  wisdom.  Philosophy  has  also  been 
defined,  "  the  science  of  the  fundamental  truths  of  human  know- 
ledge ;"  or  '*  the  science  of  reason ;"  and  it  has  been  subdivided  into 
Natural,  Mental,  Moral,  and  Metaphysical  Philosophy ;  of  which 
divisions  we  shall  speak  hereafter. 

In  ancient  Greece,  where  knowledge  was  so  much  cultivated,  it 
was  disseminated,  to  a  great  extent,  by  the  oral  instructions  of  the 
philosophers ;  and  perpetuated  by  means  of  the  schools,  or  sects, 
which  they  founded.  Those  schools,  considered  as  sources  of  know- 
ledge, we  may  here  properly  mention.  The  first  of  them  was  the 
Ionic  school,  or  sect,  founded  by  Thales,  of  Miletus,  in  Ionia,  who 
died  about  548  B.  C.  He  taught  that  water,  or  rather  fluidity,  was 
the  great  principle  of  life  and  activity,  throughout  nature;  and  hence 
he  called  it  the  divine  principle,  or  the  soul  of  the  world.  Having 
travelled  in  Egypt,  he  acquired  and  even  extended  the  science  of 
geometry ;  and  he  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  predicted  an 
eclipse.  He  taught  that  the  stars  were  material :  but  believed  in  the 
existence  of  demons,  or  spirits,  pervading  the  universe;  and  ascribed 
souls  to  inanimate  objects. 

The  second  important  school,  or  sect,  was  the  Italic,  founded  by 
Pythagoras,  of  Samos,  who  died  about  506  B.  C.  He  travelled  in 
Chaldea  and  Egypt,  and  finally  retired  from  Greece,  to  Magna 
Gra3cia,  in  Italy,  where  he  established  his  school.  He  taught  that 
the  sun  is  a  great  central  fire,  the  principle  of  warmth  and  life ;  that 
the  planets  revolving  around  it  must  be  ten  in  number,  because  he 
regarded  ten  as  a  perfect  number ;  and  that  by  dividing  the  ether  in 
their  course,  they  produced  tones,  varying  with  their  size,  distance, 
and  velocity,  which  together  composed  the  harmony  of  the  spheres. 
He  believed  that  the  Deity,  or  Universal  Spirit,  is  in  substance 
similar  to  light;  a  monad  or  unit,  from  whom  gods,  demons,  heroes, 
and  human  souls  emanated ;  and  that  the  human  soul  consists  of  two 
parts,  the  one  residing  in  the  heart,  sentient  and  perishable  ;  the 
other  residing  in  the  brain,  rational  and  immortal ;  which,  on  leaving 
the  body,  assumes  an  ethereal  vehicle,  till  it  enters  some  other  human 
or  animal  body,  to  be  farther  purified,  before  admission  to  the  divine 
presence. 

Contemporary  with  Pythagoras  was  Xenophanes,  who  settled 
about  536  B.  C.  at  Elea,  and  founded  the  Ehatic  school.  He 
maintained  that  God  is  the  only  being ;  in  whom  all  others  are  com- 
prehended ;  and  that  the  variety  of  forms  and  objects  in  nature  is  not 
real,  but  only  imaginary.  He  believed  that  all  things  are  produced 
from  fire,  air,  and  water;  and  contended  that  the  moon  was  inhabited. 
The  Socratic  school  was  founded  by  Socrates,  of  Athens,  who 
died  a  martyr  to  virtue  and  truth,  400  B.  C.  Rejecting  the  wild 
hypotheses  and  fallacies  of  the  Sophists,  or  speculative  philosophers, 


SOURCES    OP    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  21 

he  reasoned  so  profoundly,  on  science,  and  especially  on  morals,  and 
politics,  that  he  has  justly  been  called  the  father  of  philosophy. 
The  mode  of  conveying  instruction  by  asking  questions  of  pupils, 
and  reasoning  with  them  familiarly,  is  from  him  called  the  Socratic 
method. 

The  Academic  school,  was  founded  by  Plato  ;  who  was  the  favor- 
ite pupil  of  Socrates,  and  who  died  about  348  B.  C.  He  taught  in 
the  grove  of  Academus,  in  the  suburbs  of  Athens  ;  maintaining  that 
the  human  soul  is  a  ray,  or  emanation,  from  the  Divinity ;  to  which 
it  must  again  return,  when  purified  from  its  earthly  dross  ;  and  that 
the  greatest  earthly  good  consists  in  the  companionship  of  kindred 
souls,  searching  after  truth.  The  Cynic  school  was  founded  by  Jlntis- 
thenes  ;  who  flourished  about  396  B.  C. ;  and  who  was  chiefly  noted 
for  his  austerity.  The  Cyrenaic  school  was  founded  by  Aristippus 
of  Gyrene;  who  flourished  about  392  B.  C. ;  and  who  gave  himself 
up  to  selfish  pleasure.  The  Megaric  school  was  founded  by  Euclid 
of  Megara,  who  died  424  B.  C. ;  and  it  was  also  called  the  Eristic 
school,  from  his  fondness  for  disputation.  The  last  three  named 
schools  are  of  minor  importance. 

The  Peripatetic  school,  was  founded  by  Jlristotle  of  Stagira  ;  who 
was  the  preceptor  of  Alexander  the  Great;  and  who  died  322  B.  C. 
He  had  been  a  pupil  of  Plato,  whose  doctrines  he  for  the  most  part 
adopted,  but  developed  and  extended.  He  wrote  on  all  the  branches 
of  knowledge  then  known ;  and  his  writings  have  exerted  a  strong 
influence,  even  down  to  modern  times.  His  system  of  philosophy  was 
long  regarded  as  complete ;  though  now  proved  to  be  in  some  respects 
erroneous,  and  in  many  things  deficient.  The  Sceptic  school  originated 
with  Pyrrho  of  Elis,  who  flourished  about  340  B.  C. ;  and  whodoubted 
of  every  thing,  and  therefore  placed  his  supreme  good  in  indifference  to 
all  things.  The  Epicurean  sect,  was  founded  by  Epicurus  of  Gar- 
gettus,  who  died  270  B.C.  He  taught  that  pleasure  was  the  chief  object 
of  life ;  but  placed  his  pleasure  in  habits  of  temperance  and  benefi- 
cence. His  doctrines  were  afterwards  grossly  corrupted. 

The  Stoic  sect,  was  founded  by  Zeno  of  Citium,  who  died  264 
B.  C.  His  famous  dogma  was,  that  we  should  live  in  conformity  to 
nature,  and  be  equally  resigned  to  all  events.  Finally,  the  Eclectic 
school  of  philosophy  arose  at  a  much  later  period  ;  first  under  Pota- 
mon  of  Alexandria,  about  the  date  of  the  Christian  era ;  and  after- 
wards under  Ammonius  of  Alexandria,  about  A.  D.  193.  Its  original 
object  was  to  select  the  best  parts  of  all  the  previous  systems,  parti- 
cularly those  of  Plato  and  Aristotle ;  and  to  combine  them  in  one  har- 
monious whole :  but  its  tenets  were  afterward  employed  as  a  means 
of  undermining  the  Christian  Religion. 

The  doctrines  of  Aristotle,  revived  and  modified,  gave  rise  in  the 
ninth  century  to  the  Scholastic  philosophy  ;  characterized  by  theo- 
logical speculations,  and  metaphysical  subtleties ;  the  teachers  of 
which  have  received  the  appellation  of  scholastics  or  schoolmen.  The 
elder  scholastics  maintained  that  abstract  ideas,  expressed  by  general 
terms,  are  real  existences,  or  essences  of  the  things  themselves. 
Hence  they  were  called  Realists.  This  dogma  was  controverted  by 
Roscellinus;  who  founded  the  sect  of  the  Nominalists;  maintaining 


22  INTRODUCTION. 

that  general  terms  are  mere  words,  or  abstractions.  His  opinion  was 
condemned  at  Soissons,  in  1092  ;  but  revived,  about  1340,  by  Wm. 
Occam  (Ocham  or  Ockham) ;  who  maintained  the  doctrine  of  the 
Nominalists,  in  opposition  to  his  preceptor  Dun  Scotus  :  and  this  doc- 
trine ultimately  prevailed.  It  was  left  for  Bacon,  Copernicus,  Galileo, 
Gassendi,  Descartes,  Leibnitz,  Bayle,  Locke,  and  Newton,  to  remove 
the  rubbish  with  which  the  schoolmen  had  encumbered  philosophy, 
and  to  become  the  great  modern  pioneers  in  the  discovery  of  physical 
and  intellectual  truth. 

Modern  Learned  Societies. 

The  ancient  schools  of  philosophy,  have  been  superseded,  in  mo- 
dern times,  by  associations  designed  for  the  .cultivation  of  knowledge  ; 
under  the  names  of  Academies,  Institutes,  or  Societies.  The  first  of 
this  kind,  was  established  by  the  emperor  Charlemagne,  at  the  sug- 
gestion of  Alcuin,  his  preceptor.  It  was  composed  chiefly  of  the 
nobles  of  his  court ;  the  emperor  himself  presiding :  but  after  his 
death  it  soon  fell  to  decay.  Numerous  Academies  were  founded  in 
Italy,  by  the  Greek  scholars  driven  from  Constantinople,  on  its  cap- 
ture by  the  Turks,  in  1453.  The  Academia  Secretorum  Naturae, 
instituted  at  Naples  in  1560,  for  developing  the  secrets  of  nature,  was 
suppressed  by  the  papal  authority,  through  jealousy  of  its  influence. 
The  Academia  della  Crusca,  or  Bran  Academy,  founded  at  Florence 
in  1582,  for  sifting  or  purifying  the  Italian  language,  is  now  incorpo- 
rated in  the  Royal  Florentine  Academy.  And  the  Academia  degF  In- 
quiet  i,  or  Academy  of  the  restless,  founded  by  Manfred i,  at  Bologna, 
in  1690,  is  now  united  with  the  Bononian  Institute;  which  pos- 
sesses a  superior  library,  and  collection  of  curiosities.  There  are  also 
Royal  Academies  at  Naples,  and  Turin. 

In  France,  the  French  Academy  was  founded  by  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu, in  1635,  chiefly  for  the  improvement  of  the  French  language: 
and  the  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences,  was  founded  by  Colbert,  in 
1666  ;  since  which  time  it  has  published  139  volumes  of  its  transac- 
tions. These,  and  other  institutions,  were  united,  in  1795,  at  the 
suggestion  of  Condorcet,  to  form  the  National  Institute.  It  was 
more  completely  organized  by  Napoleon,  in  1806;  ever  since  which 
time,  it  has  been  patronised  by  the  French  government ;  receiving 
therefrom  an  annual  appropriation.  On  the  restoration  of  the  Bour- 
bons, in  1816,  it  was  reorganized,  with  some  slight  changes  ;  and  it 
now  consists  of  the  four  following  Academies;  1.  The  French 
Academy,  devoted  to  the  French  language  and  literature  ;  2.  The 
Academy  of  Inscriptions  and  Belles  Lettres,  devoted  chiefly  to  anti- 
quities ;  3.  The  Academy  of  Physical  and  Mathematical  Sciences  ; 
and  4.  the  Academy  of  the  Fine  Arts. 

In  Germany,  the  Academia  Naturae  Curiosorum,  was  founded 
by  Bausch,  in  1652,  and  patronized  by  the  Emperor  Leopold,  in 
1687.  It  is  devoted  more  particularly  to  the  natural  and  medical 
sciences ;  and  is  located  at  Vienna.  The  Royal  Academy  of  Sciences 
and  ftelles  Lettres,  at  Berlin,  was  founded  in  1700,  by  Frederick  I. ; 
Leibnitz  being  its  first  president.  It  is  subdivided  into  classes;  pro- 
vided with  a  full  cabinet  and  library  ;  and  has  acquired  a  high  repu- 


SOURCES    OP    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  23 

tation.  There  are  also  Academies  of  Sciences  at  Munich,  Gottingen, 
Giessen,  and  Manheim  ;  the  last  founded  by  Charles  Theodore,  elec- 
tor palatine.  To  these  we  may  add  the  German  Association  of  Phy- 
sicians and  Naturalists;  founded  in  1822.  There  are  Royal  Acade- 
mies, at  St.  Petersburg,  founded  in  1725  ;  at  Stockholm, 'founded  in 
1739;  at  Copenhagen,  1742;  at  Brussels,  1772;  and  at  Madrid, 
founded  in  1714:  and  at  Lisbon,  there  are  Royal  Academies  both  of 
History,  and  of  Sciences;  the  latter  founded  in  1779. 

In  Great  Britain,  the  Royal  Society  of  London,  was  organized  in 
1645,  and  chartered  in  1662;  Sir  Isaac  Newton  being  its  first  presi- 
dent. Its  collections  are  extensive  ;  and  it  has  published  130  quarto 
volumes  of  transactions.  The  Royal  Society  of  Edinburgh  origi 
nated  as  early  as  1718;  though  it  was  not  incorporated  till  1783:  and 
the  Royal  Irish  Academy  was  established  at  Dublin,  about  the  year 
1782,  chiefly  by  members  of  the  University.  The  Literary  and  Phi- 
losophical Society  of  Manchester,  was  founded  in  1781  ;  and  the 
London  Society  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  originated 
in  1827:  Lord  Brougham  being  one  of  its  chief  supporters.  This 
latter  society  has  acquired  great  celebrity  by  its  publications,  entitled 
the  Library  of  Useful,  and  the  Library  of  Entertaining  Knowledge. 
The  British  Association,  for  the  Advancement  of  Science,  held  its 
first  annual  meeting  in  1831  ;  and  has  done  much  for  the  promotion 
of  physical  science,  by  its  researches  and  reports. 

In  the  United  States,  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  was 
organized  at  Philadelphia,  in  1769,  by  the  union  of  two  similar  socie- 
ties, previously  existing;  Dr.  Franklin  being  its  first  president.  It 
has  directed  various  important  investigations,  and  has  published  ten 
quarto  volumes  of  valuable  scientific  memoirs.  The  American  Acade- 
my of  Arts  and  Sciences,  was  founded  at  Boston,  in  1780;  and  has 
published  four  volumes  of  its  transactions.  The  Connecticut  Acade- 
my of  Arts  and  Sciences,  was  founded  at  New  Haven,  in  1799; 
and  the  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society  of  New  York,  origi- 
nated in  1815.  The  National  Institution,  organized  at  Washington,  in 
1840,  is  similar  to  these  societies  in  its  constitution  and  objects;  and 
derives,  from  its  location,  some  important  advantages  for  the  accumu- 
lation of  knowledge.  Besides  these  institutions,  we  can  here  only 
name  the  Historical  Societies  of  Massachusetts,  New  York,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  several  other  states :  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
in  Philadelphia;  the  Lyceum  of  Natural  History  in  New  York  ;  the 
Society  of  Natural  History  in  Boston;  the  Albany  Institute;  the 
New  York  Naval  Lyceum  ;  and  other  similar  institutions ;  the  New 
York  Society  for  the  Promotion  of  the  Useful  Arts ;  the  Franklin  Insti- 
tute in  Philadelphia  ;  the  Academies  of  the  Fine  Arts  in  Philadelphia 
and  New  York  ;  and  the  numerous  Medical,  Agricultural,  Educational, 
and  other  societies,  scattered  over  the  Union. 

Libraries 

Among  the  most  important  sources  of  knowledge,  are  collections  of 
books  and  manuscripts,  called  Libraries.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Latin,  liber,  a  book  ;  the  same  word  signifying  also  the  inner  bark 
of  trees,  which  was  used  for  writing  upon,  before  the  invention  of 


24  INTRODUCTION. 

paper.  Without  the  aids  of  writing  and  printing,  all  history  would 
nave  been  merged  in  mere  tradition  ;  and  all  knowledge  would  have 
been  limited  in  its  diffusion,  garbled  by  frequent  transmission,  and 
confused  by  the  imperfections  of  memory ;  so  that  a  great  portion  of 
it  would  have  been  lost,  or  swallowed  up  in  vague  conjecture.  Hence, 
manuscripts  were  the  chief  vehicles  of  knowledge,  till  the  invention 
of  printing;  since  which  time,  books  have  become  the  great  store- 
houses of  information ;  collected  by  the  labours  of  men  of  all  classes, 
in  all  civilized  nations,  and  in  each  succeeding  age. 

The  term  Literature-,  is  used  in  France  and  Germany,  to  signify 
learning,  or  rather  written  learning,  of  every  kind  :  the  Literature  of 
a  nation  being  understood  to  include  all  the  writings  which  it  has 
ever  produced.  As  the  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  litera,  a  let- 
ter, this  definition  seems  appropriate ;  though  the  terms,  literature, 
and  literary,  are  often  restricted  in  our  own  country,  to  those  branches 
of  knowledge  which  treat  of  man  in  his  social,  moral,  and  intellectual 
relations.  In  this  sense,  all  human  knowledge  is  frequently  com- 
prehended under  the  three  heads  of  Literature,  Science,  and  the  Arts. 

The  term  Bibliography,  from  the  Greek,  fitfhtov,  a  book,  and  ypa0&>, 
I  describe,  was  originally  applied  to  a  knowledge  of  ancient  manu- 
scripts ;  but  is  now  used  to  signify  the  describing  of  books  in  gene- 
ral. When  it  refers  to  a  knowledge  of  their  contents,  it  has  been 
termed  intellectual  bibliography  ;  when  it  refers  to  their  external 
form,  different  editions,  kind  of  paper,  printing  or  binding,  it  is  called 
material  bibliography;  and  it  may  be  termed  antiquarian  bibliography, 
when  it  refers  to  their  comparative  rarity  or  curiosity,  and  reputed  or 
real  value.  So  numerous  are  the  books  now  in  existence,  on  almost 
every  subject,  that  treatises  on  Bibliography,  furnishing  lists  of  them, 
and  critical  notices  of  their  relative  merits,  are  of  real  value  to  the 
student,  and  even  to  the  popular  reader.  A  reference  to  some  of  the 
best  treatises  of  this  kind,  will  be  found  in  the  appendix  to  the  present 
work. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  multiplicity  of  books,  is  one  object  of 
the  following  brief  notice  of  celebrated  Libraries.  Pisistratus  first 
founded  a  Library  among  the  Greeks,  at  Athens,  about  550  B.  C. ; 
and  the  first  large  Library  in  Rome,  was  that  of  Paulus  ^Emilius, 
taken  from  Perses,  king  of  Macedon,  167  B.  C.  But  the  most  cele- 
brated Library  of  ancient  times,  was  that  of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt, 
founded  283  B.  C.  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  ;  who  obtained  for  it 
the  books  which  had  belonged  to  Aristotle.  It  had  increased  so  much 
as  to  number  500,000  volumes,  when  it  was  mostly  burnt,  47  B.  C., 
during  the  siege  of  Alexandria  by  Julius  Caesar.  It  was  partly  re- 
placed by  the  Library  of  Pergamos,  which  was  afterwards  transported 
thither ;  but  this,  with  additional  collections,  was  burnt  by  the  Sara- 
cens under  Caliph  Omar,  A.  D.  640.  The  Saracens  themselves 
afterwards  collected  large  Libraries,  particularly  at  Tripolis,  in  Syria, 
and  at  Cordova,  in  Spain  ;  which  latter  contained  at  one  time  250,000 
volumes. 

Of  modern  Libraries,  that  of  the  Vatican,  or  Papal  palace,  in  Rome, 
is  said  to  contain  400,000  printed  volumes,  and  50,000  manuscripts. 
There  are  also  large  Libraries  in  Naples,  Florence,  and  Milan.  The 


jf    , 

SOURCES    OF    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  25 

Royal  Library  of  Madrid,  contains  about  200,000  printed  volumes, 
kept  iri  the  Escurial  palace.  The  Royal  Library  of  Munich,  in 
Bavaria,  the  largest  in  Germany,  contains  540,000  printed  volumes, 
and  16,000  manuscripts.  The  Imperial  Library  of  Vienna,  and  the 
Royal  Libraries  of  Berlin,  and  Dresden,  contain  each  nearly  300,000 
volumes.  The  Universities  of  Gottingen,  Breslau,  and  Munich, 
have  also  large  Libraries.  The  Imperial  Library  of  Si.  Petersburg 
contains  430,000  printed  volumes,  and  15,000  manuscripts;  and  the 
Royal  Library  of  Copenhagen  contains  a  like  number  of  manu- 
scripts, and  410,000  printed  volumes. 

The  Bodleian  Library,  at  Oxford,  the  largest  in  Great  Britain, 
named  from  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  who  enlarged  it  about  A.  D.  1600, 
is  said  to  contain  420,000  printed  volumes,  and  30,000  manuscripts. 
The  British  Museum,  in  London,  contains  nearly  300,000  volumes, 
besides  22,000  manuscripts  :  and  there  are  also  large  Libraries  at 
Cambridge,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin.  The  Royal  Library  in  Paris, 
(La  Bibliotheque  du  J?of,)  is  stated  to  contain  700,000  printed 
volumes,  100,000  manuscripts,  and  as  many  medals;  besides  one 
million  of  historical  documents,  and  two  millions  of  maps  and  engrav- 
ings. Its  annual  increase  is  not  less  than  10,000  volumes.  The 
Public  Libraries  of  Europe  are  said  to  be  upwards  of  seven  hundred 
in  number,  and  to  contain  in  all  about  20,000,000  volumes. 

The  largest  Libraries  in  the  United  States,  are  those  of  Harvard 
University,  containing  about  45,000  volumes  ;  the  Boston  Athenasum, 
32,000;  the  New  York  City  Library,  35,000;  the  Philadelphia 
Library,  including  the  Loganian,  52,000 ;  the  National  Library,  or 
Library  of  Congress,  25,000  ;  and  the  Charleston  Library,  S.  C., 
about  15,000  volumes.  The  total  number  of  books  in  all  the  Pub- 
lic Libraries  of  the  United  States,  has  been  estimated  at  400,000 
volumes.  The  imperfection  of  our  largest  libraries  may  be  readily 
seen  by  a  comparison  with  those  of  Europe :  but  it  can  be  fully 
appreciated  only  by  those  who  have  had  occasion  to  make  extensive 
research,  and  found  their  researches  vain,  for  want  of  the  requisite 
authorities. 

D'Israeli,  in  his  Curiosities  of  Literature,  estimates  the  whole  num- 
ber of  different  books  printed  in  the  world  prior  to  1816,  at 
3,640,000  ;  but  Mr.  Preston,  in  a  recent  report  to  Congress,  esti- 
mates the  number  at  only  600,000.  From  these  and  other  data,  we 
would  estimate  the  total  number  of  different  books  printed,  down  to 
this  date,  at  1,000,000  volumes  in  the  German  language,  800,000 
in  the  French,  600,000  in  the  English,  including  25,000  American, 
and  600,000  in  all  other  languages  ;  making  a  total  of  3,000,000 
different  volumes,  or  say  TWO  MILLION  DIFFERENT  WORKS.  Allowing 
only  1200  copies  of  each  work  to  have  been  printed,  and  supposing 
all  the  volumes  to  be  of  an  average  size,  the)'-  would  form  a  solid 
pile,  larger  than  the  largest  Egyptian  Pyramid,  although  it  is  500 
feet  high,  and  690  feet  square  at  the  base,  covering  11  acres  of 
ground.  The  annual  number  of  new  publications  in  Germany,  is 
said  to  be  7,000;  in  France  it  is  probably  5,000  ;  in  Great  Britain 
3,000;  and  in  the  United  States  about  500  works,  or  700  volumes, 
of  which  about  three-fifths  are  original  American  productions. 
4  C 


26  INTRODUCTION. 

Of  the  books  in  our  own  language,  after  deducting  those  which  are 
obsolete,  or  worthless,  there  still  remain  probably  50,000  volumes, 
which  would  repay  a  perusal.  Supposing  then  a  person  to  read 
100  pages  a  day,  or  100  volumes  a  year, — which  is  more  than  could 
well  be  retained  and  digested, — it  would  require  500  years  to  read  all 
the  books  worth  reading,  in  the  English  language  alone  !  This  result 
shows  the  importance  of  selection  in  our  reading;  or  we  may  misdi- 
rect our  powers,  and  misemploy  our  time,  by  dwelling  on  inferior 
works,  and  neglecting  the  nobler  and  more  useful. 

Encyclopaedias. 

From  the  great  multiplicity  of  books  on  all  subjects  of  knowledge, 
arises  the  utility  of  Encyclopedias ;  which,  as  sources  of  general 
information,  deserve  here  a  distinct  notice.  Their  name  is  derived 
from  the  Greek  wideta,  learning,  from  van,  a  youth ;  and  iyKVK\tos,  cir- 
cular, from  KVK*OS,  a  circle ;  hence  it  may  be  defined,  the  circle  of 
learning  Their  object  is  to  give  a  summary  of  human  knowledge  ; 
extracted  and  digested,  for  the  most  part,  from  various  works ;  and 
accompanied  by  references  to  the  best  authors,  on  every  subject. 
They  are  valuable  works  for  occasional  use ;  but  most  of  them  are 
too  imperfect  to  be  relied  upon ;  either  as  giving  all  the  information 
sought;  or  the  latest  information,  on  subjects  which  are  liable  to 
change  or  susceptible  of  improvement. 

The  earliest  summary  of  human  knowledge,  appears  to  have  been 
the  books  of  Hermes,  preserved  with  great  care  by  the  Egyptians, 
and  which  may  be  called  the  Hermiana.  Hermes  or  Mercurius 
Trismegistus,  is  the  classic  name  of  the  Egyptian  Thaut,  (Thot, 
Thoth,  Thoyt,  Theut,  or  Taaut,)  supposed  to  have  been  the  son  of 
Misraim,  and  grandson  of  Ham.  He  is  said  to  have  invented  gram- 
mar, arithmetic,  geometry,  astronomy,  medicine,  and  music ;  and  to 
have  engraved  his  knowledge  on  pillars  of  stone.  But  as  the  same 
Egyptian  word  signifies  also  a  pillar  or  monument,  as  well  as  its 
guardian  deity,  the  name  has  doubtless  been  applied  generally  to  the 
learning  of  the  Egyptian  priests,  preserved  in  monumental  inscrip- 
tions. Of  the  forty-two  books  ascribed  to  Hermes,  some  are 
preserved,  including  some  which  are  spurious  :  while  others  are 
lost.  They  treat  of  the  studies  above  mentioned,  together  with 
religion,  government,  and  natural  history,  as  then  known. 

Similar  to  these  are  the  twenty-one  books  of  the  Persian  Zenda- 
vesta,  or  living  word,  written  by  Zoroaster,  otherwise  called  Zer- 
dusht.  The  Persians  comprehended  all  knowledge  under  the  term 
Magia;  and  the  term  magus  was  synonymous  with  philosopher  or 
wise  man.  The  Chinese  also  are  said  to  have  an  ancient  work 
called  Tay  Tsing,  or  San-tsae-too-koey,  which  treats  very  fully  and 
systematically  of  all  subjects  with  which  they  were  acquainted.  The 
only  general  works  left  us  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  worthy  of 
mention  here,  are  those  of  Aristotle  and  Pliny.  Aristotle  wrote  on 
almost  all  subjects  known  to  the  Greeks,  but  in  various  detached 
treatises :  while  the  Natural  History  of  Pliny,  though  not  an  exact 
work  of  science,  :.s  a  valuable  compendium  of  ancient  learning. 

Some  works  of  a  general  nature  were  published   in  the  middle 


SOURCES    OP    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  27 

ages :  particularly  the  Speculum  of  Vincent,  which  we  shall  again  have 
occasion  to  mention :  but  the  term  Encyclopaedia,  appears  to  have 
been  first  introduced  by  Professor  Martinius  of  Bremen,  in  his  Idea 
methodicae  et  brevis  Encyclopedie,  published  in  1606.  Another 
similar  work  was  published  by  Alstead,  in  1620.  Three  large 
Encyclopedias  have  been  commenced  in  Germany ;  one  by  Krunitz, 
which  has  been  extended  to  146  volumes;  another  by  Ktister,  suc- 
ceeded by  J.  F.  Roos  ;  and  a  third  by  Ersch,  succeeded  by  Gruber : 
but  we  are  not  aware  that  either  of  these  works  has  been  completed. 
In  France,  the  celebrated  Encyclopedic,  or  Dictionnaire  Raisonne, 
sometimes  called  the  Dictionnaire  Encyclopedique,  of  Diderot, 
D'Alembert,  Voltaire,  Condorcet,  and  other  associates,  was  pub- 
lished in  Paris,  from  1751  to  1772,  in  29  volumes  folio;  to  which 
6  volumes  were  afterwards  appended.  It  promulgated  speculative 
views  in  philosophy,  and  liberal  opinions  in  politics;  the  influence 
of  which  had  no  small  share  in  producing  the  French  Revolution. 
The  Encyclopedic  Methodique,  commenced  in  Paris  in  1782,  is  the 
largest  work  ever  yet  published;  having  already  been  extended  to  221 
quarto  volumes,  more  than  50  of  which  are  of  copperplate  engrav- 
ings. It  is  a  collection  of  dictionaries,  each  one  treating  of  a 
distinct  branch  or  department  of  knowledge  ;  and  these  dictionaries 
are  arranged  simply  in  alphabetical  order. 

The  first  work  of  this  kind,  in  our  own  language,  if  we  except 
the  writings  of  Lord  Bacon,  which  treat  of  nearly  all  the  subjects  of 
human  knowledge,  was  the  Cyclopedia,  or  universal  dictionary  of 
the  Arts  and  Sciences,  by  Dr.  Ephraim  Chambers  ;  first  published 
in  1728,  in  2  volumes  folio ;  and  enlarged  in  successive  editions. 
Being  originally  a  globe-maker's  apprentice,  Dr.  Chambers  wrote 
some  parts  of  this  work,  in  leisure  hours,  behind  his  master's  counter. 
The  Encyclopedia  Britannica,  was  first  published  in  Edinburgh,  in 
1788,  in  10  vols.  folio,  by  a  Society  of  Gentlemen  in  Scotland; 
James  Tytler  being  the  original  editor.  The  seventh  edition  is  now 
publishing,  edited  by  Prof.  Napier.  Dr.  Rees'  Cyclopedia,  an 
enlargement  of  that  by  Chambers,  was  published  in  London,  from 
1802  to  1820,  and  republished  in  Philadelphia,  in  47  volumes 
quarto,  including  6  volumes  of  plates.  It  contains  much  information, 
especially  concerning  the  Arts ;  but  the  subjects  are  too  much  sub- 
divided, on  account  of  the  alphabetical  distribution.  Dr.  Brewster's 
Edinburgh  Encyclopedia,  was  commenced  in  1810,  and  repub- 
lished in  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  in  18  vols.  quarto;  the  last 
volume  appearing  in  1832.  It  is  a  highly  valuable  work;  but  the 
latter  volumes  are  less  complete  than  those  of  the  former  part  of  it. 
The  Encyclopedia  Metropolitana,  the  original  editor  of  which  was 
the  late  Rev.  Edward  Smedley,  was  commenced  in  London,  in 
1815;  to  comprise  25  volumes  quarto,  still  publishing.  It  is 
arranged,  for  the  most  part,  according  to  the  connection  of  the 
subjects:  and  this  alone  would  in  our  view  give  it  a  preference; 
aside  from  its  being  the  latest,  on  so  large  a  scale. 

We  have  barely  room  to  mention  the  Encyclopedia  Londinensis, 
by  Wilkes,  begun  in  1796;  the  Encyclopaedia  Edinensis,  by 
Millar,  begun  in  1816;  Nicholson's  British  Encyclopedia,  com- 


28  INTRODUCTION. 

menced  in  1809;  and  Partington's  British  Cyclopsedia,  printed  in 
1835-6.  The  Penny  Cyclopaedia,  conducted  by  the  Society  for  the 
Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge,  was  commenced  in  1833,  and  is  to 
be  completed  in  24  volumes  octavo.  It  is  a  work  of  great  value. 
Dr.  Lardner's  Cabinet  Cyclopaedia,  begun  in  1829,  in  duodecimo, 
is  a  valuable  series  of  distinct  treatises  on  the  different  branches  of 
knowledge ;  but  we  have  not  perceived  in  it  any  higher  arrange- 
ment. An  Encyclopaedia  was  printed  by  Mr.  Dobson  of  Philadel- 
phia, in  21  volumes  quarto,  1793 — 1803.  The  Encyclopedia  Ame- 
ricana, edited  by  Dr.  Lieber,  commenced  in  1830,  and  now  complete 
in  13  volumes  octavo,  is  chiefly  a  translation  of  the  German  Conver- 
sations Lexicon,  alphabetically  arranged;  and  is  the  most  convenient 
work  of  reference  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  It  has  been  re- 
printed in  Glasgow. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CLASSIFICATION    OF    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE. 

THE  importance  of  classifying  human  knowledge,  according  to 
some  regular  system,  has  been  often,  if  not  generally,  admitted  ;  and 
the  subject  has  attracted  the  attention  of  many  distinguished  men,  in 
various  ages  and  countries.  As  such  a  classification  was  the  primary 
object  of  the  present  work;  the  writer  is  desirous  of  doing  full  jus- 
tice to  the  labors  of  his  predecessors,  in  this  field  of  study ;  before 
submitting  what  he  believes  to  be  an  improved  system;  with  its  prac- 
tical application  to  the  knowledge  which  is  to  be  classified.  A  brief 
review  of  the  different  classifications,  which  have  been  hitherto 
attempted,  will  first  be  given  ;  for  which  we  are  chiefly  indebted  to  a 
work  of  much  erudition,  published  in  Philadelphia  in  1816,  by  the 
late  judge  Woodward,  under  the  title  of  Encatholepistemia,  or  a 
System  of  Universal  Science.  This  review  will  be  followed  by  an 
explanation  of  the  new  classification,  here  proposed  ;  with  a  sum- 
mary of  the  reasons  on  which  it  is  founded. 

Former  Classifications  of  Knowledge. 

To  the  Greeks  we  must  refer,  for  the  earliest  classification  of 
human  knowledge,  of  which  we  possess  any  information.  All  their 
learning  was  originally  comprehended  in  the  term  Mathematics ; 
from  navGavw,  I  learn ;  a  term  which  has  since  been  very  much 
restricted.  The  introduction  of  the  term  Philosopher,  by  Pythago- 
ras, we  have  already  mentioned,  (p.  20.)  Pythagoras  subdivided 
the  ancient  mathematics,  with  reference  to  number  and  magnitude, 
rest  and  motion,  into  the  branches  of  Arithmetic,  Music,  Ge- 
ometry, and  Astronomy.  Music,  he  regarded  as  produced  by  the 
motion  of  numbers;  and  Astronomy,  as  produced  by  the  motion 
of  magnitudes.  These  four  branches  were  afterwards  called  the 
Quadrivium,  from  Latin  words,  signifying  the  meeting  of  four 
roads.  To  these  branches  Plato  added  Physics,  or  Natural  Philoso- 
phy ; — and  Theology ;  under  which  he  probably  included  both  Ethics 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  29 

and  Politics.  Aristotle  added  three  other  specific  branches,  Gram- 
mar, Rhetoric,  and  Logic ;  which  have  since  been  called  the  Tri- 
vium,  or  meeting  of  three  roads ;  and  which,  with  the  Quadrivium 
of  Pythagoras,  constituted  the  seven  liberal  arts.  A  course  of 
instruction  in  these  seven  arts,  was  called  by  the  Greeks  CYKVKXIOS 
naifcia,  or  the  circle  of  learning ;  and  hence,  as  before  mentioned,  the 
derivation  of  the  modern  word  Encyclopedia.  The  poetical  distri- 
bution of  the  sciences  among  the  Muses,  will  not  bear  philosophical 
criticism  ;  but  probably  belongs  to  an  earlier  age. 

The  Romans  borrowed  the  Seven  Liberal  Arts  of  the  Greeks;  as 
enumerated  in  the  Latin  verse, — "  Lingua,  Tropus,  Ratio  ;  Numerus, 
Tonus,  Angula,  Astra."  But  Rome^  first  warlike,  and  afterwards 
luxurious,  did  little  to  enlarge  the  boundaries  of  knowledge ;  except 
incidentally,  in  enlarging  the  boundaries  of  her  empire  and  language. 
Porphyry  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  arranged  the  branches  of 
knowledge  in  the  form  of  a  tree ;  and  the  Gnostics,  or  Platonizing 
Christians,  went  so  far  as  to  divide  all  being  into  material,  animal, 
and  spiritual.  These  are  the  only  Roman  classifications  of  which  we 
can  here  speak.  In  the  middle  or  dark  ages,  little  was  done  for 
the  advancement  of  science  ;  and  still  less  for  its  better  arrangement. 
Vincent  de  Beauvais,  (Vincentius  Bellovacensis),  about  the  year 
1250,  summed  up  the  knowledge  of  those  times,  in  his  Speculum 
Historiale,  Naturale,  Doctrinale,  or  historical  and  philosophical 
mirror ;  to  which  was  afterwards  anonymously  added  a  Speculum 
Morale,  or  view  of  morals  ;  the  preservation  of  all  which,  has  thrown 
some  light  on  that  obscure  period. 

The  celebrated  Francis  Bacon,  Lord  Verulam,  usually  called  Lord 
Bacon,  about  the  year  1605,  made  a  classification  of  knowledge, 
according  to  the  powers  of  the  mind  employed  in  acquiring  it ;  which 
he  considered  to  be  memory,  imagination,  and  reason.  To  memory 
he  assigned  history,  which  he  subdivided  into  natural  and  civil ;  to 
imagination  he  ascribed  poetry ;  and  to  reason  he  allotted  the  whole 
range  of  philosophy,  or  the  study  of  the  Deity,  the  human  race,  and 
the  laws  of  the  material  world.  He  subdivided  philosophy  into  phy- 
sics and  metaphysics ;  in  the  latter  of  which  he  comprehended 
mathematics  and  other  heterogenous  sciences.  Lord  Bacon  believed 
in  magic  and  astrology,  and  denied  the  earth's  diurnal  motion  ;  yet, 
as  the  author  of  the  Novum  Organum,  a  work  in  which  he  pointed 
out  the  right  method  of  discovering  and  applying  truth,  he  is  regarded 
as  the  great  pioneer  of  modern  science. 

The  French  philosopher  Descartes,  considered  all  knowledge  as 
either  accessory  or  ultimate ;  and  hence  divided  it  into  mathematics, 
physics,  and  metaphysics  ;  the  latter  including  theology.  The  Sieur 
de  Lesclache  published  a  classification  of  knowledge  in  a  series  of 
engravings  :  and  Comenius  published  another,  comprised  in  one  hun- 
dred chapters  of  ten  sentences  each  ;  the  whole  containing  almost 
every  word  in  common  use.  Mr.  Hobbes  divided  all  science  intp 
knowledge  of  facts,  depending  on  sensation  and  memory,  and  know- 
ledge of  consequences,  based  upon  reason.  Mr.  Locke  has  also  left 
us  a  classification  of  knowledge  in  three  divisions ;  physica,  or  the 
laws  of  the  material  world  ;  practica,  or  rules  of  human  action  ;  and 

C2 


30  INTRODUCTION. 

semiotica,  or  the  means  of  expressing  ideas.  Mr.  Chambers,  the 
first  English  Cyclopaedist,  also  prepared  a  classification  of  knowledge, 
in  forty-seven  distinct  branches ;  arranged  as  either  natural  or  artificial, 
internal  or  external :  but  in  his  Cyclopaedia,  he  finally  adopted  the 
alphabetical  arrangement. 

D'Alembert,  in  his  preliminary  dissertation  on  the  origin,  pro- 
gress, and  affiliation  of  the  sciences,  introductory  to  the  great  Die- 
tionnaire  Encyclopedique,  merely  revived  Lord  Bacon's  system,  with 
some  amendments  ;  but  instead  of  carrying  his  system  into  practice, 
he  even  doubted  whether  any  satisfactory  system  could  be  made  ;  and 
accordingly  the  Encyclopaedia  was  arranged  in  alphabetical  order. 
Baron  Bielfield  of  Prussia,  in  his  Elements  of  Universal  Erudition, 
also  adopted  Lord  Bacon's  system  ;  but  with  considerable  modifica- 
tion in  the  details.  More  abstruse  classifications  have  been  made  by 
Wronski  of  Russia  in  his  Programme  of  Transcendental  Philoso- 
phy:  and  by  the  Abbe  Mango,  of  Palermo,  in  his  Jlcrosojia,  or 
Genealogy  of  the  Sciences. 

Returning  to  England,  Sir  William  Jones  made  a  division  of  human 
knowledge  into  history,  arts,  and  sciences.  Dr.  Turner  of  Oxford, 
divided  the  same  into  religion,  arts,  and  sciences.  Mr.  Home,  in  his 
Introduction  to  Bibliography,  distributes  knowledge  under  the  four 
heads  of  bibliography,  history,  philosophy,  and  literature.  In  Scot- 
land, Mr.  Hume  incidentally  comprehended  all  knowledge  in  the  six 
departments  of  religion,  politics,  metaphysics,  morals,  mathematics, 
and  natural  philosophy.  Dr.  Robertson,  the  friend  of  Hume,  and  like 
him  a  historian,  comprehended  the  same  in  four  departments  ;  religion, 
logic,  ethics,  and  physics.  Dr.  Beattie,  in  his  Elements  of  Moral 
Science,  divides  knowledge  into  history,  philosophy,  mathematics,  and 
poetry  ;  and  Dr.  Reid  has  adopted  the  more  natural  division,  founded 
on  the  distinction  between  body  and  mind,  or  material  and  intellec- 
tual objects  of  thought;  but  beyond  this  step,  his  classification  is 
deemed  comparatively  imperfect. 

In  our  own  country,  Dr.  Samuel  Johnson,  the  first  president  of 
King's,  now  Columbia  College,  in  New  York,  prepared  a  work  enti- 
tled Noetica,  or  a  general  scheme  for  the  partition  of  the  sciences  ; 
in  which  he  divided  all  knowledge  into  belles-lettres  and  philosophy  : 
the  former  including  grammar,  rhetoric,  eloquence,  history,  poetry, 
and  criticism ;  and  the  latter  comprehending  mathematics,  mechanics, 
physics,  and  astronomy,  together  with  metaphysics  and  ethics, 
embracing  psychology,  theology,  economics,  and  politics.  In  this 
arrangement,  the  distinction  between  sciences  and  arts  was  entirely 
neglected  ;  the  theoretical  and  practical  parts  of  knowledge  being 
presented,  throughout,  in  combination.  This  work  was  published  by 
Dr.  Franklin  in  Philadelphia ;  and  reprinted  in  London, — but  with- 
out the  title. 

The  late  President  Jefferson  devoted  much  attention  to  this  sub- 
ject ;  both  in  classifying  the  books  of  his  own  Library ;  and  in 
arranging  the  professorships  of  the  University  of  Virginia.  Mr. 
Jefferson  adopted  Lord  Bacon's  principle  of  classifying  knowledge, 
according  to  the  mental  powers  employed ;  and  he  assigned  to 
memory,  civil  and  natural  history ;  to  reason,  moral  and  natural 


CLASSIFICATION    OF    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  31 

philosophy ;  and  to  imagination,  the  fine  arts.  These  heads,  he 
subdivided  into  forty-four  chapters;  most  of  which  are  distinct 
sciences,  or  branches  of  knowledge :  and  this  classification,  it  is 
believed,  still  remains  in  the  National  Library  at  Washington  ;  part 
of  which  was  purchased  of  Mr.  Jefferson  by  Congress.  The  late 
Mr.  Jay,  of  New  York,  divided  all  knowledge  into  sciences,  and 
arts  ;  the  sciences  relating  to  things,  to  events,  or  to  duties ;  and  the 
arts  relating  either  to  utility  or  to  pleasure. 

Judge  Woodward,  to  whose  enthusiasm  we  are  so  much  indebted, 
for  this  history  of  the  classifications  of  knowledge,  himself  prepared 
two  classifications ;  one  founded  on  the  distinctions  of  mind  alone, 
matter  alone,  and  mind  and  matter  connected ;  the  other  founded  on 
the  distinction  of  auxiliary  and  ultimate  branches.  The  subdivisions 
are  the  same  in  both  ;  first  into  six  classes ;  next  into  eighteen  orders  ; 
and  lastly  into  sixty-three  or  sixty-four  distinct  sciences :  to  all  of 
which,  names  derived  from  the  Greek  language  are  applied  ;  many  of 
them  so  new,  and  burthensome  to  the  memory,  as  to  prevent  their  ever 
coming  into  general  use.  We  might  criticise  this  classification,  had 
we  the  heart  to  find  fault  with  a  writer  who  has  done  us  so  essential 
a  service,  and  who  labored  with  such  devoted  zeal  for  the  cause 
which  we  have  espoused. 

The  distinguished  philosopher  Ampere,  in  his  essay  on  the  Phi- 
losophy of  the  Sciences,  has  given  a  "  natural  classification  of  all 
human  knowledge,''  devised  in  1830,  and  published  in  1834.  As 
this  classification  bears  a  closer  resemblance,  than  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding, to  that  here  proposed,  it  becomes  proper  to  state,  that  the 
classification  of  knowledge  adopted  in  this  work,  was  actually  com- 
pleted, before  the  writer  had  seen  Ampere's  work,  or  learned  its 
contents.  Ampere  adopts  a  binary  or  dichotomous  division  of 
knowledge,  into  two  kingdoms,  Cosmology,  and  Noology ;  which 
are  subdivided  into  four  sub-kingdoms,  and  eight  embranchments. 
These  are  the  sciences,  Mathematical,  Physical ;  Natural,  Medical ; 
Philosophical,  Dialegmatical ;  Ethnological,  and  Political ;  which 
are  farther  subdivided  into  sixteen  sub-embranchments,  and  these  into 
thirty-two  sciences  of  the  first  order. 

The  names  of  these  sciences,  as  arranged  by  Ampere,  are, 
1.  Arithmology ;  2.  Geometry;  3.  Mechanics;  4.  Uranology ;  5. 
General  Physics ;  6.  Technology;  7.  Geology;  8.  Oryctotechny ; 
9.  Botany;  10.  Agriculture;  11.  Zoology;  12.  Zootechny ;  13. 
Medical  Physics;  14.  Hygiene;  15.  Nosology;  16.  Practical 
Medicine;  17.  Psychology;  18.  Metaphysics;  19.  Ethics;  20. 
Thelesiology ;  21.  Glossology;  22.  Literature;  23.  Technes- 
thetics ;  24.  Pedagogics ;  25.  Ethnology ;  26.  Archeology ;  27. 
History;  28.  Hierology ;  29.  Nomology  ;  30.  Military  Arts ;  31. 
Social  Economy ;  and  32.  Politics.  These  sciences  of  the  first 
order,  are  farther  subdivided  into  64  sciences  of  the  second,  and  128 
sciences  «f  the  third  order ;  the  names  of  which  are  for  the  most 
part  new  or  unusual.  Ampere  considers  that  each  division  of 
knowledge  may  be  regarded  under  four  different  points  of  view ; 
1.  Absolutely,  or  irrespectively  of  others,  and  externally,  or  regarding 
only  its  prominent  features  ;  2.  Absolutely,  and  intrinsically,  or  exa- 


32  INTRODUCTION. 

mining  its  nature  and  elements,  considered  by  themselves  ;  3.  Rela- 
tively, or  comparatively,  and  having  regard  only  to  iis  external  rela- 
tions ;  and,  4.  Relatively  and  intrinsically,  having  regard  to  its  nature  and 
elements,  compared  with  others.  On  this  basis,  Ampere  founds  his 
classification  of  the  sciences  ;  which  we  regard  as  decidedly  superior 
to  any  of  those  which  preceded  it;  though  we  think  it  too  complex 
to  meet  with  general  favor,  as  a  popular  system  of  knowledge. 

The  Proposed  Classification  of  Knowledge. 
The  writer's  attention  was  long  since  attracted  to  the  subject  of  a 
classification  of  all  human  knowledge ;  in  connection  with  the 
project  of  an  American  Association  for  the  promotion  of  Literature, 
Science,  and  the  Arts.  His  first  essay  on  the  subject,  embracing 
the  principles  of  the  present  classification,  was  submitted  to  the 
Dialectic  Society  of  the  United  States  Military  Academy,  at  West 
Point,  in  the  spring  of  the  year  1829;  and  was  printed,  with  addi- 
tions and  amendments,  in  April,  1836,  in  the  Boston  Scientific 
Tracts,  for  the  Diffusion  of  Useful  Knowledge.  The  plan  has 
since  been  materially  improved ;  partly  by  the  aid  of  learned  and 
judicious  friends :  and  the  result  of  much  careful  study  has  been 
the  following  System  of  Pantology ;  which  is  now  submitted  to  the 
reader's  candid  examination. 

In  this  system,  all  human  knowledge  is  primarily  divided  into  four 
great  provinces  :  1.  Psychonomy,  including  the  Laws  of  Mind,  or 
intellectual  sciences ;  2.  Ethnology,  or  the  Study  of  Nations,  geo- 
graphically and  historically ;  3.  Physiconomy,  or  the  Laws  of  the 
Material  World  ;  and  4.  Technology,  or  the  Study  of  the  Arts  which 
relate  to  material  objects.  These  four  provinces  are  next  subdivided, 
each  into  four  departments :  and  each  department  embraces  a  group  of 
several  branches  of  knowledge,  closely  related  to  each  other.  Of  the 
sixteen  departments,  several  were  already  more  or  less  distinctly  formed, 
and  generally  recognised  :  and  one  of  them,  the  department  of  Mathe- 
matics, served  as  a  model,  already  finished,  by  which  to  fashion  the 
others.  In  these  departments,  several  branches,  which  like  the  un- 
formed stars  in  Astronomy,  had  not  yet  been  systematically  arranged, 
may,  it  is  believed,  find  their  proper  place  ;  thus  completing  the  analy- 
sis of  general  knowledge.  To  the  four  provinces,  and  several  of  the  de- 
partments,—and  to  some  few  of  the  branches,  the  liberty  has  been  taken 
of  applying  new  names,  derived  from  the  Greek  language  ;  which  will 
at  once  be  understood  by  the  classic  scholar;  and  which,  avoiding  cir- 
cumlocution, will  admit  of  a  more  exact  application  to  these  divisions 
of  knowledge,  than  terms  which  have  already  been  used  in  various 
significations. 

In  arranging  the  departments  and  branches  among  themselves,  four 
leading  principles,  have,  it  is  believed,  been  constantly  kept  in  view, 
as  guides  to  a  natural  method.  They  are  the  Order  of  dependence ; 
the  Order  of  time  ;  the  Order  of  place ;  and  the  Order  of  resemblance. 
The  difficulty  of  adjusting  these  principles,  where  they  conflict  with 
each  other ;  and  of  deciding,  in  such  cases,  which  of  them  ought  to 
prevail,  can  only  be  appreciated  by  those  who  have  attempted  similar 
applications : — but  this  difficulty  would  arise  equally  in  any  other 


CLASSIFICATION  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE.  33 

classification ;  founded,  as  it  is,  upon  real  anomalies,  or  irregularities, 
in  the  very  subjects  of  knowledge.  The  different  branches  of  know- 
ledge are  so  concatenated,  or  interwoven ;  having,  as  Cicero  ex- 
presses it,  a  common  bond  or  tie,  (vinculum  commune") ;  that  no 
classification  can  perfectly  satisfy  all  the  conditions  ;  though  one  may 
approach  much  nearer  to  it  than  another.  That  classification  which 
satisfies  the  greatest  number  of  the  most  important  conditions,  is  the 
best,  therefore,  which  the  subject  admits ;  and  our  only  resource  is 
to  treat  of  each  topic  most  fully  in  the  place  where  it  most  strictly 
belongs ;  with  careful  references  to  and  from  those  connections  or 
relations,  which  the  system  does  not  bring  explicitly  into  view.  This 
principle  of  double  reference,  will  be  found  occasionally  necessary  in 
every  possible  system  of  human  knowledge ;  and  especially  so  in 
alphabetical  Encyclopaedias ;  which,  without  it,  would  be  labyrinths 
without  a  clue. 

If  we  adopt  Ampere's  first  division  of  human  knowledge,  into 
two  great  kingdoms. — Noology  relating  to  mind,  and  Cosmology 
relating  to  matter, — the  first  two  of  our  provinces  would  correspond 
to  the  former,  and  the  other  two,  to  the  latter.  Strictly  speaking, 
however,  the  second  and  fourth  provinces  relate  to  mind  and  matter 
in  connection ;  that  is,  to  man,  and  his  labors,  considered  as  an  im- 
mortal spirit,  transiently  inhabiting  a  mortal  body,  and  thus  bound  to 
the  material  world.  Indeed,  so  closely  are  mind  and  matter  connected, 
in  all  human  researches,  that  we  regard  this  step  in  the  division,  as 
of  minor  importance ;  and  have  accordingly  omitted  to  give  it  a  dis- 
tinct place.  Should  it  be  objected  that  the  names  of  our  provinces, 
and  minor  divisions,  are  not  absolutely  precise,  but  admit  of  greater 
or  less  extension ;  we  must  reply  that  the  same  remark  holds  true  of 
nearly  all  the  general  terms  of  science;  which  are  in  a  like  degree 
arbitrary  and  exceptionable,  owing  to  the  inherent  defects  of  human 
language.  But  we  add,  that  the  names  here  chosen  may  be  easily 
adapted,  and  without  confusion,  or  violation  of  existing  usage,  to  the 
ground  which  they  are  intended  to  cover. 

With  these  preliminary  remarks,  we  proceed  to  resolve  the  four 
great  provinces  of  human  knowledge  into  their  appropriate  depart- 
ments ;  briefly  explaining,  as  we  proceed,  the  reasons  for  the  arrange- 
ment here  adopted.*  The  acquisition  of  some  one  language,  is 
necessarily  the  first  of  mental  attainments:  and  this  is  deemed  a  suf- 
ficient reason,  in  the  absence  of  opposing  ones,  for  placing  first  in 
order,  the  department  of  Glossology  ;  or  the  study  of  all  Languages ; 
including  Grammar  and  Lexicology.  As  the  study  of  Grammar  leads 
to  that  of  Rhetoric ;  which  is  introductory  to  Logic ;  and  this  to 
Phrenics  or  Mental  Philosophy,  and  Ethics  or  Moral  Philosophy ; 
and  these  to  Education ;  it  seems  proper  to  place  next  in  order  the 
department  of  Psychology,  in  which  all  these  branches  are,  we  think, 
properly  included.  The  Mental  Sciences  form  a  natural  introduction 
to  the  subjects  of  Law  and  Government,  including  Political  Philoso- 

*  The  derivation  of  the  names  of  all  the  provinces,  departments,  and  branches, 
will  be  found  at  the  commencement  of  the  several  parts  and  chapters,  in  the  subse- 
quent divisions  of  this  work. 
5 


34  INTRODUCTION. 

phy  and  Political  Economy  ;  which  we  would  therefore  comprehend 
in  the  next  department,  Nomology  :  and  from  human  laws,  we  pass, 
by  an  easy  climax,  to  the  divine  laws,  and  the  study  of  all  Religions  ; 
constituting  the  department  of  Theology ;  which,  from  its  incompa- 
rable importance,  deserves  the  last  and  highest  place  in  the  department 
of  Psychonomy. 

The  study  of  mankind  at  large, — nations,  and  individuals, — is 
placed  after  the  studies  of  Law  and  Religion ;  in  order  that  it  may 
not  interrupt  the  series  of  intellectual  sciences,  to  which  it  is  indeed 
auxiliary ;  and  also,  that  the  principles  derived  from  them,  may  be 
employed  for  its  elucidation.  The  province  of  Ethnology,  naturally 
commences  with  the  department  of  Geography,  including  Statistics, 
Voyages,  and  Travels,  which  relate  chiefly  to  mankind  in  society ; 
but  reserving  the  principles  of  Physical  Geography,  as  far  as  may  be 
convenient,  for  the  next  province,  or  the  material  world.  The  depart- 
ment of  Chronography,  or  History  and  Antiquities,  cornes  next  in 
order ;  depending  immediately  on  Geography ;  and  completing  the 
special  study  of  nations.  The  department  of  Biography,  or  the 
study  of  men  individually,  might  be  merged  in  that  of  Chronography, 
to  which  it  is  subservient, — were  it  not  so  extensive,  and  important, 
as  to  merit  a  distinct  place.  There  remains  the  study  of  Poetry  and 
Romance ;  closely  allied  to  the  preceding ;  and  which  we  therefore 
comprehend  in  the  next  department,  that  of  Callography ;  con- 
cluding the  province  of  Ethnology. 

Proceeding  next  to  the  material  world,  or  the  province  of  Physi- 
conomy,  we  place  in  this  province,  and  first  in  order,  the  depart- 
ment of  Mathematics,  as  a  necessary  introduction  to  the  physical 
sciences  and  arts ;  among  which  it  finds  its  highest  applications. 
Closely  connected  with  this,  follows  the  department  of  Jlcrophysics, 
including  Natural  Philosophy,  with  Astronomy  and  Chemistry;  and 
thus  comprehending  all  the  dynamical  laws  of  matter.  From 
Natural  Philosophy,  we  pass,  by  an  easy  transition,  to  the  depart- 
ment of  Idiophysics,  or  Natural  History ;  which  examines  and 
describes  the  individual  objects  of  nature ;  of  which  Acrophysics 
traced  the  elements,  and  general  laws.  The  study  of  Natural  His- 
tory, prepares  the  way  for  that  of  the  Medical  Sciences,  or  the 
department  of  Jlndrophysics ;  which  completes  the  province  of 
Physiconomy. 

In  the  last  province,  that  of  Technology,  or  the  physical  arts, 
depending  on  the  physical  sciences,  we  commence  with  the  study 
of  the  materials  and  machinery  which  these  arts  employ ;  as  a 
necessary  introduction  to  the  department  of  Jlrchitechnics,  or  the 
Arts  of  Building  and  Conveyance.  Next  to  this,  we  place  the 
remaining  arts  of  most  general  utility, — Agriculture,  Manufactures, 
and  Commerce ; — closely  associated  in  public  estimation ;  and 
together  forming  the  department  of  Chreotechnics.  The  Arts  of 
War,  which  involve  various  mechanical  operations,  and  serve 
especially  for  the  defence  of  commerce,  come  next  in  order ;  consti- 
tuting the  department  of  Machetechnics ;  comprising  both  military 
and  naval  tactics.  There  remain  only  the  Fine  Arts,  including  paint- 
ing and  music ;  which  we  think  should  conclude  the  study  of  the 


CLASSIFICATION    OT?    HITMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  35 

arts,  as  Callography  concluded  that  of  nations;  the  amusing  or  orna- 
mental portions  taking  the  final  place.  Thus ;  the  department  of 
Callotechnics,  completes  the  province  of  Technology ;  and  with  it 
our  tree  of  human  knowledge,  as  represented  in  the  frontispiece  of 
the  present  volume.* 

We  will  not  stop  here  to  explain  the  subdivisions  of  these  sixteen 
departments  into  branches ;  or  of  the  branches  into  sections  ;  but 
reserve  these  explanations,  for  their  places,  in  the  body  of  the  work. 
The  divisions  already  made,  we  consider  as  the  basis  of  the  whole 
system :  and  by  remembering  the  names  and  order  of  the  sixteen 
departments,  we  have  a  key  to  the  whole  distribution  of  knowledge ; 
as  the  alphabetic  order  is  a  key  to  the  finding  of  all  the  words  in  a 
dictionary.  It  is  true  that  many  of  our  division  lines,  between  the 
provinces,  departments,  and  branches,  are  not  precisely  commen- 
surate with  the  terms  used  to  designate  them  ;  but  the  principal  expla- 
nation of  these  seeming  anomalies,  is,  that  we  have  endeavored  to* 
follow  existing  arrangements  and  divisions,  as  far  as  they  could  be- 
made  to  harmonize  with  a  general  system  ;  and  thus  to  make  that 
system  more  acceptable  than  if  the  old  lines  of  demarcation  were? 
greatly  altered. 

We  have  differed  from  Ampere,  in  introducing  the  study  of 
the  human  mind,  before  proceeding  to  that  of  the  material  world. 
We  can  see  no  advantage  in  placing  the  study  of  mathematics  before 
that  of  languages ;  or  of  natural  philosophy,  before  mental  and 
moral ;  or  of  medicine,  before  theology  ;  neither  do  we  think  it  the 
common  order,  in  the  best  systems  of  education.  We  believe  that 
the  best  course  is  that  which  prosecutes  the  four  great  provinces  of 
knowledge  simultaneously  ;  commencing  with  languages,  geography, 
mathematics,  and  the  useful  arts  :  and  so  proceeding  to  the  higher 
studies  of  each  province  : — but  still  the  studies  of  language,  and 
geography,  should  be  in  advance  of  the  others.  As,  however,  the 
provinces  cannot  well  be  arranged  collaterally,  in  a  single  volume  ; 
and  as  some  one  of  them  must  be  named  first ;  we  have  no  hesita- 
tion in  commencing  with  that  which  possesses  the  highest  dignity; 
and  arranging  the  remaining  three  according  to  their  relations  to  this,, 
and  to  each  other. 

It  would  be  presumptuous  to  suppose,  that  we  have  in  every  case* 
succeeded  in  arranging  the  divisions  of  knowledge  according  to  their 
strongest,  and  most  important  relations.  As  in  the  natural  systems  of 
Botany,  the  same  plant,  having  strong  affinities  to  two  or  more  differ- 
ent families,  or  genera,  is  differently  located  by  skilful  botanists  ;  SO' 
in  Pantology,  it  cannot  be  surprising  that  different  opinions  should 
prevail,  concerning  the  arrangement  of  the  branches  of  knowledge, 

*  Ampere  distributes  the  branches  which  we  have  comprehended  in  the  province- 
of  Technology,  among  the  sciences  on  which  they  most  depend.  Thus,  he  limits 
Agriculture  to  the  cultivation  of  plants,  and  connects  it  with  Botany :  but  the 
rearing  of  animals,  he  makes  a  distinct  branch,  connected  with  Zoology.  Our  objec- 
tion to  this  arrangement,  is,  that  it  breaks  the  chain  of  the  Physical  Sciences,  which 
have  close  and  important  relations;  and  also  separates  those  arts,  which  are  usually 
and  naturally  associated,  and  which  often  depend  on  two  or  more  sciences  in  conr- 
nection. 


36  INTRODUCTION. 

even  among  those  who  have  studied  the  subject  most  carefully.  But 
these  discrepancies  have  not  prevented  the  introduction,  nor  destroyed 
the  utility,  of  a  natural  system  in  the  former  case  ;  nor  can  we  see 
any  greater  reason  why  they  should  produce  these  effects  in  the  latter. 
In  either  case,  the  study  of  these  relations  cannot  fail  to  suggest  new 
ideas,  and  to  prove  a  useful  exercise  for  the  mind. 

It  may  perhaps  be  objected,  that  some  terms,  applied  to  large  divi- 
sions of  knowledge,  and  now  in  general  use,  have  been  omitted  in  the 
nomenclature  here  proposed.  The  answer  is,  that  these  terms  are 
so  vaguely  or  variously  applied,  as  to  be  unsuitable  for  a  more  exact 
division.  Of  the  term  Philosophy,  we  have  already  spoken,  (p.  19, 
20)  ;  and  will  only  add  that  there  is  no  one  province,  nor  department 
of  knowledge,  for  which  it  would,  in  our  view,  be  a  definite,  and  pre- 
cise appellation.  We  would  rather  apply  it,  in  its  original  sense,  to 
knowledge,  or  the  principles  of  knowledge  in  general.  Knowledge 
is  often  spoken  of  under  the  three  divisions  of  Literature,  Science,  and 
the  arts.  But  Literature,  as  already  mentioned,  (p.  24),  more  pro- 
perly signifies  written  and  printed  knowledge  of  every  kind  :  or  if 
applied  in  a  more  limited  sense,  to  designate  those  studies  which  relate 
to  man  in  his  social  and  moral  relations,  the  term  is  still  indefinite. 
Equally  indistinct  is  the  division  between  Sciences,  and  Arts.  Science 
is  the  theory,  and  <flrt  is  the  application  of  that  theory  to  some  prac- 
tical purpose.  Science  explains  principles,  and  Art  describes  pro- 
cesses ;  but  these  are  often  so  essentially  connected,  that  to  separate 
them  would  be  an  unnatural  divorce.  Thus,  the  Physical  Sciences 
employ  processes  which  might  almost  rank  them  as  arts ;  and  the 
Physical  Arts  have  their  own  peculiar  principles,  which  might  almost 
entitle  them  to  be  ranked  as  sciences.  Grammar  is  both  a  science, 
and  an  art ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Rhetoric,  Logic,  and  other 
branches;  but  still  they  are  single  and  distinct  branches  of  knowledge. 

There  are  two  other  terms,  which  should  here  be  particularly 
referred  to; — Metaphysics,  and  Belles  Lettres.  The  name  Metaphy- 
sics, originated  in  a  treatise  by  Aristotle,  which,  coming  after  his 
writings  on  Physics,  began  with  the  words  ^ra  ™  <pvoiKa,  that  is,  after 
physics;  and  which  speculated  vaguely  on  subjects  beyond  the  reach 
of  exact  knowledge.  Hence  the  term  Metaphysics  was  coined  by  his 
pupils,  or  by  the  schoolmen,  to  signify  "  the  science  of  the  ultimate 
causes  of  all  being."  It  has  been  divided  into  Ontology,  relating  to 
the  nature  and  essence  of  all  being  or  existence,  with  its  qualities  and 
attributes  ;  Cosmology,  or  the  nature  of  the  material  world,  including 
the  question  of  Leibnitz,  whether  God  must  necessarily  have  created 
it  perfect,  and  whether  it  is  so  in  fact;  Anthropology,  or  the  nature 
and  essence  of  man;  Pneumatology,  or  that  of  unembodied  spirits; 
and  Theodicy,  which  attempts  to  investigate  the  nature,  essence,  and 
attributes  of  the  Deity.  To  Metaphysics  belong  such  wild  specula- 
tions as  those  of  Pythagoras,  already  mentioned,  (p.  20),  and  the  later 
hypothesis  of  Formey,  "  that  sensation  is  carried  on  entirely  by 
means  of  vibrations,  which  are  communicated  through  the  nerves, 
from  the  first  point  of  contact,  till  they  reach  the  farthest  extremities, 
which  are  dipped  in  a  spiritual  fluid"  So  much  of  Metaphysics, 
then,  as  consists  of  real  knowledge,  or  rational  conjecture,  will  be 


CLASSIFICATION     OP    HUMAN    KNOWLEDGE.  37 

found  distributed  among  the  departments  in  our  arrangement ;  but  as 
a  distinct  division  of  knowledge,  we  can  recognise  it  only  when  used, 
as  it  sometimes  is,  to  signify  Phrenics,  or  Mental  Philosophy. 

The  term  Belles  Lettres,  is  of  French  origin ;  literally  signifying 
fine  or  beautiful  writings.  It  includes  Poetry  and  Oratory  ;  but  how 
much  more,  it  would  be  difficult  to  say;  as,  in  the  words  of  a  stand- 
ard writer,  it  is  *'  so  exceedingly  vague  and  indefinite,  that  miscella- 
nies, perhaps,  would  be  equally  explicit."  If  restricted  to  Poetry, 
Romance,  and  similar  miscellaneous  literature,  it  is  superseded  in 
our  arrangement  by  the  term  Callography ;  which  we  think  more 
euphonic ;  and  which  admits  of  an  exact  definition.  The  term 
Polite  Literature,  is  occasionally  used,  synonymously,  we  believe, 
with  Belles  Lettres ;  but  perhaps  including  Biography,  History,  and 
Voyages,  and  Travels,  with  sermons,  orations,  and  addresses.  Alike 
vague,  and  still  more  general,  is  the  term  Criticism,  derived  from  the 
Greek  xpivu,  I  judge ;  or  more  immediately  from  KPITIKOS,  a  judge  or 
critic.  This  term  is  sometimes  limited  to  the  application  of  the 
rules  of  Rhetoric  to  literary  composition  :  but  it  properly  applies  to 
an  examination  of  works  on  all  subjects  whatever ;  and  an  exposi- 
tion of  their  merits. 

The  question  whether  the  best  possible  classification  of  knowledge, 
made  at  the  present  time,  would  always  continue  so ;  or  whether  it 
would  admit  of  farther  improvement,  as  knowledge  itself  advances ;-— 
is  one  which  time  alone  can  answer.  In  expressing  an  opinion  on 
this  subject,  we  would  return  to  the  comparison  introduced  in  our 
preface.  As  in  Geography,  the  surface  of  the  earth  has  been  mostly 
explored ;  and  if  any  lands  remain  unknown,  they  are  so  situated,  in. 
the  torrid  or  frigid  zone,  as  to  be  almost  inaccessible ;  so  in  Pantology, 
we  believe  that  the  great  provinces  and  departments  of  knowledge 
have  already  been  travelled  over ;  and  that  no  very  wide  regions  have 
escaped  the  notice  of  the  many  voyagers  who  have  set  out  in  search 
of  unknown  realms  of  thought.  These  provinces  and  departments, 
we  believe,  will  remain  essentially  distinct,  as  long  as  the  material 
world,  and  the  human  constitution  continue  the  same;  though  their 
boundaries  may  be  more  or  less  changed,  like  those  of  states  and 
nations.  But  though  the  general  features  of  knowledge  have  been 
mostly  explored,  much,  doubtless,  remains  to  be  done,  in  the  sup- 
plying of  details,  the  correction  of  errors,  and  the  combination  of 
all  the  parts  into  one  harmonious  whole.  We  believe,  then,  that  a 
classification  which  will  satisfy  the  present  demands  of  knowledge, 
will  continue  to  be  applicable,  in  its  general  outlines,  till  a  new  order 
of  things  shall  supersede  the  present ;  or  a  new  intellectual  world 
shall  come  within  the  reach  of  human  ken. 

Our  plan  is  now  before  the  reader  :  and  the  remainder  of  this  work 
will  be  devoted  to  its  practical  illustration.  On  the  advantages  of  such 
a  classification  of  knowledge,  we  will  not  here  expatiate.  Its  conve- 
nience and  utility,  in  the  arrangementof  Libraries,  will  best  be  shown 
by  the  exemplar  Catalogue  of  Select  Books,  appended  to  this  work. 
To  make  the  plan  complete,  however,  a  place  must  be  assigned  for 
Encyclopaedias  and  other  general  works;  which,  if  entirely  general, 
we  would  place  first  of  all  in  the  catalogue  ;  but  if  general  only  in 


38  INTRODUCTION. 

regard  to  one  province  or  department  of  knowledge,  we  would  then 
place  them  at  the  beginning  of  that  division  to  which  they  relate. 
The  system  is  equally  applicable  to  Libraries,  or  to  Collections  of 
Manuscripts;  as  the  writer  has  tested  by  his  own  experience.  A 
Catalogue,  thus  arranged,  should  of  course  conclude  with  an  alpha- 
betical index  of  authors'  names  ;  referring  back  to  their  different  works. 
By  such  a  classification  of  knowledge,  the  mind  is  disciplined,  and 
aided,  in  its  highest  efforts  of  analysis  and  comparison.  A  love  of 
order,  and  method,  is  cultivated  ;  which  cannot  fail  to  have  a  benefi- 
cial influence,  in  various  mental  operations,  and  in  the  active  pursuits 
of  life.  The  system  forms  a  kind  of  Mnemonics,  or  artificial  me- 
mory ;  by  which  ideas  are  more  readily  retained  and  recalled,  than  if 
mingled  in  confusion  : — and  if  the  mind  is  not  better  furnished  there- 
by ;  at  least  its  furniture  is  better  arranged,  and  more  ready  for  use. 
The  young  reader  especially,  will,  it  is  hoped,  derive  benefit  from 
such  a  system  of  Pantology.  To  know  how  much  there  is  to  be 
known,  is,  of  itself,  a  stimulus  to  the  inquiring  mind  ,  and  to  compre- 
hend the  relations  of  the  different  branches  of  knowledge,  is  no  small 
step  toward  their  thorough  acquisition.  Finally,  it  must  contribute 
to  gratify  that  curiosity,  which  was  implanted  in  our  breasts  ;  not 
only  to  fit  us  for  secular  pursuits,  but  to  raise  our  thoughts  above 
them ;  to  bring  us  into  closer  communion  with  the  Great  Author  of 
Nature,  through  his  works,  and  his  revelations  ;  and  to  prepare  us,  in 
some  degree,  for  a  higher  and  eternal  state  of  existence,  in  His  imme- 
diate presence. 


FIRST  PROVINCE; 

PSYCHONOMY. 


IN  the  province  of  Psychonomy,  we  include  those  studies  which 
relate  more  particularly  to  the  human  intellect,  and  the  laws  by 
which  it  is  governed.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  ^VM, 
the  soul ;  and  vopos,  law  ;  literally  signifying  the  Laws  of  the  Mind,  in 
contradistinction  from  those  of  Matter.  In  this  province  we  compre- 
hend the  departments  of  Glossology,  or  Languages ;  Pyschology,  or 
Mental  Sciences ;  Nomology,  or  the  Studies  of  Law  and  Govern- 
ment ;  and  Theology,  or  the  Study  of  all  Religions.  The  reasons  for 
arranging  these  departments  in  this  order,  and  comprehending  them 
together  in  the  first  province  of  human  knowledge,  have  already  been 
briefly  explained,  [p.  33.  35]. 


I.  DEPARTMENT: 

GLOSSOLOGY. 


IN  the  department  of  Glossology,  we  include  the  study  of  all  Lan- 
guages ;  or  the  means  of  communicating  ideas,  by  words;  whether 
written  or  spoken.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  yXwava,  the 
tongue  ;  this  being  the  principal  organ  of  speech.  The  name  Lin- 
guistics, from  the  Latin,  lingua,  the  tongue,  has  also  been  applied  to 
this  department,  by  the  Germans ;  but  we  prefer  the  term  above 
adopted  ;  sanctioned,  as  it  is,  by  the  authority  of  Ampere.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  being  symmetrical  with  the  names  of  the  succeeding 
departments ;  and  of  similar  origin  ;  while  it  is  at  least  equally 
euphonic  with  the  German  name.  The  term  Philology,  was  formerly 
applied  to  Literature  in  general ;  and  has  sometimes  been  restricted  to 
the  study  of  languages,  or  their  philosophical  principles  and  relations  ; 
but  it  is  now  more  generally  applied  to  critical  examinations  of  Classic 
Writings ;  particularly  in  regard  to  their  exact  meaning,  and  verbal 
peculiarities.  The  present  department  is  placed  first  in  order  ;  because 
an  acquaintance  with  some  one  language,  is  the  first  step  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  knowledge,  beyond  the  ideas  acquired  by  mere  sensation. 
Some  writers  have  even  doubted  whether  we  could  think  at  all,  with- 
out words  to  embody  our  ideas  ;  but  this  is  probably  carrying  the 
point  too  far  ;  especially  in  regard  to  infants,  before  they  acquire  some 
knowledge  of  words. 

A.  Language,  so  called  from  the  French,  langue,  also  signifying 
the  tongue,  is  a  system  or  collection  of  sounds,  or  signs  of  sounds, 
called  words  ;  which  express  ideas,  or  thoughts  ;  and  by  means  of 
which,  ideas  are  communicated,  from  one  intelligent  being  to  another. 
In  a  wider  sense,  all  modes  of  conveying  ideas,  from  mind  to  mind, 
are  comprehended  under  the  general  term  Language.  Among  these 
modes,  we  would  mention  gestural  language,  in  which  ideas  are 
conveyed  by  gestures,  or  by  looks ;  as  in  the  ancient  pantomime, 
or  the  modern  language  of  the  deaf  and  dumb ;  and  exclamative 
language,  expressed  by  vocal  sounds,  though  not  by  words  ;  as 
cries  of  pleasure,  or  pain.  These  modes  of  expression  have  also 
been  termed  natural  language.  To  them  might  be  added  pictorial 
language ;  in  which  ideas  are  conveyed  by  pictures ;  as  among  the 
ancient  Mexicans  ; — and  musical  language,  if  such  it  can  be  called ; 
which,  unless  used  arbitrarily,  as  in  the  bugle  or  trumpet  war  calls, 
may  serve  to  excite  the  feelings,  but  hardly  to  convey  distinct  ideas. 
Pictorial  language  serves  well  to  indicate  sensible  objects ;  but  in 
regard  to  abstract  or  general  ideas,  it  is  also  vague,  and  imperfect ; 
unless  used  arbitrarily,  and  understood  in  the  same  sense  by  both 
the  parties  using  it. 

40 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  41 

The  remaining  and  principal  class, — is  that  of  verbal  languages  ; 
in  which  ideas  are  expressed  by  words,  or  signs  of  words ;  unless 
written  characters  are  regarded  not  as  signs  of  words,  but  as  imme- 
diate signs  of  ideas.  Telegraphic  signals,  being  confessedly  signs 
of  words,  in  some  selected  language,  may  be  mentioned  here,  and 
referred  to  their  place  in  the  department  of  Callotechnics.  The 
origin  of  verbal  language  is  doubtless  coeval  with  that  of  the  human 
race.  Adam,  it  is  recorded,  gave  names  to  all  animals ; — but 
whether  by  immediate  inspiration,  or  by  his  own  suggestion,  is  a 
point  not  ascertained  ;  nor  is  it  of  any  practical  importance.  All  man- 
kind, we  may  infer,  spoke  one  and  the  same  language,  in  the  primi- 
tive ages  :  and  of  course  this  would  be  the  language  of  Noah  and 
his  family.  Many  writers  suppose  that  the  primitive  language  was 
essentially  the  same  as  the  Hebrew;  having  been  preserved  un- 
changed among  the  patriarchs.  The  diversity  of  languages,  now 
prevailing  over  the  earth,  is  generally  attributed  to  the  confusion  of 
tongues  at  Babel :  though  some  learned  men  believe  this  to  have 
been  simply  a  confusion  of  counsels  or  purposes;  and  that  the 
diversity  of  languages  arose  from  the  subsequent  dispersion  of 
mankind,  as  recorded  in  the  Scriptures. 

The  invention  of  letters,  was  attributed,  by  some  of  the  Greeks, 
to  Cadmus,  the  Phoenician ;  who  introduced  them  into  Greece, 
1519,  B.  C.:  but  Plato  and  Sanchoniathon  ascribe  this  "invention  to 
Thaut,  the  Egyptian  ;  whom  we  have  already  mentioned ;  (p.  26) ; 
and  who  is  said  to  have  carried  letters  from  Phoenicia  to  Egypt,  on 
removing  thither  with  Mizraim,  his  father.  Some  suppose  the  first 
letters  to  have  been  those  written  on  the  tables  of  stone,  on  Mount 
Sinai.  Others  believe  that  letters  were  invented  before  the  flood  :-— 
an  opinion  corroborated  by  the  statement  of  Josephus,  concerning 
the  pillars  of  Seth ;  though  this  statement  has  been  doubted.  We 
incline  to  the  latter  opinion  ;  and  think  that  the  first  letters  were  sug- 
gested by  hieroglyphics  :  the  picture  of  a  sensible  object  suggesting 
the  shape  of  the  letter ;  and  the  name  of  that  object  containing  the 
sound  thus  represented.  This  was  certainly  the  case  in  some  of  the 
Egyptian  Hieroglyphics ;  which  would  not  have  been  so,  had  sim- 
pler letters  been  previously  known  in  Egypt. 

Hervas,  an  Italian,  published,  in  1784,  a  Catalogue  of  the  Lan- 
guages then  known;  to  which  he  appended  150  different  vocabu- 
laries :  but  J.  C.  Adelung  and  J.  S.  Vater,  in  their  admirable  work, 
the  Mithridates,  (or  "  Allgemeine  Sprachenkunde"),  completed  in 
1817,  in  Germany,  have  given  the  best  classification  of  all  known 
languages ;  and  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  nearly  500  of  them.  They 
estimate  the  total  number  of  languages,  and  dialects,  known  in  the 
world,  at  about  3000: — or  1200  in  America;  1000  in  Asia;  500  in 
Europe  ;  and  300  in  Africa.  Most  of  these  are  mere  dialects,  or 
variations  of  other  tongues  :  so  that  they  may  be  reduced  to  about 
80  original  languages  :  and  these  may  be  arranged  in  a  few  groups 
or  families  ;  those  of  each  family  having  doubtless  a  common  origin. 
The  Bible  has  been  translated,  wholly  or  in  part,  into  about  180 
languages,  including  those  which  are  deemed  the  most  important. 
The  most  valuable  languages  to  our  own  country,  are  probably  the 
6  D2 


42 

Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew*  of  the  ancients ;  and  the  English, 
French,  and  German*  of  the  moderns ;  which,  together,  contain 
most  of  the  treasures  of  human  learning.  Next  to  these,  we  would 
place  the  Arabic,  Malay,  and  Chinese,  in  the  East;  and  the  Italian, 
Portuguese,  and  Spanish  in  the  West ;  all  of  which  are  valuable,  for 
purposes  of  communication  and  commerce. 

If  all  nations  spoke  one  and  the  same  language,  much  of  the  time 
now  spent  in  the  study  of  Glossology,  would  be  saved.  Several  attempts 
have  been  made  to  form  a  Universal  Language,  which  should  super- 
sede all  others  ;  particularly  by  Bishop  Wilkins,  of  Chester,  in  Eng- 
land, who,  in  1668,  published  an  "  Essay  towards  a  real  character  and 
philosophical  language."  He  very  fancifully  observes,  "  if  Da  signi- 
fies God,  then  Ida  must  signify  the  opposite,  or  an  idol;  if  dab  be 
spirit,  odab  will  be  body;  if  dad  be  heaven,  odad  will  signify  hell." 
But  in  the  present  state  of  things,  it  is  manifestly  impossible  to  intro- 
duce such  a  language,  even  were  it  perfect ;  which  is  not  the  case 
with  any  of  those  proposed.  Our  hope  is,  that  the  less  important 
languages  will  gradually  sink  into  disuse  ;  while  the  leading  tongues 
approximate  more  closely  to  each  other,  till  this  evil  finds  a  natural 
remedy.  Meanwhile,  the  resemblance  of  languages,  serves  to  trace 
the  origin  and  affiliation  of  nations  ;  and  these  resemblances  have  been 
carefully  studied  by  many  learned  men,  for  that  purpose. 

We  shall  treat  farther  of  Glossology,  under  the  divisions  or  branches 
of  General  Grammar;  Oriental  Languages;  European  Languages;  and 
Barbarous  Languages;  into  which  branches,  this  department  may,  we 
think,  be  naturally  divided. 


CHAPTER  I. 

GENERAL    GRAMMAR. 

GENERAL  Grammar  is  that  branch  of  Glossology  which  explains  the 
structure  and  principles  of  language.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
French,  grammaire,  of  the  same  meaning  ;  and  this  from  the  Greek, 
yf>oi\ima.i  a  letter  or  epistle.  It  is  found,  by  an  extended  comparison, 
that  most  languages  agree  in  their  essential  structure,  and  are  governed 
by  certain  laws  or  principles,  which  it  is  the  object  of  General  Gram- 
mar to  investigate  and  explain.  Particular  Grammar,  as  English  or 
French,  applies  these  principles  to  some  particular  language,  including 
the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  it  with  propriety.  These  principles  are 
first  derived  from  the  general  practice,  or  usage,  in  writing  or  speak- 
ing any  language ;  and  this  usage,  they  afterwards  serve  to  regulate. 
Hence,  the  importance  of  studying  them  will  at  once  be  perceived,  as 
a  guide  to  the  right  use  of  words  in  composition  and  conversation. 

The  origin  of  Grammar,  as  a  distinct  branch  of  knowledge,  is,  as 
we  have  already  mentioned,  ascribed  to  Aristotle,  (p.  29).  The  Greeks 
and  Romans  carefully  studied  their  own  language,  but  neglected  all 
others,— calling  them  barbarous,  and  regarding  them  as  unworthy  of 
notice.  The  first  important  work  on  General  Grammar,  was  that 


GENERAL    GRAMMAR.  43 

published  in  1660,  by  Arnauld  andLauncelot,  of  the  Port  Royal  School 
near  Paris,  (under  the  title  of  Grammaire  generale  et  raisonnee], 
commonly  known  as  the  Port  Royal  Grammar.  It  was  followed,  in 
England,  by  Harris'  Hermes,  or  a  Philosophical  Inquiry  concerning 
Universal  Grammar;  published  about  1760;  and  by  John  Home 
Tooke's  Epea  Pteroenta,*  or  Diversions  of  Purley,  published  in 
1786  ;  in  which  he  endeavours  to  show  that  all  other  parts  of  speech 
are  derived  by  abbreviation,  or  contraction,  from  the  noun  and  the 
verb.  In  our  own  country,  much  has  been  done  for  General  Gram- 
mar, by  Mr.  Duponceau  ;  particularly  in  the  investigation  of  the  In- 
dian and  Chinese  Tongues.  He  arranges  all  languages  in  five  classes  ; 
1.  The  asyntactic,  like  the  Chinese,  in  which  the  words  have  no 
inflexions ;  2.  The  synthetic,  as  the  Latin,  in  which  several  ideas  are 
expressed  by  one  word,  as  amatur,  he  is  loved ;  3.  The  analytic,  as 
the  English,  having  a  separate  word  for  almost  every  modification  of 
thought;  4.  The  mixed,  intermediate  between  the  two  preceding,  as  the 
Italian ;  and,  5.  The  poly  synthetic,  in  which  a  whole  phrase,  or  sen- 
tence, is  expressed  in  one  long,  compound  word,  as  in  most  of  the 
aboriginal  languages  of  America. 

Grammar  may  be  subdivided  into  Orthology,  Lexicology,  and  Ac- 
cidence, which  relate  to  words  individually ;  and  Syntax,  and  Pro- 
sody, which  relate  to  them  as  connected  in  sentences. 

§  1.  Orthology,  so  named  from  the  Greek  opOos,  correct,  and  Aoj/rK, 
a  word,  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  letters  and  sounds, 
as  composing  words.  Jlrticulate  sounds,  are  those  formed  by  the 
organs  of  speech,  or  human  voice,  in  pronouncing  words ;  and  these 
sounds  are  represented  graphically  by  letters  ;  or  by  other  more  com- 
prehensive characters,  as  the  Arabic  numerals,  and  algebraic  symbols. 
Since  different  languages  have  different  letters,  and  sounds,  and  often 
express  the  same  sound  by  different  letters ;  the  subject  of  articulate 
sounds  in  general,  has  been  treated  of  as  a  separate  study,  under  the 
name  of  Phonology  :  and  that  of  graphic  characters,  may  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner,  under  the  name  of  Graphology.  In  regard  to 
any  one  language,  the  study  of  the  letters,  and  right  mode  of  spelling 
words,  is  called  Orthography :  and  the  study  of  its  sounds,  and  the 
right  pronunciation  of  words,  is  called  Orthoepy.  These,  however, 
are  so  connected  and  dependent  on  each  other,  that  we  include  them 
both  under  the  more  general  term,  Orthology, 

All  the  letters  used  in  any  one  language,  arranged  in  a  certain  order, 
constitute  its  alphabet:  but  the  same  letter  sometimes  represents  two 
or  more  sounds ;  and  the  same  sound  may  be  represented  by  two  or 
more  letters,  singly,  or  united.  Letters,  and  articulate  sounds,  are 
generally  classed  as  either  vowels  or  consonants  :  vowels  being  sim- 
ple, independent  sounds,  as  a,  o:  while  consonants,  as  b,  d,  cannot 
be  fully  sounded  without  the  help  of  a  vowel.  Consonants  are  also 
subdivided,  according  to  the  organs  chiefly  used  in  pronouncing  them, 
into  labials,  formed  by  the  lips,  as  b,  p,  f,  m,  v;  lingua-dentals, 
formed  by  the  tongue  and  teeth,  as  d,  t,  I,  n;  palatals,  formed  by  the 
palate,  as  ga,  and  k;  gutturals,  formed  in  the  throat,  as  our  ha,  or  h, 

*  ETTSU  Urepoevra,  or  winged  words, 


44  GLOSSOLOGY. 

and  the  German  ch;  and  nasals,  formed  partly  by  the  nose,  as  ourng, 
and  the  French  m,  or  n,  at  the  end  of  words.  The  letters  s  and  z 
are  called  sibilants  ;  being  pronounced  with  a  hissing  sound.  Our  let- 
ters are  borrowed  from  the  Romans :  and  as  they  expressed  u  and  v 
by  the  same  character,  these  letters  have  often  been  injudiciously  min- 
gled, in  the  older  dictionaries.  The  same  may  be  said  of  the  letters, 
i  and  j.  Words  are  divided  into  syllables :  each  of  which  is  pro- 
nounced by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice.  In  writing,  or  printing,  the 
letters  which  belong  to  the  same  syllable,  should  never  be  separated. 

decent  is  a  strong  enunciation  of  one  or  more  syllables  in  a  word, 
thereby  rendering  the  pronunciation  more  distinct :  and  emphasis  is 
a  similar  stress  on  some  important  word  or  phrase  in  a  sentence.  Ca 
dence  is  a  rise  or  fall  of  the  voice,  at  the  close  of  a  sentence ;  aiding 
to  express  its  signification.  The  Orthography  and  Orthoepy  of  our 
language,  are  very  irregular,  and  can  only  be  learned  from  Spelling  or 
Reading  Books,  or  from  Dictionaries.  Where  these  latter  disagree, 
we  would  be  guided  by  custom,  or  the  analogy  of  our  own  language, 
or  the  derivation  of  the  word  from  other  languages ;  exercising  our 
own  judgment  in  each  case  of  disagreement  among  standard  authors. 
Thus,  we  prefer  to  spell  the  words  honor,  favor,  and  the  like,  with- 
out the  letter  u :  because  this  letter  is  superfluous  ;  and  they  are  more 
naturally  derived  from  the  Latin  words,  ending  in  or,  than  from  the 
French,  ending  in  eur.  But  we  would  pronounce  oblique  so  as  to 
rhyme  with  antique,  and  unique ;  on  account  of  its  similar  orthogra- 
phy, and  derivation. 

§  2.  Lexicology,  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  signi- 
fication of  words  ;  being  so  named  from  the  Greek  \C\IKOV,  a  dictionary  ; 
and  this  derived  from  Aeyw,  I  speak.  Hence,  a  writer  of  dictionaries 
is  called  a  lexicographer;  and  the  art  of  writing  them,  lexicography. 
Etymology,  from  ervnos,  true,  and  \oyOS,  word,  treats  of  the  derivation 
of  words,  whether  from  foreign  languages,  or  from  other  words  in  the 
same  language :  while  the  mere  study  of  definitions  of  words,  may 
be  termed  Orismology,  from  opicrnos,  a  definition.  Both  these  studies, 
closely  connected  as  they  are,  we  would  include  under  Lexicology. 
A  complete  Dictionary  of  any  language,  should,  we  think,  include 
not  only  the  words  in  common  use,  but  also  obsolete  words,  and  tech- 
nical terms ;  marking  them  as  such  ;  and  giving  their  derivations,  as 
well  as  definitions.  It  ought  also  to  give  a  full  list  of  proper  names, 
both  of  persons  and  places  ;  with  their  correct  pronunciation,  as  far  as 
it  can  be  ascertained.  Those  compound  words,  and  phrases,  which, 
by  combination,  acquire  a  peculiar  meaning,  should  also  be  carefully 
inserted. 

As  regards  their  structure,  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative. 
A  primitive  word  is  one  which  cannot  be  reduced  to  any  simpler  word 
in  the  same  language :  but  derivative  words  are  formed  from  primitives, 
either  by  the  addition  of  one  or  more  syllables,  or  by  the  union  of  two 
or  more  words  ;  as  ink-stand,  pen-knife.  These  latter,  are  also  called 
compound  words.  A  syllable  added  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  is 
called  a  prefix,  or,  less  properly,  a  preposition ;  but  a  syllable  added 
at  the  end  of  a  word,  is  called  a  suffix,  or  termination.  Most  lan- 
guages contain  many  derivative  words,  which  are  formed  on  regular 


GENERAL    GRAMMAR.  45 

principles  ;  the  additional  syllables  being  generally  significant.  Thus, 
from  the  verb,  to  love,  comes  the  name  lover:  from  the  adjective, 
white,  comes  the  noun  ivhiteness  :  from  the  noun,  length,  comes  the 
verb  to  lengthen:  from  the  adjective,  slow,  comes  the  adverb  slowly : 
and  from  the  adjective,  new,  comes  the  verb  to  renew. 

Many  words  have  more  than  one  signification ;  and  their  meaning 
must  be  inferred  from  the  context,  that  is  the  other  words  with  which 
they  are  associated.  An  ambiguous  word,  or  phrase,  is  one  which 
has  two  or  more  significations ;  as,  for  example,  the  phrase,  "  And 
thus  the  son  the  sire  addressed."  Synonyms,  or  synonymous  words, 
are  those  which  have  the  same  meaning;  as  omnipotent  and  almighty. 
There  is  no  better  method  of  learning  the  exact  signification  of  words, 
than  by  a  careful  study  of  the  languages  from  which  they  are  derived; 
— a  fact  which  gives  increased  importance  to  the  study  of  the  ancient, 
as  well  as  modern  tongues.  Recourse  should  also  be  had  to  the  best 
speakers  and  writers ;  and  to  our  standard  Dictionaries  ;  which  have 
themselves  been  prepared  by  the  means  here  referred  to. 

§  3.  Accidence,  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  func- 
tions, or  uses  of  words  ;  and  the  different  parts  of  speech  into  which 
they  are  consequently  divided.  The  name  is  from  the  Latin  accidens, 
happening  or  belonging  to  ;  in  reference  to  the  inflexions,  or  changes 
of  form,  which  several  of  the  parts  of  speech  undergo ;  and  we  pre- 
fer this  term,  as  being  more  suitable  and  definite  than  the  terms  Ety- 
mology and  Analogy;  which  have  both  been  used  in  the  same  signi- 
fication. In  our  language,  as  in  most  others,  there  are  nine  parts  of 
speech:  the  noun,  article,  adjective  or  adnoun,  pronoun,  verb,  adverb, 
preposition,  conjunction,  and  interjection.  The  participle  is  also 
considered  by  some  grammarians,  as  deserving  to  be  included  in 
this  list. 

A  noun  or  substantive,  is  the  name  of  any  thing;  as  man,  happi- 
ness. Nouns  in  the  singular  number  express  only  one  object ;  but 
in  the  plural  they  express  more  than  one ;  as  men,  faces.  In  the 
nominative  case  they  simply  name  the  direct  agent,  or  the  passive 
recipient  of  an  action  ;  as  the  boy  plays :  the  man  is  hurt :  in  the 
possessive  case  they  indicate  property  or  connection ;  as  the  boy's 
book :  and  in  the  objective  case,  they  show  the  object  of  an  action 
or  relation  ;  as  they  hurt  the  man.  Nouns  in  the  masculine  gender 
denote  males ;  in  the  feminine,  females ;  and  in  the  neuter  gender, 
objects  to  which  no  sex  is  attributed.  An  article  is  a  word  used  to 
restrict  or  to  generalize  a  noun.  Our  language  has  but  two  articles ; 
a  or  an,  called  the  indefinite,  and  the,  which  is  called  the  definite 
article.  An  adjective,  or  adnoun,  is  a  word  used  to  define,  qualify, 
or  modify  a  noun ;  as  good,  strong,  white.  Adnouns  in  the  positive 
degree,  express  quality  or  quantity,  absolutely  or  generally ;  in  the 
comparative  degree,  they  express  it  more  strongly,  by  a  reference  to 
other  objects;  as  better,  stronger:  and  in  the  superlative  degree, 
they  express  it  pre-eminently,  with  reference  to  all  the  objects  com- 
pared;  as  best,  strongest.  Numeral  adnouns,  are  those  which 
express  numbers,  or  numerical  order ;  as  one,  two,  three  ;  first, 
second,  third.  The  words  called  adjective  pronouns,  we  think  are 
more  properly  adnouns  ;  whether  possessive,  as  my,  thy  ;  or  demon- 


46  GLOSSOLOGY. 

strative,  as  this,  that;  or  distributive,  as  each,  every,  either;  or 
indefinite,  as  one,  some,  other,  any,  all,  and  such.  A  pronoun,  is 
a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  for  the  sake  of  brevity  or  variety. 
The  personal  pronouns  are  7,  thou  or  you,  and  he,  she,  or  it,  with 
their  plurals.  /  is  said  to  be  in  the  first  person,  referring  to  the 
person  who  speaks ;  thou  in  the  second  person ;  and  he,  she,  or  it 
in  the  third.  These  pronouns  are  declined  like  nouns  ;  being  found 
in  all  the  three  cases,  nominative,  possessive,  and  objective  ;  as  7, 
my  or  mine,  me;  thou,  thy  or  thine,  thee  ;  he,  his,  him;  she,  hers, 
her.  The  relative  pronouns  are  who,  which,  that,  and  what ;  all 
referring  to  some  antecedent  word  or  phrase ;  except  in  asking  ques- 
tions, when  they  are  termed  interrogative  pronouns. 

A  verb,  is  a  word  by  means  of  which  some  action,  or  state,  is 
attributed  to  some  agent,  or  subject;  as  I  am,  he  loves.  An  active 
verb,  expresses  a  direct  action  ;  and  when  some  object  is  at  the  same 
time  acted  upon,  or  affected  thereby,  the  verb  is  called  transitive ;  as 
they  love  virtue.  A  neuter  verb,  simply  expresses  some  state  or 
relation  ;  and  a  passive  verb  expresses  the  same,  with  a  reference  to 
some  agent,  as  producing  or  causing  that  state ;  as  he  is  loved.  A 
verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  expresses  an  action,  or  state,  without 
immediate  reference  to  any  particular  agent;  as  to  love :  in  the 
indicative  mood,  it  makes  a  declaration,  or  asks  a  question :  in  the 
imperative,  it  commands  or  requests  :  in  the  potential,  it  expresses 
power,  obligation,  or  possibility ;  as  he  can  go  :  and  in  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  it  implies  some  condition,  or  contingency ;  as  if  he 
come  I  will  see  him.  A  verb  in  the  present  tense  refers  to  present 
time :  in  the  imperfect  tense,  it  refers  to  past  time,  either  indefi- 
nitely, or  specified  by  the  context ;  as  they  spoke  or  were  speaking: 
in  the  perfect  tense,  it  refers  to  past  time  completed,  though  it  may 
be  very  recent ;  as  he  has  gone :  and  in  the  pluperfect  tense,  it 
refers  to  past  time  anterior  to  some  other  past  time  alluded  to ;  as 
they  had  gone  when  he  arrived.  A  verb  in  the  future  tense,  refers 
to  future  time  generally ;  and  in  the  perfuture  or  second  future,  it 
refers  to  future  time  anterior  to  some  other  future  time  alluded  to  ; 
as  they  will  have  seen  him  before  he  arrives.  Verbs  are  also  varied 
in  reference  to  number  and  person ;  as  I  am,  thou  art,  he  is,  we 
are,  you  are,  they  are :  and  the  assemblage  of  al]  these  variations, 
constitutes  the  conjugation  of  a  verb.  Auxiliary  verbs,  are  those 
used  to  assist  in  conjugating  other  verbs;  as  shall,  will,  may,  can, 
must,  and  especially  the  verbs  to  have,  and  to  be.  This  last  auxiliary 
is  used  in  our  own  language,  in  the  conjugation  of  all  passive  verbs  ; 
as  he  is  esteemed,  the  word  was  spoken :  and  all  our  passive  verbs 
are  formed  from  the  perfect  participles  of  active  verbs  ;  but  in  most 
of  the  ancient  languages  they  are  single  derivative  words. 

A  participle,  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  often  uniting  the 
properties  of  a  verb  and  a  noun  or  adnoun  ;  as  loving,  loved,  having 
loved.  These  three  forms  are  distinguished  as  the  present,  perfect, 
and  compound.  An  adverb,  is  a  word  used  to  qualify  or  explain  a 
verb,  or  adnoun ;  as  well,  wisely,  there,  then.  A  preposition,  serves  to 
show  the  relation  of  some  noun,  pronoun,  or  phrase,  to  the  preced- 
ing part  of  the  sentence ;  as  by,  to,  from,  in,  with,  on,  over.  A 


GENERAL    GRAMMAR.  47 

conjunction,  serves  to  connect  words  or  phrases,  and  often  to  qualify 
their  meaning ;  as  and,  if,  but,  because.  Copulative  conjunctions 
indicate  connection  or  resemblance ;  as  he  is  good  and  happy :  but 
disjunctive  conjunctions  denote  opposition  or  contrast;  as  he  is  rich 
but  not  liberal.  An  interjection,  is  a  word  expressing  emotion,  or  a 
call  of  attention,  salutation,  or  the  like  :  as  Oh!  alas  I  behold!  hark! 
welcome  ! 

§  4.  Syntax,  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  agree- 
ment and  dependence  of  words  in  a  sentence ;  so  named  from  the 
Greek,  aw,  together,  and  raaa^  I  arrange.  It  is  usually  divided  into 
Concord,  or  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  another,  in  gender, 
number,  or  person  ;  and  Government,  or  the  power  which  one  word 
has  over  others,  in  directing  their  mood,  tense,  or  case.  The  most 
important  rules  of  concord,  are  for  the  agreement  of  articles  and 
adnouns  with  their  nouns  ;  of  pronouns  with  their  antecedents  ;  and 
of  a  verb  with  its  nominative  case.  Thus,  it  would  be  improper  to 
say  an  house  ;  because  the  indefinite  article  takes  the  form  a  before 
a  consonant  which  is  sounded ;  but  the  form  an  is  used  before  a  vowel, 
or  silent  h  :  as  an  apple.  It  would  be  incorrect  to  say  he  are  loved ; 
because  the  pronoun  he  is  in  the  singular  number,  and  requires  that 
the  verb  should  be  of  the  form  appropriated  to  this  number  by  general 
usage.  The  most  prominent  rules  of  government,  are  for  one  noun 
governing  another  in  the  possessive  case  ;  one  verb  governing  another 
in  the  infinitive  mood ;  and  verbs,  participles,  or  prepositions  govern- 
ing nouns  or  pronouns  in  the  objective  case.  Thus,  we  say,  he  spoke 
to  them  ;  because  the  word  them  is  the  objective  case  of  the  personal 
pronoun,  in  the  third  person  plural,  and  it  is  governed  in  this  exam- 
ple by  the  preposition  to,  which  requires  it  to  take  this  form. 

The  study  of  the  Ellipsis,  or  allowable  omission  of  such  words  as 
would  be  readily  supplied  in  the  mind  of  the  reader,  or  hearer,  is  also 
an  important  part  of  Syntax  ;  though  in  regard  to  its  use,  it  may  also 
be  treated  of  under  Rhe.toric.  In  general  we  must  avoid  omitting 
any  words  which  would  impair  or  obscure  the  sense ;  and  hence, 
instead  of  saying,  James  will  go  and  see  the  books  to  day,  and  John 
to-morrow,  it  would  be  better  to  supply  the  ellipsis,  by  saying  John 
will  go  to-morrow,  or  John  will  go  and  see  them  to-morrow.  The 
formal  application  of  Accidential  and  Syntactic  rules  to  the  successive 
words  of  a  sentence,  is  called  parsing;  and  it  requires  a  thorough 
knowledge  of  the  construction  of  the  sentence  ;  though  not  always 
of  the  exact  meaning  of  the  words.  Perhaps  the  best  mode  of  elicit- 
ing an  exact  comprehension  of  the  meaning  of  sentences,  is  by 
asking  questions ;  the  answers  to  which  will  show  that  the  sense  is 
understood.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  perseverance  overcomes  all 
difficulties ;"  if  the  question  be  asked,  what  it  is  that  perseverance 
overcomes,  the  answer  is,  all  difficulties :  and  if  it  be  asked,  what 
overcomes  all  difficulties,  the  reply  is,  perseverance.  Again,  to  the 
question,  what  effect  has  perseverance  on  difficulties,  the  answer  will 
be,  it  overcomes  them. 

§  5.  Prosody,  is  that  part  of  Grammar  which  treats  of  the  laws 
of  versification  ;  including  those  of  punctuation.  It  is  so  named  from 
the  Greek  irpos,  concerning,  and  &><fy,  an  ode  or  song.  Versification  is 


48  GLOSSOLOGY. 

the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  and  variety  of  syllables,  accord- 
ing to  certain  laws  ;  to  form  what  is  technically  called  poetry.  Ver 
sified  poetry  is  written  either  in  rhyme,  or  in  blank  verse,  which  has 
no  rhymes ;  but  both  are  divisible  into  regular  poetic  feet ;  in  which 
they  differ  from  prose.  Rhyme  is  a  similarity  in  sound  between  the 
last  syllables  of  each  two  or  more  verses.  A  verse  is  properly  a 
single  line  of  poetry  ;  and  several  lines  connected  compose  a  stanza. 
A  poetic  foot,  is  an  assemblage  of  two  or  more  syllables  ;  having 
the  long  and  short  ones,  or  in  modern  languages,  the  accented  and 
unaccented,  in  a  certain  order;  and  every  verse  is  composed  of  such 
poetic  feet.  An  iambus,  has  one  short  syllable,  followed  by  one 
which  is  long,  or  accented  ;  as  betray.  Of  such  feet  are  the  English 
heroic  verse,  and  the  long,  common,  and  short  metres,  in  Psalmody. 
A  trochee,  has  one  long  syllable,  followed  by  one,  short ;  as  hateful. 
The  anapest,  has  two  short  syllables  followed  by  one  long ;  as  con- 
travene: and  the  dactyl,  has  one  long  syllable,  followed  by  two 
short ;  as  laborer.  These  are  the  feet  chiefly  used  in  English  poetry, 
and  the  only  kinds  that  we  have  room  to  mention.  The  spondee, 
consisting  of  two  long  syllables ;  and  the  pyrrhic,  of  two  short,  are 
occasionally  used  by  the  ancient  poets.  Of  the  four  following  lines, 
the  first  is  iambic;  the  second,  trochaic;  the  third,  anapestic ;  and 
the  fourth,  dactylic,  but  closing  with  an  additional  syllable,  which 
gives  it  an  anapestic  cadence. 

"  Ye  nymphs  of  Solyma,  begin  the  song." 

"  Guide  me,  Oh  thou  great  Jehovah  !" 

"  May  I  govern  my  passions  with  absolute  sway." 

"  Sound  the  loud  timbrel,  o'er  Egypt's  dark  sea." 

Punctuation,  is  the  application  of  points,  to  mark  the  pauses,  and 
often  the  sense  of  a  written  composition.  The  points  now  in  use  are 
the  comma,  ( , ) ;  the  semicolon,  ( ; ) ;  the  colon,  ( : ) ;  the  period, 
(  . ) ;  the  exclamation  point,  ( ! ),  appended  to  something  remarkable; 
and  the  interrogation  point,  (? ),  denoting  a  question.  All  of  these 
points  mark  pauses,  increasing  in  length,  from  the  first,  to  the  two 
last  named.  The  parenthesis,  (  ),  and  brackets,  [  ],  are  used  for 
subordinate  or  detached  clauses ;  the  asterisk,  *,  the  obelisk,  t,  the 
binobelisk,  J,  and  parallels,  ||,  are  used  for  reference  ;  the  apostrophe, 
('),  for  abbreviating  words;  the  hyphen,  (-),  for  connecting  words 
or  syllables  ;  the  caret,  ( A  ),  for  supplying  omissions  ;  and  the  ellip- 
sis, whether  dash,  dots,  or  stars,  indicates  that  something  is  purposely 
omitted.  Quotation  marks,  ("  ")  enclose  a  passage  taken  verbatim 
from  some  other  author :  an  index,  ISP""?  points  out  some  remark- 
able passage ;  and  a  single  or  double  brace,  >  ,  j  £  ,  is  used  to 

connect  several  lines,  which  are  intimately  related  ;  as  in  poetry,  when 
they  rhyme  together. 


ORIENTAL    LANGUAGES.  49 

CHAPTER  II. 

ORIENTAL    LANGUAGES. 

WE  class  as  Oriental  Languages,  those  of  civilized  Asia  ;  including, 
on  account  of  their  close  resemblance,  those  of  Egypt  and  Ethiopia. 
The  name  is  from  the  Latin  oriens,  rising ;  but  it  signifies  eastern, 
in  allusion  to  the  rising  sun.  The  Oriental  Languages  are  doubtless 
the  most  ancient  of  all ;  though  their  relative  antiquity  is  not  pre- 
cisely known.  The  Hebrew  is  probably  the  oldest ;  and  it  became 
known  to  the  nations  of  Europe,  as  the  language  of  the  Bible,  and 
of  the  dispersed  Jews:  but  the  Arabic  was  little  regarded,  till  after 
the  downfall  of  Rome,  and  the  rise  of  Mohamedanism ;  when  it 
became,  for  a  time,  the  chief  language  of  science.  The  British 
conquest  of  India,  has  attracted  the  attention  of  scholars  to  the  Sans- 
crit tongue :  and  the  labors  of  religion  and  commerce  have  at  last 
introduced  us  to  a  partial  knowledge  of  the  Chinese :  but  in  these 
latter  tongues,  much  yet  remains  to  be  sought  for  and  investigated. 
We  shall  speak  briefly  of  the  Oriental  Languages,  under  the  four 
divisions,  or  families,  of  Coptic,  Semitic,  Sanscrit,  and  Chinese. 

§  1.  The  Coptic  Language,  was  the  original  language  of  Egypt; 
and  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  that  are  known.  It  was  expressed 
by  the  characters  commonly  called  Hieroglyphics;  so  named  from 
the  Greek  Ispa  yA^*?,  a  sacred  engraving.  The  earliest  hieroglyphics, 
appear  to  have  been  imitations,  or  natural  symbols,  of  the  objects 
which  they  expressed ;  and  hence  they  are  classed  as  figurative  and 
symbolical.  Thus,  an  eye,  with  a  sceptre  beneath  it,  signified  a  king  ; 
a  flying  hawk,  represented  the  wind  ;  and  a  crescent,  resembling  the 
moon,  was  the  symbol  of  a  month.  From  these  hieroglyphics,  were 
derived  the  phonetic  characters  ;  so  called  because  they  represented 
sounds  ;  and  which  constituted  probably  the  earliest  alphabet  known. 
In  the  phonetic  hieroglyphics,  each  character  stood  for  the  sound,  or 
letter,  which  began  the  name  of  the  object  represented.  Thus  an 
eagle  stood  for  the  letter  A ;  this  being  the  initial  letter  of  ahom,  the 
Coptic  word  for  an  eagle.  On  this  principle  was  formed  the  Egyp- 
tian Alphabet,  (Plate  II.  No.  1),  explained  in  the  following  table. 


A.  Ahom,  an  eagle. 

B.  Berbe,  a  censer. 
E  or  A.  Aka,  a  reed. 
K.  Klaft,  a  cup. 

L.  Laboi,  a  lion. 
M.  Movu,  water. 


N.  Neph,  an  inundation. 

O.  Osiris,  a  dog-headed  deity. 

P.  Presh,  a  mat. 

R.  Ra,  the  sun. 

S.  Sion,  a  star. 

T.  Tot,  a  hand. 


This  list  may  serve  as  a  specimen  of  the  phonetic  characters  ;  but 
numerous  others  were  employed  in  the  same  manner,  and  to  desig- 
nate the  same  letters ;  though  a  small  number  of  them  seems  to  have 
been  selected  for  common  use.*  All  the  characters  expressing  one 

*  Some  of  these  are  shown  in  Plate  II.  No.  1  ;  but  we  have  not  room  to  give  the 
Coptic  names.     No.  4,  is  the  word  ahom,  in  Coptic  characters. 
7  E 


50  GLOSSOLOGY. 

word,  were  grouped  together;  and  often,  especially  in  the  case  of 
proper  names,  they  were  enclosed  in  an  oval  line,  called,  by  the 
French,  a  cartouche  ;  to  separate  them  from  other  characters.  The 
order  of  the  characters,  in  the  cartouche,  was  denoted  by  the  direc- 
tion of  the  animals'  heads  :  but  the  general  order  of  hieroglyphic 
writing  was  in  columns  ;  commencing  at  the  top,  and  reading  the 
right  hand  column  first,  as  in  the  Chinese.  (This  is  exemplified  in 
the  names  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra;  Plate  II.  Nos.  2,  and  3).  The 
phonetic  characters  were  sometimes  mingled  with  the  figurative  or 
the  symbolical  hieroglyphics  ;  but  in  such  cases  they  were  recog- 
nised by  some  distinguishing  mark. 

The  hieratic  or  sacred  characters,  used  for  purposes  of  religion 
and  science,  appear  to  have  been  partly  phonetic,  and  partly  imitative. 
The  demotic,  enchorial,  or  common  characters,  were  of  later  origin ; 
of  simpler  form,  being  more  abbreviated ;  and  they  were  applied  to 
a  somewhat  different  dialect,  though  essentially  of  the  same  language. 
A  still  later  Coptic  alphabet  was  derived  from  the  Greek  letters,  and 
used  about  A.  D.  120,  in  a  translation  of  the  Bible ;  from  which 
most  of  our  knowledge  of  the  ancient  Coptic  or  Egyptian  language 
is  derived.  The  knowledge  of  the  hieroglyphic  writing  was  for  ages 
lost  to  the  world :  and  its  modern  discovery  is  among  the  most  won- 
derful achievements  of  the  human  intellect.  The  key  to  this  disco- 
very was  the  celebrated  Rosetta  stone,  dug  up  at  Rosetta,  by  the 
French  troops  under  Bonaparte  ;  and  now  deposited  in  the  British 
Museum.  It  contained  an  inscription,  in  praise  of  Ptolemy  Epi- 
phanes ;  triply  sculptured  in  Sacred,  Common,  and  Grecian  charac- 
ters. The  mutilated  Greek,  was  translated  by  Porson  and  Heyne ; 
De  Sacy  detected  in  it  the  word  Alexandria;  Akerblad,  of  Sweden, 
deciphered  most  of  the  demotic  characters ;  Quatremere  identified 
the  language  as  the  Coptic ;  and  Dr.  Young  discovered  some  of  the 
sacred  characters  :  but  to  Champollion,  we  owe  the  full  develope- 
ment  of  the  discovery,  and  its  application  to  many  of  the  inscrip- 
tions still  extant,  on  the  ruins,  and  remains,  of  Upper  Egypt. 

§  2.  The  Semitic  family  of  Languages  includes  the  Hebrew, 
Chaldee,  Syriac,  Phoenician,  Arabic,  and  Ethiopic  languages  ;  with 
others  of  minor  importance.  The  name  is  derived  from  Shem,  the 
eldest  son  of  Noah ;  by  whose  descendants,  these  languages  were 
spoken.  They  are  all  written  from  the  right  hand  to  the  left ;  but 
each  of  them  in  its  own  peculiar  characters.  The  term  Aremaic, 
or  Aramean,  has  also  been  applied  to  the  Chaldee,  Syriac,  and  some 
minor  tongues;  spoken  by  the  descendants  of  Aram,  the  fifth  son  of 
Shem.  The  Chaldee,  or  Chaldaic,  was  the  language  of  the  ancient 
Babylonian  and  Assyrian  empires ;  and  is  supposed  to  have  been 
derived  from  the  Hebrew  ;  which  it  closely  resembles. 

The  Hebrew  Language,  possesses  great  interest ;  as  being  that 
in  which  the  Old  Testament  was  originally  written  ;  except  a  few 
chapters  in  Ezra,  and  a  few  verses  in  Jeremiah  and  Daniel,  which 
were  in  Chaldee.  It  is  supposed,  by  many,  to  have  been  the  original 
language,  spoken  before  the  confusion  of  Babel ;  though  of  this  we 
have  no  positive  proof.  The  characters  of  the  present  Hebrew 
alphabet,  are  not  the  most  ancient  in  which  this  language  was  written ; 


ORIENTAL    LANGUAGES. 


51 


but  were  introduced  at  a  later  period,  and  probably  since  the  Chris- 
tian Era.  The  diacritical  signs  or  points,  both  vowels  and  accents, 
now  generally  received,  and  employed,  by  Hebrew  scholars,  are  of 
still  later  origin  ;  dating  back  only  to  about  the  seventh  century  of 
our  era.  The  present  Hebrew  alphabet  is  as  follows  : 

12.     «?.     Lamedh, I. 

D  D.  Mem, m. 

p.  Nun, n. 

0.     Samekh, s. 

y-     Ayin, o. 

*1  D.  Pe, ph. 

px.  Tsadhe, ts. 

p.     Qoph, q. 

-i.     Resh, r. 

v.    Shin, sh. 


1. 
2. 
3. 

4. 

5. 

6. 

7. 

8. 

9. 
10. 
11. 


-p. 


Aleph,  ..........  a. 

Beth,  ............  bh. 

Gimel,  ..........  gh. 

Daleth,  ..........  dh. 

He,  ............  h. 

Vav,  ............  v. 

Zayin,  ..........  z. 

Hheth,  ..........  hh. 

Tet,  .............  t. 

Yodh,  ...........  y. 

Kaph,  ...........  kh. 


13. 
14. 
15. 
16. 
17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 


n. 


Tav, 


th. 


The  letters  bh,  gh,  dh,  kh,  ph,  and  th,  by  the  addition  of  a  point 
on  the  left,  called  a  ddghesh,  are  changed  to  b,  g,  d,  k,  p,  and  t  : 
and  sh,  with  a  point  placed  over  the  left  branch,  instead  of  the  right, 
is  pronounced  like  s.  The  letters  a,  h,  v,  y,  and  o,  are  frequently 
silent,  or  mere  aspirations  ;  their  sound  being  taken  or  sustained  by 
the  vowel  points.  When  two  characters,  in  the  above  alphabet,  are 
given  for  one  letter,  that  on  the  left  is  used  only  at  the  end  of  words. 
The  principal  vowel  points,  attached  succes- 
sively to  the  letter  a,  for  example,  vary  its 
pronunciation,  as  shown  in  the  margin.  The 
names  of  the  Hebrew  letters,  are  signifi- 
cant Hebrew  words  ;  as  aleph,  (pronounced 
ah-lef),  an  ox  ;  beth,  a  house  ;  gimel,  (or  ghimel},  a  camel  ;  and  so 
of  the  rest. 

The  following,  is  the  first  verse  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  in 
Hebrew  :  and  it  should  be  read  from  right  to  left  ;  as  indicated  by 
the  numbers,  attached  to  the  words. 


a  baw  or  boh  ;  a  bah; 
z  or  a  bay  ;  a  bee  ,• 
a  bo  ;  a  boo  ;  a  beh. 


nxi 


nx 


ana2 

TT 


The  pronunciation  of  this  verse  according  to  Stuart,  would  be, 
^Bt'raisheeth  zbawraw  3Eloheem  *aith  bha>shawmayeem  6ve'aith 
7haw'awrets.  The  signification  of  the  words,  is  as  follows,  *In 
the  beginning,  (from  raisheeth,  a  beginning)  ;  3created  ;  3the  Deity, 
(in  the  plural  number)  ;  4i  5  the  heavens,  (aith  being  a  sign  of  the 
accusative  or  objective  case,  and  ha  the  article  the}  ;  6'  7  and  the 
earth  :  (ve  signifying  and  ;  awrets,  the  earth  ;  and  aith,  and  ha,  as 
just  before  mentioned).  The  Rabbinic,  language  of  the  later  Jews, 
is  a  dialect  of  the  -Hebrew;  but  written  in  somewhat  different 
characters.  The  Syriac  is  also  a  dialect  of  the  Hebrew,  written  in 
a  peculiar  character,  and  still  used  in  worship  by  the  Nestorian 
Christians.  The  Phoenician  language,  allied  to  these,  was  that  of 
Tyre  and  Sidon,  and  of  Carthage  :  and  from  it,  Cadmus  derived  the 
Greek  alphabet. 

The  Jlrabic  language,  by  means  of  the  Koran,  has  been  pre- 
served unchanged  for  ages  ;  and  has  spread  as  widely  as  the  Mohame- 
dan  religion.  It  has  many  words  in  common  with  the  IJebrew  ; 


52 


GLOSSOLOGY. 


as  the  Arabians,  through  Ishmael,  are  also  descendants  from  Abra- 
ham :  but  it  is  written  in  a  more  difficult  character,  and  is  so  copious 
as  to  require  great  labor  in  learning  it.  The  characters  of  the  Ara- 
bic alphabet  are  give  in  Plate  II.  No.  5 ;  those  on  the  right  being 
used  at  the  beginning,  and  those  on  the  left  at  the  end  of  words ;  as 
they  are  read  from  right  to  left.  The  names  of  the  letters,  are 
given  in  the  following  table  : 


22. 
?S 

Kef,  ... 

.ch. 
1 

15. 
16. 

Dzad,  . 
Ta  ... 

..dz. 

8. 
9. 

Dal,.  . 

Dhsal, 

...d. 

..dh. 

1. 

2, 

Elif,  . 
Be,  .. 

.  .  .a. 
...b. 

24 

17 

Da 

d 

10 

Re  . 

.  .  .r. 

3 

Te,  ., 

.  .  .t. 

25. 
26. 
07 

Nun,.  .  . 
Wau... 
He  .. 

.n. 
.w. 
.h 

18. 
19. 
20. 

Ain,  .  . 
Gain,.  . 
Fe,  .  .  . 

..'h. 
..gh. 
..f. 

11. 
12. 
13. 

Ze,  .. 

Sin,.. 
Shin,. 

.  .  .z. 

.  .  .s. 
...sh. 

4. 
5. 
6, 

Thse,. 
Jim,.. 
Hha,. 

...th. 
.  ..hh. 

?,a. 

Ya... 

v. 

21. 

Kaf,  ., 

..k. 

14. 

Tsad, 

..ts. 

7. 

Kha,. 

...kh. 

It  will  be  perceived  that  several  sounds  are  represented  by  more 
than  one  character,  as  in  the  case  of  our  c  and  k:  but  some  of  the 
gutteral  sounds  are .  such  as  our  letters  cannot  exactly  represent. 
The  letters  elif  and  ain,  like  the  corresponding  Hebrew  letters,  are 
often  silent;  their  sound  having  apparently  been  usurped  by  the 
accents.  As  a  specimen  of  the  Arabic  language,  we  have  only 
room  to  give  the  words  Jlljabr,  the  reduction  ;  Jllchimia,  the 
secret ;  and  Alkoran ',  the  Reading  ;  (Plate  II.  Nos.  6,  7,  and  8) ; 
together  with  the  first  verse  of  the  first  chapter  of  Genesis,  (No.  9), 
pronounced  and  translated  as  follows  :  Jlwwal,  (in  the  beginning) ; 
ma,  (indeed) ;  khalka,  (created) ;  Jlllah,  (God) ;  al-sama,  (the 
heaven)  ;  w'  al-arts,  (and  the  earth).  The  star,  is  the  character 
for  a  period.  The  Arabic  language  was  written  in  the  characters 
called  Cufic,  until  the  present  characters  called  neski  (or  copy  hand  ?) 
were  introduced  after  the  time  of  Mohamed.  The  Ethiopia,  or 
Abyssinian  language,  is  written  in  a  peculiar  character ;  but  resem- 
bles the  Arabic,  from  which  it  is  derived. 

The  Tartar  family  of  languages,  comprehends  the  Mongolian, 
spoken  throughout  the  greater  part  of  Chinese  Tartary  ;  the  Tungu- 
sian,  in  eastern  and  central  Siberia;  the  Turcoman,  or  Tartar  proper, 
in  Independent  Tartary  ;  and  the  Turkish,  which  is  the  chief  lan- 
guage of  both  Asiatic  and  European  Turkey.  The  Turkish  Lan- 
guage, has  borrowed  many  words  from  the  Persian  and  Arabic ; 
and  is  written  in  the  Arabic  characters,  from  right  to  left.  It  is  said 
to  be  full  in  its  construction,  but  meagre  in  original  words;  and 
sonorous,  though  somewhat  harsh  and  rough.  It  is  an  oriental 
proverb,  that  the  Arabic  language  persuades  ;  the  Persian  flatters  ; 
and  the  Turkish  reproves.  They  say  that  Adam  made  love  to  Eve 
in  Persian ;  the  serpent  tempted  her  in  Arabic ;  and  that  the 
Angel  spoke  Turkish,  when  he  drove  that  first  pair  out  of  Paradise. 

§  3.  The  Sanscrit  family  of  languages,  comprehends  those  of 
Persia,  Hindoostan,  Thibet,  and  Malaya;  and  perhaps  of  some  other 
parts  of  Chin  India.  For  a  knowledge  of  these  languages,  we  are 
much  indebted  to  the  labors  of  Sir  William  Jones  ;  who  accepted 
the  office  of  Chief  Justice,  at  Bengal,  in  order  to  have  better  op- 
portunities of  studying  them.  The  Zend  was  the  language  in  which 
Zoroaster  wrote  his  sacred  books,  called  the  Zend-avesta,  or  Living 


ORIENTAL    LANGUAGES.  53 

Word  :  and  the  Pehlvi  (or  Pehlevi)  was  the  common  language  of 
ancient  Persia:  both  being  closely  allied,  it  is  said,  to  the  Sanscrit. 
The  Guebres  or  Fire  Worshippers  spoke  the  Parsee  ;  which  also 
belongs  to  the  Sanscrit  family  ; — and  from  these  ancient  languages, 
the  modern  Persian  is  chiefly  derived.  It  contains,  however,  many 
Arabic  words,  introduced  by  the  Mohamedan  conquest ;  and  it  is 
written  in  Arabic  characters,  though  slightly  altered :  but  for  this 
reason,  unlike  the  remaining  languages  of  the  Sanscrit  family,  it  is 
written  from  right  to  left.  It  is  said  to  bear  much  resemblance  to  the 
German,  both  in  its  structure,  and  individual  words. 

The  Sanscrit  language  proper,  was  doubtless  once  spoken  in 
Hindoostan  ;  but  has  long  been  a  dead  language,  used  only  by  the 
Brahmins,  in  their  sacred  books  and  ceremonies.  Its  name  signifies 
perfect ;  and  the  Brahmins  also  call  it  Deva-Nagaree,  (or  Devu- 
nagari,)  signifying  the  divine  ;  as  they  declare  it  to  be  the  language 
of  the  gods.  Its  alphabet,  containing  fifty  characters,  is  given  in 
Plate  I.  No.  10  ;  reading  as  in  the  European  languages,  from  left 
to  right.  The  first  sixteen  characters  are  called  vowels,  though 
some  of  them  embrace  consonant  sounds :  and  they  are  arranged  in 
pairs, — a  short  and  a  long  vowel  together ;  with  a  slight  distinction 
in  the  characters.  Thus,  the  first  vowel,  u,  has  the  obscure  sound 
of  u  in  but,  or  a  in  America :  and  the  names  of  all  the  consonants 
are  formed  by  appending  this  sound  to  their  own,  when  in  combina- 
tion ;  as  ku,  khu,  gu,  ghu,  gnu,  and  so  of  the  rest. 

This  alphabet  has  been  said  to  comprise  all  the  fundamental  sounds 
of  all  the  European  languages ;  and  the  language  itself  has  been  said 
to  resemble  the  Greek,  so  much  that  Gibbon  suspected  it  to  have 
borrowed  therefrom :  though  we  think  it  more  probable  that  the 
Greeks  borrowed  from  the  Sanscrit.  The  reading  of  this  language, 
is  extremely  difficult;  owing  to  the  numerous  complex  characters, 
formed  by  uniting  two  or  more  letters,  in  one  character,  when  they 
occur  in  the  same  syllable.  The  number  of  these  compound  letters 
is  not  less  than  five  or  six  hundred  ;  though  they  resemble  the  letters 
from  which  they  are  derived.  In  the  specimen  of  a  Sanscrit  phrase, 
given  in  Plate  I.  No.  11, — jiigutung,  (of  the  worlds);  kurukuh, 
(the  maker");  Krishnuh,  (Krishnoo), — the  dot  over  the  third  letter, 
stands  for  the  vowel  ung  ;  the  two  dots  following,  for  the  vowel  uh  ; 
and  the  first  two  characters  in  the  third  word  are  the  compound  let- 
ters, kri  and  shnu  ;  the  straight  mark  at  the  end  being  the  mark  for 
a  period. 

The  Pracrit,  or  common  language  of  Hindoostan,  comprehends 
the  Hindostanee,  in  the  north  ;  the  Bengalee,  in  the  east ;  and  the 
Tamul,  including  the  Mahratta,  Carnara  and  Telinga,  in  the  south : 
all  of  these  dialects  being  derived  from  the  Sanscrit.  The  mixed 
languages  of  Ceylon,  and  the  region  around  the  Indus,  are  called  the 
Magadhi  or  Misra.  The  Bali,  which  resembles  the  Sanscrit,  is  the 
sacred  language  of  the  Boodhists  in  Ceylon,  Birmah,  and  Thibet ; 
and  is  written  in  peculiar,  quadrangular  characters.  The  Malay 
language,  which  is  derived  partly  from  the  Sanscrit,  though  written 
in  Arabic  characters,  has  been  called,  from  its  soft,  liquid  sounds,  the 

E2 


54  GLOSSOLOGY. 

Italian  of  the  East.  The  language  of  the  European  Gypsies  is  said 
to  differ  but  little  from  those  of  northern  India. 

§  4.  The  Chinese  Language,  is  by  far  the  most  important  of  the 
asyntactic,  or,  as  Adelung  terms  them,  monosyllabic  languages,  of  the 
east ;  and  it  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  languages  known.  The 
written  language,  according  to  De  Guignes  and  Morrison,  contains 
214  keys,  or  elementary  characters ;  from  which,  all  the  others,  more 
than  13,000  in  number,  are  derived.  These  keys  are  evidently  of 
hieroglyphic  origin ;  often  having  more  than  one  meaning,  and  some- 
times more  than  one  character :  and  each  of  them  represents  a  word, 
usually  of  one  syllable.  Of  the  specimens  given  in  Plate  L,  the 
characters  yih,  shih,  khow,  keuen,  jih,  yooh,  and  jin,  are  keys,  or 
elementary  characters ;  although  shih  would  seem  to  be  naturally  de- 
rived from  yih  ; — from  which  we  may  see  how  arbitrary  are  these 
distinctions.  Again,  we  observe  that  the  characters  khow,  the  mouth, 
and  keuen,  a  dog,  being  combined,  express  the  idea  of  barking; 
but  the  corresponding  word,  fey,  has  no  such  resemblance  to  these 
words,  as  the  compound  character  has  to  its  keys.  There  are  two 
different  characters  for  the  same  key,  keuen,  a  dog ;  and  these  two 
characters  combined,  express  the  next  word  in  the  plate,  hiat  straight 
or  narrow  ;  showing  also  how  arbitrary  are  some  of  the  derivations. 

While  the  written  language  of  the  Chinese  is  said  to  be  very  rich 
in  combinations,  the  spoken  language  appears  to  be  extremely  barren. 
Thus,  according  to  De  Guignes,  there  are  five  different  characters, 
each  pronounced  ho  ;  eight,  pronounced  ho  ;  seven,  pronounced  ho; 
nine,  pronounced  ho  ;  and  seventy  characters,  each  pronounced  ho  ; 
making  in  all  99  characters,  having  the  same  pronunciation,  varied 
only  by  the  accent ;  and  nearly  all  of  them  having  widely  different 
significations.  To  designate  proper  names,  the  Chinese  select  cer- 
tain characters,  called  Hing-ching,  which  they  use  phonetically,  as 
representing  certain  sounds :  and  the  characters  belonging  to  one 
name,  are,  it  is  said,  sometimes  written  in  a  cartouche,  as  in  the 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics.  The  Chinese  write  their  words  in  columns, 
from  the  top  to  the  bottom  of  the  page;  beginning  on  the  right  side.* 

Many  scholars  have  supposed  the  Chinese  characters  to  be  ideo- 
graphic, representing  ideas  independently  of  sounds ;  but  Mr.  Du- 
ponceau  has  shown,  we  think  conclusively,  that  they  are  lexigraphic; 
each  representing  a  word,  by  means  of  its  pronunciation  ;  as  much 
as  do  the  European  languages.  The  other  languages  of  this  family, 
are  the  Cochin  Chinese,  Tonquinese,  Japanese,  and  other  minor 
dialects.  The  Cochin  Chinese  use  many  of  the  Chinese  characters  ; 
but  often  to  express  different  words,  both  as  regards  the  sense,  and 
the  pronunciation.  The  Japanese  language  is  said  to  use  a  select 
number  of  the  Chinese  characters,  introduced  in  the  year  733,  but 
applied  to  the  original  Japanese  words  ;  which  are  as  different  from 
the  Chinese,  as  English  words  are  from  French  ;  though  both  written 
with  the  same  character. 

*  The  last  column  of  Chinese  characters,  on  the  left  side  of  Plate  I.  (No.  13), 
is  the  inscription  on  the  tablets  at  the  door  of  the  Chinese  Museum,  in  Philadelphia. 
For  the  honor  of  possessing  this  splendid  collection,  our  city  and  country  are  indebted 
to  the  liberality  of  one  of  their  most  enterprising  and  patriotic  merchants ;  Mr.  Dunn. 


PLATE   II.     GLOSSOLOGY. 


EGYPTIAN. 


Alphabet. 


4.  Coptic. 


I7=>1 


r ,  A 

.E 

GT21    ff  .    El 
^    <^      K 


a  JLJ 


J  .N 


.w 


Jo  liJo.D 


ARABIC. 

c>  a  o  .D 

J  d  O  -Dh 
.R 


5. 


.£** 


A.Gh 


A^J  -F 
-K 


c/c/c/'2 


ju>  uu>  .Sh 


-J 


C->  A  J  .T 
OrX  J  .Th 


{J  J      •'         Sfi.        yvo.-^w/  ^     •  ** 

^A>    J^J     (Genesis  i.  1.)     .  9 


SANSCRIT. 


Th  .    "ST 
D    .   Cx 
Dh  .  ~&[ 
N    .   rT 

p   .TT 

Ph  .  TR 

B  .  cf 
Bh  .  >f 
M  .  IT 


Y    .ZT 

R    .T 

L     .  Cl 


Sh  . 

s    . 

H    . 

Ksh. 


13. 


A 


CHINESE. 


Wan, 
10,000. 

Tang, 
China. 

Jin, 
Man. 

Wuh, 
Things. 


H 


Jih, 
The  Sun. 

Yooh, 

The  Moon. 


H14  Ming, 
/j 


Light. 

Tan, 
Morning. 

Engraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


P 


Kh.nv, 
Mouth. 

Keuen, 


J  Fey, 
Barking. 

Hia, 

Narrow. 


12. 
Yih, 
One,  4-c. 

Shih, 
Ten,  SfC. 

Tsien, 
1000. 

T'hien, 
Heaven. 


EUROPEAN   LANGUAGES.  55 

CHAPTER  III. 

EUROPEAN    LANGUAGES. 

THE  European  Languages  may  be  classed  in  the  four  families  of 
Pelasgic,  Gothic,  Celtic,  and  Sclavonic  ;  the  former  belonging  to 
Southern  Europe,  the  three  latter  to  Central  and  Northern.  The 
Pelasgic  family,  includes  the  languages  of  ancient  and  modern 
Greece  and  Rome ;  with  those  derived  from  them  :  while  the  chief 
tongues  of  the  Gothic  family,  are  the  English  and  German  : — and 
these  two  families,  the  Pelasgic  and  Gothic,  are  much  the  most  im- 
portant, of  all  modern  languages,  to  the  civilized  world.  Except  the 
Greek  and  Latin,  they  are  languages  which  were  formed  during  the 
middle  ages  of  history  ;  that  period  which  produced  the  nations  of 
modern  Europe,  partly  from  the  wreck  of  the  Roman  Empire. 

There  is  no  doubt  that  all  the  European  languages  are  of  Asiatic 
origin  ;  and  the  comparison  of  them  with  the  more  ancient  languages, 
has  been  a  problem  of  deep  interest  to  the  philologist.  Thus,  the 
Greek,  may  be  traced  to  the  Phcenician,  and  Egyptian ;  the  Latin, 
to  the  Phoenician  and  Greek; — while  the  Italian,  Spanish,  and 
French,  are  immediately  derived  from  the  Latin ;  of  course  with  an 
intermixture  of  Gothic  words.  The  languages  of  Central  and 
Northern  Europe  probably  came  from  the  central  and  northern  parts 
of  Asia  ;  but  doubtless  from  various  sources,  so  intermingled,  that 
their  exact  origin  cannot  now  be  ascertained.  Most  of  the  Euro- 
pean languages  are  highly  syntactic  ;  changing  the  forms  of  words, 
to  express  variations  of  number,  person,  relation,  intensity,  time  and 
mode,  in  nouns,  adjectives  and  verbs.  Our  own  language  is,  per- 
haps, the  least  variable,  in  these  respects,  among  them  all. 

We  proceed  to  speak  briefly  of  the  European  languages,  in  the  order 
of  Classification  above  proposed. 

§  1.  The  Pelasgic  family  of  languages,  includes  the  Greek;  the 
Romaic  or  Modern  Greek ;  the  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
and  French  languages;  with  the  subordinate  dialects.  The  Pelas- 
gians  were  the  oldest  inhabitants  of  Greece  :  and  received  their  name 
from  Pelasgus,  one  of  their  leaders.  With  them,  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages  both  originated ;  and  from  these,  all  the  others,  of 
this  family,  have  been  derived. 

The  Greek  language,  is  emphatically  that  of  ancient  poetry  and 
philosophy.  It  is  remarkable  for  its  copiousness  and  strength  ;  and 
for  the  ease  with  which  its  words  may  be  united,  to  form  compounds. 
Though  derived  immediately  from  the  Egyptian  and  Phcenician,  it 
is  said  to  have  much  affinity  to  the  Sanscrit,  both  in  individual  words, 
and  grammatical  forms.  Its  earliest  alphabet,  that  introduced  by  Cad- 
mus, as  already  mentioned,  (p.  41),  was  the  old  Phoenician,  contain- 
ing only  15  letters;  to  which  Y  was  soon  after  added.  Four  more 
letters,  z,  e,  <i>,  and  x  are  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Palamedes, 
during  the  Trojan  war;  and  the  remaining  four,  H,  H,  ¥  and  ft  were 
added  by  Simonides,  about  the  time  of  the  Persian  war,  or  490  B.  C. 


56  GLOSSOLOGY. 

The  alphabet,  thus  completed,  was  first  adopted  by  the  lonians  ; 
hence  sometimes  called  the  Ionic  alphabet.  The  loniaus  first  intro- 
duced the  mode  of  writing  from  left  to  right,  about  450  B.  C. :  pre- 
viously to  which,  the  Semitic,  or  inverse  order  prevailed  ;  or  else  the 
method  called  boustrophedon,  alternately  from  right  to  left,  and  left 
to  right.  The  shape  of  the  letters  having  been  changed,  from  the 
original  uncial  characters,  the  following  is  the  Greek  Alphabet, 
with  the  name  and  sound  of  each  letter,  and  its  numerical  power: 


1. 

2. 

A,*, 

B,  &, 

£ 

Alpha, 
Beta, 

a  in  far  or  fat. 
b. 

50. 
60. 

N, 

V, 

1, 

Nu, 
Xi, 

n. 

x,  ks,  or  gz. 

3. 

£ 

Gamma, 

g  hard. 

70. 

u, 

Omicron, 

o  short. 

4. 

A,  i\ 

Delta, 

d. 

80. 

n, 

-or,  ?r, 

Pi, 

P- 

5. 

Epsilon, 

e  short. 

100. 

p, 

P'  £> 

Rho, 

r. 

7. 

z,'?, 

f, 

Zeta, 

z. 

200. 

X, 

<r,  f, 

Sigma, 

8. 

8. 

H,  », 

Eta, 

e  as  in  vein. 

300. 

T, 

T,7, 

Tau, 

t. 

9. 

6, 

Theta, 

th. 

400. 

r, 

Upsilon, 

u  long  or  short. 

10. 
20. 

K,  *, 

Iota, 
Kappa, 

i  in  pique  or  pin. 
k. 

500. 
600. 

x', 

Jf 

Phi, 
Chi, 

ph. 
ch  or  kh. 

30. 

A,  X. 

Lambda, 

I. 

700. 

^  > 

ih 

Psi, 

ps. 

40. 

Mu, 

m. 

800. 

a,  », 

Omega, 

o  long. 

The  letter  h  is  expressed  by  the  aspirate  (•),  as  in  fyiwv,  of  us  ; 
,be  hallowed;  us,  as;  ptaaijead.  To  complete  the  series 
of  numerals,  the  Greeks  used  (r),  a  character  called  episemon  for  6; 
(2,  or  q),  koppa,  for  90  ;  and  (©)  sanpi,  for  900.  The  following  is  the 
Lord's  prayer  in  Greek,  as  given  by  St.  Matthew.  (Ch.  vi.  9  —  13.) 

IIATHP  f]iiu>v  b  tv  TOIS  ovpavoif  ayiaaOrjro)  TO  ovo^a  crov.  EXfcrw  f\  @aoi\eia  arnv.  Tsvt}- 
Sijrw  TO  6e\r)ni  aov,  wj  tv  ovpavu,  Kai  eiri  TIJJ  ^175.  Tov  aprov  fin&v  TOV  ciriovviov  Sog  fi(iiv 
urifiepov.  Kat  a<f>es  f]i*tv  ra  o^etXij/^ara  ^//wj/,  w?  KCLI  f)i.'.£is  a^ie^cv  TOIS  oQciXerais  nn&v. 
Kat  IITJ  £io£V£yicns  fjpas  ei>  ireipafffiuv,  aXXa  pvaai  fi^as  airo  TOV  novripov.  On  aov  eanv  $ 
/?a<r(X£ta,  Kai  ft  Swa/jus,  /cat  fi  tio%a,  eij  TOVS  aiiovas. 


The  signification  of  some  of  the  words  in  this  specimen  of  the 
Greek  language,  is  as  follows:  rtar^p,  father:  »}/u3y,  of  us,  (from 
j^uctj,  we  )  :  6,  (the  definite  article  used  as  a  relative)  :  tv,  in  :  -toi$ 
oupavotj,  the  heavens,  (from  6  otpavoj,  the  heaven)  :  ayiaaeytu,  let  it  be 
hallowed,  (from  dye,o$,  holy  ;  and  ayta£<o,  I  make  holy)  :  -to  ovo^a, 
the  name,  (to  being  the  neuter  gender  of  the  article)  :  oov,  of  thee, 
(from  ffv,  thou).  Exfo-r'cd,  let  it  come,  (from  fp^opu,  I  come)  :  % 
/3aoa.fia,  the  kingdom,  (^  being  the  feminine  form  of  the  article). 
Tfi'TjfljjT'to,  let  it  be  done,  (from  yivopai,  I  become)  :  -to  fox^a,  the 
will:  tbj,  as:  xat,  and,  or  also  :  tTti,  upon:  T^J  y^j,  the  earth,  (srtt, 
requiring  the  genitive  or  possessive  case  of  %  yq,  the  earth).  Tov 
the  bread,  (the  objective  or  accusative  case  of  .o  aptoj,  the  bread)  : 
,  daily,  or  suitable,  (agreeing  with  ap-r-o^)  :  fioj,  give,  (from 
I  give)  :  ^tv,  to  us,  (the  dative  case  of  ^si?)  :  o^/tfpoy,  to- 
day. We  have  no  room  here,  interesting  though  it  may  be,  to  pur- 
sue the  subject  farther. 

Of  the  dialects  of  the  Greek  language,  the  Doric,  spoken  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  is  the  oldest,  and  most  harsh  ;  the  JEolic,  spoken  in 
Greece  north  of  the  Isthmus,  and  in  JSolis  of  Asia  Minor,  resembles 
the  Doric,  but  is  smoother,  and  more  like  the  Latin  language  ;  while 
the  Ionic,  spoken  chiefly  in  Ionia,  and  the  neighboring  islands,  is 
more  soft  and  flowing;  and  the  Attic,  confined  to  Athens,  and  its 


EUROPEAN    LANGUAGES.  57 

neighborhood,  was  the  latest,  and  most  refined  of  them  all.  The 
Modern  Greek,  sometimes  called  the  Romaic,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
dialect  of  the  ancient  Greek,  in  which  the  terminations  are  abbre- 
viated and  simplified. 

The  Latin  language,  was  that  of  ancient  Rome  ;  and  received 
its  name  from  the  Latins,  who  inhabited  that  region,  before  Rome  was 
founded.  It  was  not  matured  till  after  the  Laws  of  the  Twelve 
Tables,  or  451  B.  C.  It  resembles  the  Greek,  not  only  from  its 
Pelasgian  origin,  but  from  the  introduction  of  Greek  words,  by  the 
later  Greek  colonists,  and  emigrants.  The  Latin  became  corrupted 
among  the  common  people  of  Italy  about  the  year  581,  owing  to  the 
northern  invasions ;  but  in  the  Middle  Ages,  it  was  the  common 
language  of  learned  men  throughout  Europe  ;  being  the  only  one  in 
which  they  could  be  understood  beyond  the  limits  of  their  own 
country ;  so  little  were  the  present  languages  known  or  cultivated. 
In  England,  the  Latin  was  exclusively  used  in  the  Courts  of  Jus- 
tice, until  A.  D.  1362 ;  when  Edward  III.,  as  a  favor  to  his  subjects, 
permitted  them  to  be  heard  in  their  own  tongue,  much  less  refined, 
of  course,  than  it  now  is. 

The  Latin  alphabet  is  the  same  as  our  own ;  which  is  borrowed 
from  it,  except  that  the  Latin  has  no  letter  w.  We  think  it  clear,  that 
the  Continental  pronunciation  of  the  vowels,  is  more  likely  to  be  that 
of  the  ancient  Romans,  than  the  English  pronunciation,  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  itself.  We  would  therefore,  in  reading  Latin,  pronounce  a  as 
in.  far  or  fat :  e  as  in  vein  or  met :  i  as  in  pique  or  pin :  o  as  in  note 
or  not :  u  as  in  tune  or  tun  :  y  when  a  vowel  like  i.:  ei  and  the  Greek 
«,  like  our  long  i,  as  in  pine :  au  and  the  Greek  av,  like  our  ow  in 
now :  and  ow,  or  the  Greek  ov,  like  our  ou  in  tour,  or  oo  in  moon. 
The  Latin  language  is  remarkable,  among  others,  for  what  seems 
to  us  an  inversion  of  the  natural  order  of  words  ;  as  in  pater  noster, 
father  our,  instead  of  our  father ;  but  whether  the  former  is  not  the 
real  natural  order,  if  such  an  one  there  be,  we  are  not  impartial 
judges  to  decide. 

It  may  perhaps  be  interesting  here  to  give  some  specimens  of  the 
manner  in  which  Latin  words  are  varied  ;  particularly  in  the  declen- 
sion of  nouns  and  adjectives,  and  the  conjugation  of  verbs.  Domi- 
nus,  signifies,  the  Lord,  or  a  lord  ;  domini,  of  a  lord,  or  of  the  lord  ; 
domino,  to  the  lord  ;  dominum,  the  lord  ;  domine,  Oh  lord ! ;  and 
domino,  from  or  by  a  lord  or  the  lord :  this  language  having  no  article. 
The  six  cases  of  Latin  nouns,  here  given  in  order,  are  called  the 
nominative  ;  the  genitive  or  possessive  ;  the  dative  ;  the  accusative  or 
objective;  the  vocative;  and  the  ablative.  In  the  plural,  we  have 
domini,  the  lords,  or  Oh  lords  !  ;  dominorum,  of  the  lords  ;  dominis, 
to,  from,  or  by  the  lords  ;  and  dominos,  the  lords ;  this  latter  being 
the  accusative  case.  Magnus  dominus,  signifies  the  great  lord  ; 
magna  terra,  the  great  earth  ;  magnum  regnum,  a  or  the  great  king- 
dom. Esse,  is  the  verb  to  be  ;  sum  or  ego  sum,  I  am ;  es,  or  tu  es, 
thou  art;  est  or  i/le  est,  he  is  :  sumus,  we  are  ;  estis,  ye  or  you  are  ; 
sunt,  they  are.  Eram,  signifies  I  was  ;  fui,  I  was  or  I  have  been ; 
fueram,  I  had  been ;  ero,  I  shall  be ;  sim,  I  may  be  ;  essem,  I  might 
be  ;  fuerim,  I  may  have  been  ;  fuissem,  I  might  have  been  ;  fuero, 
8 


58  GLOSSOLOGY. 

I  shall  have  been  ;  es  or  esto,  be  thou  -,fuisse,  to  have  been  ',  futurus, 
about  to  be.  Creare,  to  create,  in  like  manner  forms  creo,  I  create  ; 
creavi,  I  have  created ;  creabo,  I  shall  or  will  create ;  creem,  I  may 
create ;  c.reari,  to  be  created :  and  numerous  other  parts.  The  fol- 
lowing is  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Latin;  by  the  first  two  words  of  which 
it  is  often  designated. 

Pater  noster,  qui  es  in  coelis,  sanctificetur  nomen  tuum :  adveniat 
regnum  tuum  :  fiat  voluntas  tua,  sicut  in  coelo  et  in  terra  :  panem 
nostrum  quotidianum  da  nobis  hodie :  et  remitte  nobis  dcbita  nos- 
tra,  sicut  et  nos  remittimus  debitoribus  nostris  et  ne  nos  inducas 
in  tentationem,  sed  libera  nos  a  malo :  quia  tuum  est  regnum  et 
potentia  et  gloria,  in  secula.  »flmen. 

The  signification  of  these  words  is  as  follows.  Pater,  father :  nos- 
ter, our :  qui,  who :  es,  art;  (from  the  verb  esse,  to  be):  in,  in  :  coelis, 
the  heavens;  (from  coelum,  heaven):  sanctificetur,  may  it  be  hal- 
lowed; (from  sanctifico,  I  make  holy,  and  this  from  sanctus,  holy) : 
nomen,  name :  tuum,  thy;  (neuter  gender  of  tuus,  thy),  jldveniat,  may 
it  come;  (from  advenio,  I  approach):  regnum,  kingdom :  ^af,  let 
it  be  done;  (homjio,  I  become;  Jit,  it  becomes,  or  it  is  done) :  vo- 
luntas, will;  (a  noun  of  the  feminine  gender) :  sicut,  as  :  et,  and  or 
also.  Panem,  bread  ;  (ace.  case  of  panis):  quotidianum,  daily  :  da, 
give;  (from  do,  I  give):  nobis,  to  us;  (dative  case  of  nos,  we)  :  ho- 
die, this  day.  Remitte,  remit;  (from  remitto,  I  send  back) :  debita, 
debts;  (from  debitum,  a  debt) :  ne,  not:  inducas,  mayst  thou  lead; 
(from  induco,  I  lead) :  tentatio,  temptation  :  sed,  but :  libera,  liberate  ; 
(from  libero,  I  liberate):  a,  from  :  malum,  evil :  quia,  because  :  po- 
tentia, power  :  gloria,  glory  :  in  secula,  for  ages,  or  forever. 

The  Italian  language,  is  derived  immediately  from  the  Latin ;  dif- 
fering from  it  in  the  introduction  of  a  few  Gothic  words,  but  chiefly 
in  abbreviating  the  terminations  of  words,  and  using  short  auxiliary 
words,  to  supply  their  place.  The  Italic  or  sloping  characters,  which 
we  occasionally  use,  are  evidently  a  slight  modification  of  the  Roman. 
This  language  was  for  ages  a  mere  corruption  of  the  Latin,  and  called 
by  the  learned,  "  the  vulgar  tongue."  Sismondi  dates  its  origin  at 
about  1 140  ;  under  Roger  I.  of  Sicily.  Spinello's  History,  commenced 
in  1247,  was  the  first  learned  work  in  Italian  prose;  and  the  Divina 
Comedia  of  Dante,  written  about  1300,  stamped  the  language  with 
character  and  permanency.  This  work  gave  a  predominance  to  the 
Tuscan  dialect ;  though  it  is  more  guttural  than  the  others.  It  is, 
however,  spoken  the  most  accurately  at  Rome  ;  as  implied  by  the  pro- 
verb, "  Lingua  Toscana  in  bocca  Pomana:"  or  the  Tuscan  tongue 
in  a  Roman  mouth,  the  beau  ideal  of  Italian.  This  language  abounds 
in  vowels  and  liquids ;  is  soft  and  smooth,  and  admirably  suited  for 
music,  poetry,  and  improvisation. 

The  Italians  pronounce  the  vowels  as  we  have  mentioned  for  the 
Latin,  except  u,  which  they  pronounce  like  our  oo  in  moon.  They 
pronounce  c  before  e,  and  i,  like  our  ch  in  charm;  cc  like  t,ch  ;  and 
ch,  like  k.  They  pronounce  g  before  e  ;  and  i,  like  ourj;  £g,  like 
dj  ;  gh,  like  g  hard ;  and  /*,  in  Italian,  is  always  silent.  They  use 
j,  only  as  a  vowel,  instead  of  i  or  ii ;  and  the  letters  k,  w,  x,  and  y, 
are  not  found  in  their  language.  They  pronounce  z  like  dz  or  tz, 


EUROPEAN    LANGUAGES.  59 

and  zz  also  like  tz.  The  letters  gl,  and  gn,  have  often  a  liquid 
sound  in  Italian;  like  the  Hi  in  our  word  billion,  or  the  ni  in  pinion  ; 
as  in  egli,  he,  pronounced  ail-ye  ;  and  ogni,  every  or  all,  pronounced 
own-ye.  This  language  is  remarkable  for  the  manner  in  which  the 
prepositions  are  united  with  the  articles ;  and  the  pronouns  with  the 
verbs,  when  they  come  together ;  forming  as  it  were  a  single  word. 
Thus  the  prepositions  di,  of;  da,  from  ;  a,  to ;  and  per,  through  or 
by ;  united  with  the  article  lo,  the  ;  form  the  compounds  de'llo,  ddllo, 
dllo,  and  pe.Uo;  as  in  deW  amore,  of  the  love.  Again,  instead  of 
io  ti  favello,  I  speak  to  thee,  the  Italians  may  sayfavelloli:  and  as 
the  word  gli  signifies  to  him,  they  may  say  dicevagli,  instead  of  ei 
gli  diceva,  he  said  to  him. 

The  following  is  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Italian ;  which  will  doubt- 
less be  understood  from  what  has  already  been  said  ;  at  least  by  com- 
paring it  with  the  Latin. 

Padre  nostro,  che  sei  nel  cielo,  sia  sanctificato  il  tuo  nome :  il  tuo 
rcgno  venga,  la  tua  volonta  sia  fatta  siccome  in  cielo  cosi  anche  in 
terra;  dacci  oggi  il  nostro  pane  cotidiano:  e  rimettici  i  nostra  debiti, 
siccome  noi  ancora  rimettiamo  a  nostri  debitori :  e  non  inducici  in  ten- 
tazione,  ma  liberaci  dal  male  ;  percioche  tuo  e  il  regno,  e  la  potenza, 
e  la  gloria,  in  sempiterno.  Jimen. 

The  Wallachian  language  is  a  mere  corruption  of  the  Latin  :  and 
an  impure  Latin  is  still  spoken  in  some  parts  of  Hungary.  The 
Sicilian,  Sardinian,  and  Corsican  dialects  are  very  slight  modifications 
of  the  Italian. 

The  Spanish  language,  is  called  by  the  Spaniards,  La  Lengua 
Castellana ;  because  it  was  matured,  and  spoken  in  its  greatest 
purity,  in  the  kingdom  of  Castile.  It  is  derived  from  the  Phoenician 
of  the  early  colonists,  and  of  the  Carthaginian  conquerors,  mingled 
with  the  Latin  of  the  Romans  ;  from  which  and  the  language  of  the 
Visigoths,  a  Romance  language  was  formed,  in  Spain,  as  early  as 
A.  D.  623.  This  Romance  tongue,  with  some  Arabic  words  from 
the  Moors,  forms  the  basis  of  the  Castilian  tongue,  which,  according 
to  Sismondi,  dates  back  to  1050  ;  under  Ferdinand  the  Great.  The 
laws,  and  documents  of  Spain,  were  written  in  Latin,  till  1252  ;  when 
Alphonso  X.  published  Las  Partidas,  a  code  of  laws,  in  Spanish. 
This  language  abounds  in  full  sounding  vowels  ;  though  mingled 
with  Arabic  and  Gothic  palatals  and  gutturals:  and,  from  its  solemnity 
and  dignity,  it  has  been  termed  "  the  language  of  the  gods."  The 
Spanish  alphabet,  is  the  same  as  ours  ;  only  wanting  the  letter  w. 
The  Spaniards  pronounce  the  vowels,  as  we  have  mentioned  for  the 
Latin:  but  c  before  e,  i,  and  y,  they  pronounce  like  our  th  ;  ch,  as  in 
English,  in  charrn  ;  gu,  when  without  a  diaresis,  like  g  hard  ;  g  be- 
fore e,  i,  and  y,  like  h  ;  and  j  always  like  our  h;  while  h  itself  is 
always  silent.  They  pronounce  //  like  our  Hi  in  billion  ;  and  n,  with 
a  tilde  over  it,  like  ni  in  pinion  :  these  sounds  being  called  liquid  ; 
and  also  found  in  the  Italian.  They  pronounce  x,  where  it  comes 
before  a  vowel  with  no  circumflex  accent,  like  h ;  and  z  they  always 
sound  like  our  th. 

The  Lord's  Prayer  in  Spanish,  is  here  annexed,  to  show  the  close 
connexion  between  this  language  and  the  Italian  and  Latin. 


60  GLOSSOLOGY. 

Padre  nueslro  que  estas  en  el  cielo,  sanctificado  sea  el  tu  nombrc; 
venga  el  tu  reino  ;  hagare  tu  voluntad,  asi  en  la  tierra  como  en  el  ciclo : 
el  pan  nuestro  de  cada  dia  danos  hoy;  y  perdonanos  nitestras  deu- 
das,  asi  como  nosotros  peraonamos  a  nuestros  deudores ;  y  no  nos 
dejes  cacr  en  la  tcntadon,  mas  libranos  de  mal:  porque  tuo  es  el  reino, 
y  lapotencia,  y  la  gloria,  por  los  siglos.  Jimen. 

The  Portuguese  language  is  the  Galician  dialect  of  the  old 
Spanish  Romance  language,  with  slight  modifications.  It  became  the 
language  of  Portugal  from  the  date  of  its  independence,  under 
Alphonso  I,  A.  D.  1139  ; — -or,  according  to  Sismondi,  as  early  as  the 
year  1100,  under  Count  Henry.  The  delicacy  and  richness  of  its 
songs,  has  given  it  the  name  of  i\\efloiver  language.  Its  literature 
is  of  minor  importance ;  but  it  is  the  language  also  of  Brazil,  and  of 
some  parts  of  India  and  Africa ;  and  hence  it  is  of  considerable 
interest  to  the  commercial  world.  The  Lord's  Prayer  in  Portu- 
guese, commences  as  follows :  Padre  nosso,  que  estas  nos  ceos, 
sanctificado  scio  o  tu  nome ;  venha  tuo  regno;  sciafeita  a  tua  votade, 
assi  nos  ceos,  como  na  terra.  From  this  specimen,  its  close  resem- 
blance to  the  preceding  languages  may  easily  be  traced. 

The  French  language,  is  founded  on  the  Celtic,  the  language  of 
the  Gauls ;  but  consists  chiefly  of  abbreviated  Latin  words,  intro- 
duced by  the  Roman  Conquest,  and  by  the  subsequent  use  of  the 
Latin  language  among  the  learned.  By  the  mixture  of  the  Latin, 
with  the  Celtic  and  Gothic  dialects,  two  distinct  Jtomance  languages, 
so  called,  were  formed ; — the  Southern  or  Provencal,  called  the 
Langue  d'Oc,  in  which  the  word  oc  signified  yes  ;  and  the  Northern 
or  Langue  d'Oui,  or,  d'Oil,  in  which  yes  was  expressed  by  the 
word  oui.  The  former,  according  to  Sismondi,  originated  at  the 
court  of  Bozon,  king  of  Aries,  in  880 ;  and  the  latter,  called  also  tho 
Romance  Wallon,  at  the  court  of  William  Longue  Epee,  of  Nor- 
mandy, in  930.  The  Provencal  was  the  language  of  the  troubadours  ; 
and  is  still  spoken  by  the  common  people  in  the  South  of  France 
and  east  of  Spain ;  bearing,  as  it  does,  a  resemblance  to  the  Spanish. 
But  when  Paris  became  the  French  capital,  the  northern  dialect  pre- 
vailed, and  took  the  national  name ;  though  less  poetical  than  the 
Provencal,  and  abounding  in  obscurely  sounded  vowels.  The  French 
is  a  language  rather  for  oratory,  than  poetry ;  and,  under  the  French 
Academy,  it  has  acquired  so  much  precision,  with  its  vivacity,  as  to 
have  elicited  Voltaire's  remark  that  "  whatever  is  not  clear,  is  not 
French."  It  became  the  language  of  courts  of  justice,  in  place  of 
the  Latin,  in  1539,  under  Francis  I. :  and  it  is,  perhaps,  the  most 
common  language  of  European  diplomacy ;  owing  partly  to  the  efforts 
made  by  the  French  to  give  it  universal  currency.  Next  to  our  own 
language,  it  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  to  us,  for  all  the  purposes  of 
information  and  communication. 

The  French  alphabet,  differs  from  ours,  only  in  wanting  the  letter 
w.  The  simple  vowels  in  it  are  pronounced  as  we  have  mentioned 
under  the  Latin,  (p.  57),  except  u,  which  has  a  sound  compounded  of 
pur  short  i  and  long  u.  The  vowel  e,  has  often  an  obscure  sound,  as 
in  our  word  father,  particularly  at  the  end  of  monosyllables;  which, 


EUROPEAN    LANGUAGES.  61 

in  pronunciation,  are  therefore  joined  to  the  following  word.  The 
French  have  a  peculiar  class  of  sounds,  called  nasal;  expressed  by 
one  or  more  vowels  prefixed  to  m  or  n  ;  these  last  letters  being,  as  it 
were,  only  half  pronounced ;  and  partly  through  the  nose.  Thus, 
am  and  an,  em  and  en,  have  the  vowel  sound  of  a  in  far  ,•  aim,  ain, 
ein,  im,  in,  ym,  and  yn,  have  the  sound  of  a  in  fat ;  om,  on,  and  eon, 
the  sound  of  o  in  on  ;  and  um,  un,  and  eun,  the  sound  of  u  in  dun  ; 
but  all  ending  with  the  peculiar  nasal  sound.  The  diphthong  oi  has 
the  sound  of  waw  in  English,  as  in  the  word  loi,  law,  pronounced 
Iwaw.  The  French  pronounce,  ai  and  ei  like  a  in  fate  ;  ou  like  oo 
in  moon ;  au,  and  eau  like  o  in  note :  and  to  eu  they  give  a  peculiar 
sound,  between  that  of  ew  in  few,  and  u  in  fur.  They  sometimes 
pronounce  9,  before  a,  o,  and  u,  like  s,  always  in  these  cases  writing 
a  cedilla  underneath  it;  ch,  they  pronounce  like  sh,  except  in  words 
from  the  Greek  ;  g  soft,  andj  like  zh  or  s  in  pleasure  ;  gn,  and  some- 
times /  at  the  end  of  syllables,  liquid,  as  in  the  Spanish ;  qu  often  like 
k;  r  with  a  strong  aspirate  sound;  th  like  t ;  and  x  sometimes  like 
s  or  z :  while  final  consonants  are  often  silent. 

The  French  articles  un,  a  or  an,  and  le,  the,  become  line,  and  la, 
before  nouns  in  the  feminine  gender ;  and  the  latter  becomes  /',  (/, 
with  an  apostrophe),  before  a  vowel ;  and  les  in  the  plural.  The 
prepositions  de,  of,  and  a,  to,  coalesce  with  the  articles,  in  some  of 
their  forms;  as  in  the  Italian.  The  adjectives,  change  their  termina- 
tions, for  the  feminine,  and  the  plural ;  as  un  bon  homme,  a  good 
man ;  une  bonne  femme,  a  good  woman  ;  les  bons  gar$ons,  the  good 
boys ;  les  bonnes  filles,  the  good  girls.  As  examples  of  the  pro- 
nouns and  verbs,  we  may  present  the  following.  Eire,  to  be  ;  etant, 
being :  je  suis,  I  am  ;  tu  est,  thou  art ;  il  est,  he  is ;  nous  sommes, 
we  are  ;  vous  etes,  you  are  ;  Us  sont,  they  are.  J'etais  or  je  fus, 
I  was  ;  fai  ete,  I  have  been  ;  f  avals  ete  or  feus  ete,  I  had  been ; 
je  serai,  I  shall  be ;  je  serais,  I  should  be ;  sois,  be  thou ;  que  je 
sois,  that  I  may  be  ;  que  jefusse,  that  I  might  be  ;  que  j'ai  ete,  that 
I  may  have  been  ;  and  quej'euse  ete,  that  I  might  have  been. 

The  following  is  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  French ;  from  which  it  will 
be  seen  that  this  language,  like  our  own,  is  highly  analytic  ;  express- 
ing by  particles,  or  separate  words,  those  modifications,  which  the 
Greek  and  Latin  express  chiefly  by  terminations. 

Notre  pere  qui  etes  dans  les  deux,  que  votre  nom  soit  sanctifie : 
que  votre  regne  arrive :  que  votre  volonte  soit  faite  en  la  terre, 
comme  dans  le  del:  donnez  nous  aujourd'hui  notre  pain  de  chaque 
jour  ;  et  pardonnez  nous  nos  offenses,  comme  nous  pardonnons  a 
ceux  qui  nous  ont  offenses  ;  et  ne  nous  abandonnez  pas  a  la  tenta- 
tion,  mais  delivrez  nous  du  mal:  parcequ1  a  toi  est  le  regne,  et  le 
pouvoir,  et  le  gloire,  a  tous  les  siecles.  Amen.  Its  correspondence 
with  our  own  version,  will  easily  be  perceived,  by  a  comparison  of 
the  words.  The  Basque,  language,  is  a  peculiar  one,  spoken  by  the 
Gascons,  in  the  S.  W.  of  France ;  and  supposed  to  have  come  from 
the  Cantabri,  or  Biscayans,  who  once  inhabited  the  north-eastern  part 
of  Spain. 

§  2.  The  Gothic  Family  of  languages,  includes  the  English,  Ger- 
man, Dutch,  Danish,  Swedish,  and  Icelandic  languages  ;  with  some 

F 


(J2  GLOSSOLOGY. 

minor  dialects.  These  are  also  called  Teutonic  ;  from  the  Teutones, 
who  migrated  south  from  the  Danish  islands,  and  claimed  descent 
from  Tuiscon  or  Thuisco,  an  ancient  god  or  hero.  The  term  Teu- 
tonic, is  also  sometimes  applied  to  a  supposed  ancient  language,  from 
which  those  of  this  family  are  said  to  have  been  derived.  The  Runic 
alphabet,  containing  16  characters,  some  vestiges  of  which  are  sup- 
posed to  have  been  found  in  America,  as  proofs  of  its  discovery  by 
the  Northmen,  appears  to  have  been  used  by  the  Scandinavians,  and 
Germans,  from  A.  D.  1200,  or  earlier,  to  about  1449. 

The  English  language,  clearly  belongs  to  the  Gothic  family  ;  both 
from  its  grammatical  construction,  and  the  origin  of  a  large  majority 
of  its  words.  As  England  was  originally  inhabited  by  the  Celts 
or  Gaels ;  then  passed  for  a  time  under  the  Roman  yoke ;  was 
next  overrun  by  the  Saxons  from  Germany  ;  subjugated  afterwards 
by  the  Danes,  whose  language  was  like  the  Saxon  ;  and  finally  con- 
quered by  the  Normans,  from  the  northern  part  of  France  :  our 
language,  therefore  consists  chiefly  of  Teutonic  or  German  words 
from  the  Saxons  ;  mingled  with  a  few  Celtic  words  from  the  abori- 
gines; with  still  more  of  Latin  from  the  Romans;  and  of  French 
from  the  Normans ; — to  which  have  been  added  occasional  words 
from  the  Greek,  Hebrew,  Arabic,  German,  French,  Spanish  and 
Italian  ;  introduced  by  travellers,  artists,  or  philosophers.  Thus, 
our  terms  of  war,  are  chiefly  from  the  French;  and  of  music,  from 
the  Italian ;  many  of  which  still  retain  their  foreign  form.  Our 
language,  as  we  have  already  mentioned,  was  first  permitted  to  be 
used  instead  of  the  Latin,  in  courts  of  justice,  under  Edward  III., 
in  the  year  1362. 

The  English  language  is  irregular,  and  heterogeneous;  but  simple 
in  its  construction ;  and  strong,  flexible,  copious,  and  expressive 
in  its  diction  ; — worthy  of  a  free  and  intelligent  race.  It  contains 
about  60,000  words  ;  including  technical  terms,  but  excluding  proper 
names.  Of  these,  there  are  probably  30,000  nouns;  10,000 
adnouns ;  12,000  verbs;  and  5,000  adverbs;  not  to  mention  the 
minor  parts  of  speech.  The  English  alphabet,  is  like  most  others, 
imperfect;  containing  some  superfluous  letters;  while  there  are 
some  sounds,  particularly  of  the  vowels,  for  which  it  presents  no 
separate  character.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  observe,  for  example, 
that  in  the  last  syllables  of  the  words  cedar,  wafer,  nadir,  honor, 
sulphur,  and  zephyr,  the  vowels  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  and  y  are  all  sounded 
alike.  The  preceding  chapter  on  General  Grammar,  though  explain- 
ing the  principles  of  language  in  general,  has  a  special  reference  to 
English  Grammar ;  which,  as  the  subject  ought  to  be  familiar,  will, 
we  trust,  excuse  any  farther  notice  of  our  own  language  in  this 
place. 

The  Saxon  language,  though  now  obsolete,  is  interesting,  as  the 
basis  of  the  modern  English.  As  Saxon  words  are  often  quoted 
in  our  Etymological  Dictionaries  ;  we  have  thought  it  advisable  to 
introduce  the  Saxon  alphabet,  with  its  peculiar  characters,  in  this 
place.  It  is  evidently  borrowed  in  part  from  the  Roman  alphabet; 
and  was  used,  we  believe,  by  King  Alfred,  in  his  translation  of  the 
Psalms  into  the  Saxon  tongue. 


EUROPEAN    LANGUAGES. 


63 


Bu 

..   h 

T,     1 

..  1 

o     . 

t 

En 

CO  m    . 

U    u 

DS    . 

Nn     . 

V          V 

e~ 

* 

On     . 

111    n 

FT»         . 

Pr»    . 

\\J    P 

TV      T      . 

P 

..  p. 

Xv 
Y' 

6     h 

'.'".  h 

¥ 

Rn    . 

,« 

y 

Z™ 

• 

T        | 

r1 

In  ±>,  T 

>»  F 

1  hat  p. 

And  *]. 

The  following  is  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  Saxon,  as  written  about 
A.  D.  900.  Uren  Fader  thic  arth  in  Heofnas,  sic  gehalgud  thin 
noma,  to  cymeth  thin  ric,  sic  thin  willa  sue  is  in  Heofnas  and  in 
Eortho.  Uren  hlaf  ofer  irirthe  selus  to  dseg,  and  forgef  us  scylda 
urna  sue  ive  forgefan  scyldgum  urum,  and  no  inlead  urith  in  cus- 
tnung,  al  gefrig  urich  from  ifle.  Jlmen. 

The  German  language,  is  called  by  the  Germans,  die  Deutsche 
Sprache  ;  the  name  being  derived  from  Tuisco,  son  of  Theut  or  the 
earth,  from  whom  the  Germans  claim  descent.  It  is  stated  that 
Ulphilas,  bishop  of  the  Mcesogoths,  invented  a  Gothic  alphabet,  as 
early  as  A.  D.  360;  when  he  translated  the  New  Testament  into  the 
Gothic  language.  With  this  version,  the  modern  German  so  nearly 
agrees,  as  to  show  that  its  changes,  since  that  time,  have  been  com- 
paratively slight.  Charlemagne  began  a  German  Grammar ;  and 
made  great  efforts  to  improve  the  language.  Luther's  translation  of 
the  Bible,  made  in  1530,  is  still  nearly  as  correct  a  model  of  the 
German,  as  our  own  Bible  is  of  the  English.  The  chief  dialects  of 
this  language,  are  the  Low  German,  in  the  North  ;  the  Franconian, 
in  the  centre,  particularly  along  the  River  Maine  ;  the  Jllemannic, 
which  was  the  dialect  of  the  Minnesingers  of  the  middle  ages,  in 
Suabia  and  Bavaria;  and  the  Upper  German,  in  the  southern  or 
mountainous  parts.  The  High  German,  which  is  spoken  the  purest 
in  some  parts  of  Hanover,  is  the  standard  of  the  language ;  according 
to  the  best  speakers  and  authors.  It  is  a  rich  language,  and,  like  the 
Greek,  admits  of  compounding  words  with  great  facility. 

Most  German  books  are  printed  in  the  character  called  German 
text;  the  small  letters  of  which  closely  resemble  the  old  English, 
or  black  letter  character ;  but  the  capitals  are  more  rounded  ;  as  in 
the  German  alphabet  here  given.  \ 


2C  a 
23  b 
<£  c 

3)  t) 
®  e 
5  f 
©  9 


.c. 
.d. 


^  yi'.'.'.k. 
2    (  ....I. 
5Q2  m. . .  -m. 
&l  n n. 


D  0. 

g)  p  . 

©  rV 

S  t  • 


It  u 

as  t) 

2B  n> 
£  r 
9)  ? 
3  3 


-u. 

.V. 

.w. 
,x. 

•y- 

.z. 


The  Germans  pronounce  a  nearly  as  in  our  word  fall ;  ae  or  a,  (a) 
nearly  like  a  in  fat;  c  nearly  like  a  in  fate,  or  like  our  short  e ; 
i  and  n  like  the  French  i  in  pique,  or  like  our  short  i  in  pin;  c  as  in 
English;  cc  or  c,  (o)  like  the  French  eu,  between  our  ew  in  few, 
and  u  in  fur;  u  like  oo  in  moon,  or  in  soon  ;  and  uc  or  u,  (u)  like 
the  French  u,  composed  of  our  short  i  and  long  u.  They  give 


64  GLOSSOLOGY 

to  ct  or  ci?,  the  sound  of  our  long  i  in  pine  ;  and  to  at  nearly  the  same 
sound ;  to  au  the  sound  of  our  ou,  in  thou;  to  cu  a  peculiar  sound, 
compounded  of  our  short  u  or  uh,  and  short  {  or  ih,  the  latter  heard 
slightly  ;  and  acu  or  au,  has  a  sound  nearly  the  same,  but  rather  more 
like  our  oi.  They  pronounce  fd)  like  our  sh ;  and  to  d)  final,  they 
give  a  peculiar  guttural  sound,  or  hard  breathing,  in  which  the  sound 
of  k  is  very  slightly  heard.  They  pronounce  tfy  like  simple  t ;  5 
like/;  and  n>  with  a  sound  between  that  of  our  w  and  v. 

A  few  examples  of  the  construction  of  the  German  language  must 
here  suffice.  Ein  mann,  a  man  ;  eines  marines,  of  a  man  ;  einefrau, 
a  woman,  or  lady;  ein  haus,  a  house.  Der  vater,  the  father;  die 
mutter,  the  mother ;  das  buch,  the  book  ;  der  gute  knabe,  the  good 
boy;  des  guten  knaben,  of  the  good  boy;  dem  guten  knaben,  to 
the  good  boy ;  den  guten  knaben,  the  good  boy,  (in  the  accusative 
case).  Sein,  io  be;  seiend,  being;  ich  bin,  I  am;  du  bist,  thou 
art ;  er  ist,  he  is ;  sie  ist,  she  is  ;  es  ist,  it  is  ;  wir  sind,  we  are ; 
ihr  seid,  you  are;  sie  sind,  they  are.  Ich  war,  I  was;  ich  bin 
gewesen,  I  have  been ;  ich  werde  sein,  I  shall  be  ;  ich  wilrde  sein, 
I  should  be ;  ich  wiirde  gewesen  sein,  I  should  have  been ;  sei  or 
sei  du,  be,  or  be  thou.  Haben,  to  have ;  ich  habe,  I  have  ;  ich 
hatte,  I  had :  ich  habe  gehabt,  I  have  had.  Er  liebet  mich,  he 
loves  me ;  sie  lieben  ihn,  they  love  him  ;  sie  lieben  sie,  she  loves 
her,  or  she  loves  them.  The  following  is  the  Lord's  Prayer  in 
German ;  from  which  the  resemblance  of  this  language  to  our  own 
may  be  clearly  perceived  : 

llnfcc  aSatcr, fccr  bu  fctfitm  £tmmcf,gcfjeiUgct  rccrbc  bctn  9?ame.  3)ctn  9?ctdj 
fomme ;  t>cin  8GBiHc  gefcfyc&e  auf  (Stbcn,  nrie  tm  £tmmcl.  itnfcr  t&gttd)  ffirefct 
0icO  un$  fycutc.  tint*  fcrgteb  unS  unfcrc  @d)ult>cn,  rote  nut  scrgcfccn  unfcrn 
@d)ult>tcicrn.'  llnt>  fufyrc  uns  ntd)t  in  SScrfud)ung,  fcnbcrn  crtcfc  un6  pen  tern 
Uck(.  3)cnn  tctn  ifi  fca^  SRficf),  unb  tie  jlraft,  unt)  fctc  ^etrttdjfcit,  in  (Snng? 
fcit.  2Cmcn. 

The  Dutch  language,  is  merely  a  dialect  of  the  Low  German,  and 
is  now  of  minor  importance.  The  Danish  language,  is  a  combination 
of  the  Low  German  with  the  Scandinavian  or  original  Norman;  and 
was  first  cultivated  by  the  Scalds,  or  bards,  who  sang  the  praises  of 
their  heroes.  The  Swedish  language,  resembles  the  Danish,  so  closely 
that  the  Danes  and  Swedes  can  read  each  other's  writing.  The  Nor- 
wegian, is  nearly  the  same  as  the  ancient  Scandinavian  ;  but  it  is  of 
very  little  importance  ;  having  never  been  reduced  to  writing.  The 
Icelandic,  is  also  supposed  to  be  the  Scandinavian,  or  original  Nor- 
man, nearly  pure. 

§  3.  The  Celtic  family  of  languages,  comprehends  the  Gaelic, 
Welsh,  Irish,  and  Armoric ;  all  of  which  come  from  the  Celts,  Gaels, 
or  Gauls ;  who  migrated,  in  remote  times,  from  Asia  ;  settled  in 
France;  and  thence,  spreading  northward,  were  the  earliest  inhabit- 
ants of  Great  Britain.  They  were  called  K^-z-ac  by  the  Greeks,  but 
styled  themselves  Gaels.  Their  languages  are  now  of  minor  import- 
ance. The  Gaelic  or  Erse,  is  the  language  of  the  Highlanders  of 
Scotland  ;  but  a  dialect  of  Saxon  origin  is  spoken  in  the  Low- 
lands. In  its  construction,  it  is  said  to  resemble  the  Hebrew.  The 
Welch  language,  is  still  spoken  in  Wales ;  the  name  of  which  comes 


EUROPEAN    LANGUAGES.  65 

from  the  French  Galles,  of  the  same  origin  as  Gaelic  ;  which  some 
derive  from  the  German  wallen,  to  wander.  The  Irish,  was  a  written 
language,  probably  as  early  as  the  10th  century ;  and  is  said  to  resem- 
ble the  Gaelic  so  much,  that  the  Irish  and  the  Scotch  Highlanders  can 
converse  with  each  other,  and  be  mutually  understood.  The  Manks, 
(or  Manx)  dialect,  spoken  on  the  Isle  of  Man,  is  similar  to  the  Irish. 
The  Armoric  or  Cimbric  language,  is  the  old  Celtic,  with  a  mixture 
of  the  German  ;  and  is  still  spoken  in  Brittany  ;  that  is,  the  north-west 
part  of  France.  The  Cornish,  or  dialect  of  Cornwall,  in  England, 
is  a  corruption  of  the  Armoric. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  Celtic  languages,  the  following  copy  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer  in  Welch,  is  deemed  worthy  of  insertion.  Em  Tad, 
yr  hwn  wyt  yh  y  nefoedd,  sancteiddier  dy  enw:  deled  dy  deyrnas:  gwn- 
eler  dy  ewyllys,  megis  yn  y  nef,  felly  ar  y  ddaear  hefyd  ;  dyro  i  ni  hed- 
dyw  ein  bar  a  beunyddiol;  a  madden  i  ni  tin  dyledion,  fel  y  madr 
deuwn  ninnau  ?n  dyledwyr ;  ac  nac  arwain  ni  i  brofedigaeth ;  eithr 
gwared  ni  rhag  drwg :  canys  eiddot  ti  yw  y  deyrnas,  a>r  nerth,  a V 
gogoniant,  yn  oes  oesoedd.  Jlmen. 

§  4.  The  Sclavonic  family  of  languages,  includes  the  Polish,  Rus- 
sian, Bohemian,  Illyrian,  and  Croatian ;  all  of  which  may  be  traced 
to  the  ancient  Sarmatians,  since  called  Sclavonians ;  who  migrated 
from  Asia,  at  a  later  period  than  the  Germans.  Their  language  is  said 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  Sanscrit :  and  to  have  affinities  with  the 
Greek  and  German.  The  Polish  language,  has  been  less  cultivated, 
on  account  of  the  former  prevalence  of  the  Latin,  among  the  clergy 
and  nobles  of  Poland  ;  but  it  is  respectable  in  regard  to  literature.  It 
is  hard  and  harsh  to  pronounce ;  and  is  properly  written  in  a  peculiar 
character.  The  Poles  pronounce  c  like  our  ts  ;  ch  guttural  like  the 
German  ;  cz  like  our  ch  in  charm  ;  sz  like  our  sh:  szcz  like  shch  ; 
rz  like  zh  or  s  in  pleasure  ;  g  always  hard ;  j  like  our  y :  and  w  like 
our  v. 

The  Russian  language,  comprises  several  dialects  ;  and  is  spoken, 
from  Poland,  eastward  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  resembles  the  Polish  ; 
but  has  a  mixture  of  Greek,  Swedish,  and  Tartar  words,  with  the 
Sclavonic.  Its  alphabet  was  introduced  by  Cyril,  and  improved  by 
Kopiewitsch ;  and  now  contains  36  letters.  It  is  pronounced  like 
the  Polish.  The  oldest  known  writing  in  Russian,  is  Oleg's  Treaty, 
dated  912  ;  but  Lomonosoff  first  adapted  the  language  to  poetry,  by 
assimilating  it  to  the  German  ;  about  A.  D.  1742.  The  old  Sclavonic 
language,  has  been  preserved  by  the  translation  of  the  Bible  ;  and  is 
still  employed  in  sermons ;  though  differing  considerably  from  the 
Russian.  The  Crotian  and  Illyrian  languages  resemble  the  Russian  ; 
as  the  Bohemian  does  the  Polish. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  Sclavonic  languages,  we  here  insert  the  Lord's 
Prayer  in  Russian  ;  using  the  Roman  characters. 

Otshe  nash,  eje  esi  na  nebesach  ;  da  svyaiitsya  imya  tvoye  da  prie- 
det  tzarstvye  tvoe :  da  boodet  volya  tvoya,  yako  na  nebese  ee  na  zemle 
chleb  nash  nasooshnie  dajd  nam  dnes :  ee  ostave  nam  dolge  nasha  yakoje 
ee  me  ostavlyaem  doljneekom  nashim :  ee  ne  vovede  nas  vo  iskooshe- 
nie  no  eezbave  nas  ot  loocavago :  yako  tvoe  est  tzartzvo,  ee  sland  vo 
vekee  vehor. 

9  F2 


66 


GLOSSOLOGY. 


The  following  is  the  Russian  alphabet;   with  which  our  notice 
of  the  European  languages  must  be  closed. 


A      a       . 

a 

/I    A  

.  i 

U     u  . 

tsh 

Kf. 

k 

\\  M  

.  m 

JJJ  HI 

«sh 

]tf    H   

.  n 

m    m  . 

.  .      shtsh 

_  uar;i 

Q        O  

.  o 

t\  T-> 

5 

•m         A 

n  n  

•  P 

M  bl. 

A  A     .. 

p    p  

.  r 

it      !>  . 

....  i 

€        e     .. 

•r 

r  H 

C     c  

.  s 

»t  <&  . 

Sc 

t 

a  c* 

£ 

4              q 

Y    y  

u  or  oo 

M 

....  yu 

HIA 

$    $  

.  f 

a«  . 

X    x  

.  kh 

©     0  . 

...    th 

1 

K         K 

..  k 

A 

H  y  

.  ts  or  iz 

IT  V  . 

CHAPTER  IV. 

BARBAROUS    LANGUAGES. 

UNDER  the  branch  of  Barbarous  languages,  we  comprehend  the 
original  tongues  of  America ;  of  Africa,  excepting  Egypt  and  Ethio- 
pia ;  and  of  Oceanica,  or  the  Islands  south  and  east  of  Asia.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  Bapfapos,  a  term  which  was  applied 
to  all  foreigners,  and  thence  to  all  who  did  not  pronounce  the  Greek 
language  accurately;  and  ultimately  to  all  ignorant  and  savage  na- 
tions. The  languages  of  this  branch,  though  more  numerous  than  all 
the  preceding,  are  of  much  less  importance ; — being  devoid  of  litera- 
ture ;  unwritten,  except  by  recent  missionaries  ;  and  each  spoken 
only  over  a  small  region,  by  a  single  tribe.  In  the  little  which  can 
here  be  said  of  them,  we  shall  divide  these  languages  into  three 
groups ; — the  American,  African,  and  Oceanic  ; — according  to  their 
geographical  localities;  which  also  accord  with  their  analogies  to 
each  other. 

§  1.  The  native  American,  or  Ind-American  languages,  are 
mostly  polysynthetic,  and  polysyllabic  :  several  of  our  words  being 
expressed  by  one  of  theirs ;  and  this  one  consisting  of  several  sylla- 
bles. Humboldt  grouped  them  in  two  classes ;  the  Apalachian,  in 
the  north  ;  and  the  Toltecan,  in  Mexico  and  the  south.  For  the 
knowledge  of  them  now  possessed,  we  are  much  indebted  to  the 
labors  of  Hecke welder,  and  the  researches  of  Duponceau.  Con- 
cerning their  origin,  nothing  certain  is  known  :  but  they  may  proba- 
bly be  traced  back  to  Asia ;  and  many  of  them  are  said  to  be  copious, 
precise,  and  artificial  in  their  structure.  They  have  been  gradually 
supplanted ;  by  the  English,  in  North  America ;  the  Portuguese,  in 
Brazil ;  and  the  Spanish,  in  Mexico,  and  the  South  American  Re- 
publics ;*— so  that  some  of  them  are  already  extinct. 

The  Esquimaux,  or  Karalit  language,  is  spoken  by  the  Indians 


BARBAROUS    LANGUAGES.  G7 

of  this  name,  on  the  northern,  and  north-eastern  coasts  of  America ; 
including  Greenland.  It  is  said  to  resemble  that  of  the  eastern 
Siberians ;  but  to  have  no  resemblance  to  the  languages  of  Europe. 
The  Iroquois  language,  in  several  dialects,  is,  or  was  spoken  by  the 
Six  Nations,  so  called ;  as  also  by  the  Wyandots,  or  Hurons.  It  is 
said  to  be  wanting  in  labials ;  but  very  sonorous.  The  Delaware, 
called  also  Mohegan,  Algonkin,  or  Lenape,  was  diffused,  with  slight 
variations,  from  Nova  Scotia  to  the  Mississippi;  north  of  the  Ohio 
River,  and  the  Potomac.  Dialects  of  it,  are  still  spoken,  by  the 
Chippeways,  Shawnees,  Ottawas,  and  Winnebagoes.  The  Floridian 
languages,  were  those  spoken  in  our  Southern  States ;  including  the 
Creek,  Cherokee,  and  Choctaw.  The  original  and  recent  alphabet, 
mostly  syllabic,  invented  by  Guest,  or  See-quah-yah,  a  native  Che- 
rokee, is  a  literary  curiosity,  which  we  have  no  room  to  transcribe. 

As  a  specimen  of  the  Ind-American  languages,  the  following  copy 
of  the  Lord's  Prayer,  in  the  Massachusetts  language ; — taken  from 
the  translation  of  the  Bible  by  Eliot,  the  devoted  and  early  missionary 
to  the  Massachusetts  tribe  of  Indians,  near  Boston, — is  the  most 
interesting  that  we  can  offer.  Nooshun  kesukqut  quttianatamunach 
koowesuonk.  Peyaumooutch  kukketassootamoonk,  kuttenanta- 
moonk  nen  nach  ohkeit  neane  kesukqut.  Nvmmeetsuongash  ase- 
kesukokish  assamainnean  yeuyeu  kesukok.  Kali  ahquoantamaiiti- 
ncan  nummatcheseongash,  neane  matchenehukqueagig  nutahquon- 
tamounnonog.  Jlhque  sagkompagunaiinnean  en  qutchhuaouganit* 
webepohquohwussinnean  wu+ch  matchitut.  Newutche  kutahtaunn 
ketassootamoonk,  kah  menuhkesuonk,  kah  sohsumoonk  micheme 
•flmen.  The  translation  of  the  above,  commences  as  follows. 
Nooshun,  our  father ;  (from  noo,  our) ;  kesukqut,  in  heaven  :  quttia- 
natamunach, be  hallowed ;  koowesuonk,  thy  name,  (from  koo,  thy). 
Peyaumooutch,  may  it  come  ;  kukketassootamoonk,  thy  kingdom  ;: 
kuttenantamoonk,  thy  will ;  nen  nach  ohkeit,  on  the  earth ;  neane, 
as ;  kesukqut,  in  heaven.  Thus  much  must  .suffice,  to  give  some 
idea  of  the  structure  of  the  languages,  formerly  spoken,  in  the  goodly 
land  which  we  now  inhabit. 

The  Mexican  languages,  are  numerous;  but  the  Jlztec  or  ancient 
Mexican,  and  the  Tarascan,  are  the  most  prominent.  ThePoconchi 
was  spoken  in  Guatemala ;  and  the  Caribbee  was  the  native  language 
of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  northern  parts  of  S.  America.  The 
Qitichua,  was  the  language  of  Peru  and  her  Incas ;  and  is  said  to  have 
abounded  in  vowels  and  soft  sounds.  A  specimen  of  the  sounds,  in 
some  of  these  languages,  will  be  found  in  the  names  of  some  of  the 
Indian  deities,  in  the  subsequent  chapter  on  Paganism.  The  Jlrau- 
canian,  or  native  language  of  Chili,  is  also  described  as  a  distinct 
one,  very  rich  and  harmonious. 

§  2.  The  African  languages  are  very  imperfectly  known,  and 
important  only  as  the  means  of  introducing  civilization  and  Chris- 
tianity into  that  benighted  region.  Adelung  estimates  their  number  at 
270  ;  and  Seetzen  at  150  ;  but  not  more  than  70  or  80  of  them  have 
been  studied  by  learned  men.  The  Coptic,  Arabic,  and  Turkish, 
spoken  in  Egypt  and  the  Barbary  states,  and  the  Ethiopic,  in  Abys- 
sinia, we  have  already  described  among  the  Oriental  languages.  The 


68  GLOSSOLOGY. 

Berber,  or  Breber,  and  the  Shelluh  tongues,  are  spoken  along  the 
Atlas  Mountains,  and  on  the  Great  Desert ;  being  derived  probably 
from  the  ancient  Numidian.  The  Mandingo  is  used  in  the  western 
parts,  from  the  Senegal  to  the  Niger ;  and  the  Guinea  dialects,  along 
the  coast,  are  extremely  rude  and  various.  The  Hottentot,  and 
Bosjesman  languages,  of  Southern  Africa,  are  said  to  differ  from  all 
others  in  a  sort  of  clucking  noise,  like  that  of  a  fowl,  accompanying 
every  word.  The  Cqffre  dialects  in  the  south-east,  are  said  to  be 
distinct  and  peculiar;  but  the ^Zanguebar  dialects  in  the  east,  form  a 
group  having  a  common  origin.  The  Tigre  or  Gheez,  the  literary 
language  of  Abyssinia,  and  the  Jlmharic  or  common  language,  are 
probably  corruptions  of  the  Arabic. 

§  3.  In  the  Oceanic  group  of  languages,  we  comprehend  those 
which  are  peculiar  to  the  Islands  south  and  east  of  Asia.  The  Malay, 
which  is  spoken  on  the  coasts  of  Sumatra,  Java,  Borneo,  and  the 
Philippine  Islands,  we  have  already  mentioned,  among  the  Oriental 
languages,  (p.  53).  The  languages  of  New  Zealand,  and  of  the 
Society  and  Sandwich  Islands,  have  a  common  origin,  probably  from 
the  Malay ;  and  they  much  resemble  each  other.  They  have  been 
reduced  to  writing  by  the  labors  of  Missionaries ;  arid  the  way  is 
thus  opened,  for  the  light  of  truth,  among  those  who  sat  so  long  in 
the  darkness  of  error  and  ignorance.  The  Negro  languages  of  New 
Holland,  New  Guinea,  and  the  contiguous  islands,  are  extremely 
rude,  but  as  yet  are  little  known  to  the  learned  world. 

With  the  Lord's  Prayer  in  the  language  of  the  Sandwich  islanders, 
we  must  conclude  our  illustrations  of  the  department  of  Glossology. 
E  ko  makou  Makua  iloko  o  ka  lam,  e  hoanoia  kou  inoa :  e  hiki  mai 
kou  aupuni :  e  malamaia  kou  makemake  ma  ka  honua  nei,  e  like  me 
ia  i  malamaia  ma  ka  lani  la :  e  haawi  mai  ia  makou  i  keia  la  i  ai  na 
makou  no  neia  la :  e  kala  mai  hoi  ia  makou  i  ka  makou  lawehala  ana, 
me  makou  e  kala  nei  i  ka  poe  i  lawehala  i  ka  makou.  Mai  hookuu  oe 
ia  makou  i  ka  hoowalewaleia  mai  ;  e  hoopakele  no  nae  ia  makou  i  ka 
ino:  no  ka  mea,  nou  ke  aupuni,  a  me  ka  mana,  a  me  ka  hoonaniia, 
a  mau  loa  aku.  rfmene. 


II.  DEPARTMENT: 

PSYCHOLOGY. 


IN  the  department  of  Psychology,  we  would  include  those  branches 
of  knowledge  which  relate  more  immediately  to  the  human  mind,  its 
powers,  and  their  cultivation.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
4f*»7»  signifying  the  soul,  spirit,  or  mind,  in  its  widest  sense  ;  and  we 
would  embrace  under  it  the  branches  of  Rhetoric  ;  Logic  ;  Phrenics, 
or  Mental  Philosophy  ;  Ethics,  or  Moral  Philosophy  ;  and  Education. 
It  comprehends,  therefore,  that  important  study  inculcated  by  Thales, 
the  ancient  sage  of  Miletus  ;  know  thyself;  (rv«0c  asavtov) ;  inscribed 
on  the  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Delphi.  It  stops  not,  however,  at  the 
boundaries  of  ancient  or  classic  wisdom ;  but  soaring  at  once  to 
the  source  of  all  intellectual  truth,  the  book  of  Divine  Revelation,  it 
there  derives  sublimer  views  of  the  nature  and  destiny  of  man. 

Although  we  cannot  fully  comprehend  ourown  nature;  but,  in  examin- 
ing the  mind  abstractly,  find  ourselves  lost  in  mystery  and  uncertainty ; 
still  we  can  investigate  its  faculties  ;  its  modes  of  acting ;  its  incen- 
tives to  action ;  its  instruments  and  objects ;  its  appetites  and  its  pas- 
sions ;  with  the  means  of  governing,  directing,  and  applying  all  these, 
to  the  attainment  of  man's  chief  pursuit,  the  happiness  of  himself  and 
his  fellow-men,  and  the  glory  of  his  Creator.  In  making  such  an 
investigation,  we  find  that  we  are  complicated  beings  ;  immortal  spirits 
tenanting  houses  of  clay ;  but  destined  soon  to  leave  them  for  another 
and  an  eternal  state.  Thus,  in  studying  our  relations  both  to  the 
material  and  the  spiritual  world,  we  lay  the  foundations  of  all  other 
knowledge  ;  and  derive  lessons  of  the  greatest  practical  importance. 

The  department  of  Psychology,  like  the  preceding  one,  may  be 
considered  as  introductory  to  all  the  remaining  divisions  of  human  know- 
ledge ;  since  the  mind  is  the  agent  which  embraces  and  pursues  them 
all.  Thus,  Psychology  is  the  immediate  basis  of  the  studies  of  Law, 
and  Government,  and  of  Religion ;  which  studies  are  often  included 
together  with  it,  wholly,  or  in  part.  To  these  high  studies,  the  whole 
subsequent  province  of  Ethnology,  or  the  study  of  nations,  may  be 
regarded  as  subsidiary  ;  while  it  furnishes  rich  materials  for  the  illus- 
tration of  Psychology.  The  Physical  Sciences  and  Arts,  are  less 
closely  connected  with  this  department : — but  even  to  them,  a  know- 
ledge of  our  faculties,  and  the  extent  to  which  they  may  be  relied 
upon,  may  be  of  essential  service  :  for  the  mind,  it  is,  which  has  de- 
veloped these  stores  of  knowledge,  and  applied  them  to  the  preserva- 
tion and  comfort  of  its  own  incarnate  existence. 

It  is  true  that  the  study  of  the  human  mind  embraces  two  great  divi- 
sions ;  the  one,  Intellectual,  relating  to  the  perceptive  and  reasoning 
powers ;  the  other,  Moral,  relating  to  the  affections,  passions,  and 
sentiments :  but  these  are  so  closely  and  mutually  connected,  that 

69 


70  PSYCHOLOGY. 

although  constituting  distinct  branches,  we  think  that  they  belong  to 
the  same  department  of  human  knowledge.  Indeed,  we  regard  the 
latter  as  the  sequel  of  the  former ;  and  Education,  in  its  widest  sense, 
as  the  great  application  of  them  both.  In  both  these  divisions  of  Psy- 
chology, various  conflicting  theories  have  been  proposed  ;  some  of 
which  we  have  already  mentioned,  in  speaking  of  the  Ancient  Schools 
of  Philosophy;  (p.  19);  and  others  will  be  referred  to,  under  the 
branches  of  Phrenics  and  Ethics.  The  existence  of  these  conflicting 
opinions,  is  by  no  means  surprising,  when  we  consider  the  inherent 
difficulty  of  the  subjects  :  and  it  should  be  observed,  that  they  relate 
only  to  particular  points  ;  some  of  which  are  rather  nominal  than  real ; 
and  others  of  which  have  already  been  completely  decided. 

We  proceed  to  treat  successively  of  the  branches  of  Psychology, 
in  the  order  already  named  :  Rhetoric ;  Logic  ;  Phrenics,  or  Mental 
Philosophy ;  Ethics,  or  Moral  Philosophy  ;  and  Education. 


CHAPTER  I. 

RHETORIC. 

RHETORIC,  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  investigates  the  prin- 
ciples and  rules  of  writing  and  speaking,  or  the  subjects  of  Compo- 
sition and  Elocution.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  /'^wp, 
an  orator;  and  this  from  £<=«,  I  speak.  The  term,  Oratory,  derived 
from  the  Latin,  is  properly  synonymous  with  Rhetoric  :  but  the  term 
Elocution,  from  the  Latin,  eloquor  or  loquor,  I  speak,  should,  we 
think,  be  confined  to  the  manner  or  process  of  enouncing  or  delivering 
a  discourse  already  composed.  Rhetoric,  also,  in  its  primary  sense, 
might  seem  to  denote  merely  the  art  of  declaiming :  but  this  is  so 
closely  allied  to  the  art  of  writing,  or  composing,  that  the  term  was 
extended,  even  by  the  ancients,  to  include  them  both.  The  study 
of  Rhetoric,  is,  of  course,  especially  useful  to  the  public  writer,  or 
speaker :  and  it  is  one  of  the  studies  which  are  introductory  to  Criti- 
cism i  an  art,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  (p.  37). 

Some  persons  have  supposed,  that  the  study  of  Rhetorical  rules 
is  likely  to  cramp  and  injure  the  mental  powers.  This  may  be  the 
case  with  some  of  the  artificial,  or  mechanical  systems,  which  have 
been  proposed  ;  but  certainly  a  knowledge  of  the  general  principles 
on  which  all  good  writing  and  speaking  must  be  founded,  cannot  fail 
to  be  useful,  to  those  who  are  seeking  for  eminence  in  these  impor- 
tant acquirements.  In  this,  however,  as  in  other  arts,  a  knowledge 
of  principles  and  rules,  can  never  supply  the  place  of  practice  ;  and 
that  practice  should  be  under  the  eye  of  just  and  intelligent  criti- 
cism. Neither  can  all  the  aids  of  Rhetoric,  make  a  first  rate  orator ; 
without  knowledge,  and  good  sense,  brought  to  bear  on  the  subjects 
of  discourse;  and  dignity,  sympathy,  and  integrity  to  give  them 
force. 

The  best  work  of  the  ancients,  on  Rhetoric,  is  that  of  Aristotle ; 
which  is  the  earliest  extant ;  and  which  still  forms  the  basis  of  this 


RHETORIC.  71 

branch  of  knowledge.  Demosthenes,  the  greatest  of  ancient  orators, 
taught  much  in  his  dictum,  or  saying,  that  action,  meaning  energy 
and  earnestness,  is  the  essence  of  Eloquence.  Cicero,  was  a  grace- 
ful, rather  than  energetic  speaker ;  but  his  writings  are  fine  illustra- 
tions of  Rhetoric.  Quintilian  (or  Quinctillian),  in  his  Institutes, 
(Institutiones  Oratorise),  gave  many  excellent  precepts*;  but  he 
encumbered  the  subject  with  treatises  on  Morals  and  Education,  Law 
and  Politics  ;  which,  however  valuable  to  the  Orator,  are  beyond 
the  legitimate  limits  of  Rhetoric.  Longinus,  in  his  Treatise  on  the 
Sublime,  has  well  treated  a  noble  topic,  which  we  think  belongs  to 
Rhetoric  ;  and  one  which  has  been  amplified  upon,  in  modern  times. 
Of  modern  works  on  Rhetoric,  Dr.  Blair's  is  probably  the  most 
popular;  but  Dr.  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  and  Abp. 
Whately's  Elements,  are  considered  the  most  profound.  So  much 
of  the  latter  work  as  treats  of  Conviction,  we  think,  with  great 
deference,  belongs  more  properly  to  Logic. 

We  proceed  to  give  a  general  view  of  Rhetoric  under  the  heads 
of  Qualities  of  Style  ;  Figures  of  Speech ;  Principles  of  Taste  ; 
Objects  of  Composition  ;  Management  of  a  Discourse  ;  and  Princi- 
ples of  Elocution. 

§  1.  Style,  in  literary  compositions,  is  the  manner  in  which  ideas 
are  expressed ;  and  it  refers  to  the  writer's  modes  or  habits  of 
thought,  as  well  as  to  the  choice  of  words,  in  which  his  thoughts 
are  embodied  or  clothed.  All  the  qualities  of  style,  may  be  included 
under  the  three  topics  of  perspicuity,  energy,  and  elegance.  A 
perspicuous  style,  is  one  which  expresses  ideas  clearly  and  distinctly, 
and  without  any  ambiguity,  or  uncertainty,  concerning  the  author's 
meaning.  Perspicuity  requires  that  we  should  conceive  of  things 
distinctly  in  their  nature  ;  completely  in  their  parts  ;  comprehensively 
in  their  relations;  and  methodically  in  their  order  or  place.  In 
regard  to  individual  words,  it  requires  propriety  and  precision;  or 
the  selection  of  those  words  that  convey  the  sense  intended,  and 
nothing  more  nor  less.  Purity  of  language  is  often  classed  with 
propriety  and  precision ;  but  it  belongs  rather  to  elegance  of  style 
than  to  perspicuity  ;  for  language  may  he  perspicuous,  without  being 
pure  ;  though  such  language  can  hardly  be  termed  proper ;  and  cer- 
tainly not  elegant.  In  regard  to  sentences,  perspicuity  requires  that 
they  should  not  be  too  long,  or  involved  ;  and  that  they  should  suc- 
ceed each  other  in  proper  order  and  relation. 

An  energetic  style,  expresses  ideas  forcibly  and  vividly,  so  as  to 
stimulate  the  attention,  impress  the  judgment,  excite  the  imagination, 
and  arouse  the  feelings,  of  the  reader  or  hearer.  It  requires,  for  the 
most  part,  brevity  or  conciseness,  and  particularity  or  specificness 
of  thought  and  diction.  It  selects  the  most  prominent  points  of 
description  or  argument,  presents  them  in  the  strongest  light,  and 
with  the  most  striking  colors  ;  using  but  few  words,  and  those  the 
most  distinct  and  expressive.  Energy  of  style  is  most  forcibly  illus- 
trated, not  by  a  single  sentence,  but  by  a  train  of  ideas,  rolling  on 
like  a  mountain  torrent,  and  bearing  away  with  them  the  judgment 
and  the  feelings  of  those  who  read  or  listen.  An  elegant  style,  is 
one  that  pleases  the  ear  and  the  taste,  by  a  natural  and  easy  flow  of 


72  SYCHOLOGY. 

ideas,  clearly  and  classically  expressed.  It  requires  euphony  and 
purity  of  words  and  phrases ;  that  is,  that  they  should  be  neither 
harsh,  quaint,  nor  vulgar :  foreign,  nor  barbarous ;  but  such  as  are 
used  by  the  best  writers  and  speakers.  It  requires  also  unity  and 
congruity  of  sentences  ;  in  order  that  the  ideas  may  be  clearly  and 
easily  conveyed.  We  may  here  remark,  that  an  affectation  of 
French,  Latin,  or  other  foreign  words,  renders  the  style  barbarous  ; 
and  generally  detracts  from  its  elegance :  but  when  appropriate 
English  words  can  be  selected,  of  which  the  sound  alone  would 
convey  an  idea  of  the  signification,  it  adds  both  force  and  elegance 
to  the  composition. 

A  diffuse  style,  is  one  in  which  more  words  are  used,  than  are  ne- 
cessary to  convey  the  intended  meaning ; — the  ideas  being  more  or 
less  repeated.  A  diffuse  style  is  generally  feeble,  or  wanting  in  force, 
unless  occasionally  employed  with  a  view  to  dwell  upon  some  import- 
ant point ;  whereas  a  concise,  or  brief  style  is  generally  nervous  or 
spirited.  A  style  which  is  wanting  in  perspicuity,  is  said  to  be  ob- 
scure :  and  one  which  is  deficient  in  energy,  is  said  to  be  tame.  A 
simple  style,  in  opposition  to  an  affected  one,  is  that  in  which  the 
more  common  and  familiar  words,  and  collocation,  are  used,  to  express 
the  ideas  intended  to  be  conveyed.  A  style  is  termed  dry,  plain,  neat, 
'  or  flowery,  in  reference  to  the  degree  of  ornament ;  the  latter  using 
digressions,  illustrations,  and  figures  of  speech  freely ;  while  in  the 
former,  they  are  scarcely  used  at  all. 

§  2.  Figures  of  Speech,  are  peculiar  modes  of  expressing,  or  im- 
pressing ideas;  serving  to  enrich  language,  to  adorn,  or  dignify  style, 
and  to  render  the  subject  more  attractive  or  striking.  They  abound 
in  the  most  ancient  writers  ;  and  are  beautiful,  when  properly  intro- 
duced ;  but  like  other  ornaments,  they  should  be  used  sparingly  and 
with  discrimination.  These  figures  which  refer  only  to  individual 
words,  are  called  Tropes.  We  have  only  room  to  describe  briefly  the 
principal  figures  of  speech,  in  a  classified  order. 

A  Simile,  is  a  Comparison  of  one  thing  with  another,  to  show  the 
resemblance  or  contrast  between  them  ;  and  it  is  usually  expressed  by 
the  introduction  of  the  words,  like,  as,  or  so:  as  in  the  sentence,  "  an 
able  minister,  like  a  pillar,  upholds  the  state."  A  Metaphor,  is  a 
comparison  in  a  concealed  form  ;  substituting  for  one  idea,  another,  to 
which  it  should  have  a  clear  and  congruous  resemblance :  as,  "  an 
able  minister  is  a  pillar  of  the  state."  An  Allegory,  is  a  continued 
metaphor,  or  series  of  metaphors  ;  such  as  the  fables  and  enigmas  of 
antiquity ;  and  the  parables  of  Scripture.  A  beautiful  allegory  is 
found  in  the  comparison  of  Israel  to  a  vine,  in  the  80th  Psalm. 

An  Antithesis,  expresses,  not  a  resemblance,  but  a  contrast,  to  make 
the  idea  more  striking;  and  it  is  often  used  in  epigrams.  Irony,  is 
the  figure,  by  which  we  express  the  very  contrary  of  what  we  mean  ; 
in  order  to  convey  that  meaning  more  vividly ;  as  when  Elisha  said 
to  the  priests  of  Baal,  '»  Cry  aloud,  for  he  is  a  god."  An  Hyperbole, 
is  an  exaggeration,  or  a  diminution  of  our  meaning,  to  express  it  more 
strongly ; — a  figure  which  should  be  sparingly  used.  The  common 
comparisons,  "as  white  as  the  snow,"  "as  bright  as  the  sun,"  "as 
swift  as  the  wind,"  and  the  like,  are  often  hyperbolical,  A  Climax, 


RHETORIC.  73 

or  Amplification,  is  an  arrangement  of  ideas  in  an  ascending  series ; 
the  last  step  in  which  should  be  the  most  important.  The  reverse  of 
this,  is  called  an  Anticlimax;  and  sometimes  used  to  con  vert  the  sub- 
lime into  the  ridiculous. 

A  Metonymy,  or  change  of  name,  is  a  substitution  of  cause  for 
effect ;  of  the  container,  for  the  thing  contained ;  the  sign,  for  the  thing 
signified ;  or  the  reverse  of  these  :  as  when  we  say,  "  they  are  reading 
Milton,"  meaning  Milton's  works.  A  Synecdoche,  is  a  substitution  of 
the  whole  for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole:  as,  "a  fleet  of  twenty 
sail,"  for  a  fleet  of  twenty  vessels.  A  Metalepsis,  is  an  indirect  mode 
of  expression ;  as,  in  the  phrase,  "  Troy  was,"  to  signify  that  Troy 
exists  no  longer.  Interrogation,  is  that  figure  by  which  we  put  in 
the  form  of  a  question,  what  we  intend  most  strongly  to  assert  or 
deny ;  as,  "  Hath  he  said  it,  and  shall  he  not  do  it?  or  hath  he  spo- 
ken, and  shall  he  not  make  it  good?"  Personification,  or  Prosopo- 
peia,  is  an  attribution  of  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects;  as  when 
we  speak  of  "  smiling  nature  :"  and  an  Apostrophe,  is  an  address  to 
a  person  who  is  absent  or  dead,  as  if  he  were  really  present.  Lastly, 
Vision,  one  of  the  boldest  figures,  represents  something  past,  or  dis- 
tant, as  actually  appearing  or  transpiring,  before  our  eyes  ;  as  when 
Cicero  says,  "I  seem  to  myself  to  behold  this  city,  the  light  of  the 
world,  and  the  citadel  of  all  nations,  suddenly  involved  in  one  general 
conflagration." 

§  3.  Taste,  is  the  power  of  distinguishing,  and  appreciating,  that 
which  is  excellent,  in  nature  of  aft.  It  is  allied  to  Genius,  or  the 
power  of  planning  and  executing  works  of  art ;  but  taste  merely 
judges  of  their  merits,  after  they  are  planned  or  executed.  We  regard 
taste  and  genius,  as  partly  of  spontaneous,  and  partly  of  cultivated 
growth  ;  and  their  only  sure  model  or  standard,  is  the  united  sanction 
of  the  best  judges,  in  all  ages  and  nations.  Individuals,  and  even 
nations,  may  differ  in  their  estimate  of  qualities  and  merits ;  but  that 
which  has  obtained  the  consentaneous  approbation  of  the  best  judges, 
in  all  ages  and  nations,  may  safely  be  deemed  conformable  to  the  prin- 
ciples of  our  nature,  and  safely  held  up  to  view  as  a  model,  or  stand- 
ard, of  excellence.  Fine  taste  implies  both  delicacy  and  correctness  ; 
and  the  chief  attributes  on  which  it  is  exercised,  are  Sublimity,  Beauty, 
Congruity,  Imitation,  Wit  and  Novelty  ;  which  were  formerly  called 
reflex  senses.  To  the  study  of  the  two  first-named  qualities,  sub- 
limity, and  beauty,  the  Germans  have  applied  the  term,  ^Esthetics  ; 
derived  from  a  Greek  word  signifying  perception. 

Sublimity,  is  that  property,  either  in  natural  objects,  or  in  works 
of  art,  by  which  they  seem  to  expand,  or  elevate,  and  solemnize  the 
mind.  Large  objects,  or  lofty,  or  boundless,  or  obscure  ;  as  a  moun- 
tain, the  ocean,  the  sky,  or  darkness,  frequently  inspire  sublime  emo- 
tions. Mighty  force,  or  motion,  as  the  rolling  of  a  torrent ; — loud 
or  heavy  sounds,  as  of  thunder  or  battles  ; — and  whatever  is  a  source 
of  awe  or  mystery,  are  also  sources  of  the  sublime.  Another  source, 
is  Moral  Sublimity*  arising  from  daring,  heroic,  or  magnanimous 
actions  ;  and  also  from  dignity,  or  elevation  of  character.  Examples 
of  this  may  be  found  in  the  fabled  self-immolation  of  Marcus  Curtius, 
in  the  yawning  gulf  at  Rome ;  and  the  real  devotion  of  the  early  and 
10  G 


74  PSYCHOLOGY. 

the  later  Christian  martyrs.  The  term  grandeur,  literally  signifies 
greatness  ;  but  it  often  implies  the  idea  of  sublimity. 

Beauty,  is  that  property,  by  which  objects  attract  and  please  the 
mind  ;  exciting  a  gentle  emotion.  It  was  originally  applied  to  form, 
texture,  and  color,  or  objects  of  sight:  but  afterwards  extended  to 
graceful  motion  ;  and  also  to  Moral  Beauty,  arising  from  benevolent, 
affectionate,  or  devoted  conduct.  Some  writers  consider  uniformity, 
amidst  variety,  as  the  essence  of  beauty;  and  Hogarth  resolves  beauty 
of  form,  or  motion,  into  the  undulating  or  waving  line,  which  he 
termed  the  curve  of  beauty.  The  curling  of  smoke,  the  bending  of 
tall  grass  in  the  breeze,  and  the  mazy  figures  of  the  dance,  are 
instances  of  beautiful  motion ;  and  the  friendship  of  Damon  and  Py- 
thias is  a  striking  example  of  the  beautiful  in  morals.  Gracefulness, 
we  consider  allied  to  beauty,  as  dignity  is  to  sublimity ;  the  highest 
degree  of  both  belonging  only  to  the  pure  and  the  noble,  in  heart  and 
in  conduct. 

Congruity,  or  suitableness  of  parts,  and  conformity  of  design,  is 
also  a  source  of  beauty ;  but  so  far  distinct,  we  think,  as  to  deserve  a 
separate  consideration.  The  same  may  be  said  of  Imitation,  or  the 
forming  of  resemblances  to  some  object  or  production ;  an  exercise 
which  is  a  fertile  source  of  pleasure.  Novelty,  as  a  source  of  intel- 
lectual enjoyment,  comes  also  within  the  precincts  of  taste  ;  and  if  it 
violate  no  principle,  while  enlarging  the  boundaries  of  art,  it  is  doubt- 
less a  positive  merit.  Wit  belongs  chiefly  to  isolated  ideas,  when 
they  surprise  or  amuse  us,  by  some  unanticipated  resemblance  or  con- 
trast :  and  humor,  is  the  same  quality,  more  gently  and  equably  de- 
veloped. Ridicule,  is  the  application  of  wit,  to  objects  of  censure 
and  satire; — an  application  which  is  sometimes  useful,  but  often 
abused. 

§  4.  The  Objects  of  Composition,  are  to  amuse,  inform,  instruct, 
convince,  or  persuade  the  reader  or  hearer.  All  the  peculiarities  of 
poetical,  romantic,  epistolary,  historical,  philosophical,  or  oratorical 
composition,  respectively,  may  therefore  be  discussed  under  this 
topic. 

Amusement,  is  the  lightest  object  of  composition  ;  though  the 
chief  one  of  many  poets  and  novelists  ;  who  aim  to  select  attractive,  or 
diverting  subjects,  and  to  treat  them  in  an  easy  and  elegant  style.  It 
is  not  unworthy  of  the  attention  of  the  wise  and  the  good,  in  order  to 
render  their  works  more  popular ;  but  they  will  avoid  recourse  to  any 
themes,  or  thoughts,  which  might  corrupt,  or  mislead  their  readers  or 
hearers.  Information,  is  a  somewhat  graver  object,  and  one  which 
belongs  especially  to  the  historian  ;  though  often  applied  also  in  works 
of  fiction.  The  narrative  form  of  composition  employed  for  this 
purpose,  requires  a  perspicuous  style ;  which  is  still  farther  improved 
by  energy  and  elegance.  The  didactic  form  differs  from  narration,  in 
being  addressed  to  the  reasoning,  as  well  as  to  the  perceptive  powers  ; 
and  combining  arguments,  with  facts.  Didactic  composition,  while 
it  is  equally  perspicuous,  should  be  more  energetic,  than  that  which 
is  merely  descriptive.  • 

Conviction,  is  a  still  higher  and  more  difficult  object ;  as  it  aims  to 


RHETORIC.  75 

influence  the  opinions  of  those  who  are  either  indifferent,  or  preju- 
diced against  us.  It  is  most  frequently  attempted  in  the  legislative 
hall;  on  the  political  rostrum  ;  at  the  judicial  bar;  or  in  the  sacred 
desk.  It  requires  all  the  good  qualities  of  style ;  and  especially, 
skill  in  inventing  and  arranging  arguments  ;  which  Dr.  Whately  re- 
gards as  the  chief  province  of  Rhetoric.  This  last,  was  the  object 
of  the  Loci,  or  Topics,  of  the  ancients ;  which  often  degenerated 
into  mere  formalities.  Arguments  should  be  arranged  distinctly,  and 
somewhat  in  the  order  of  a  climax :  beginning  with  strong  ones,  but 
reserving  the  strongest  for  the  last.  Persuasion,  the  last  and  high- 
est object  of  composition,  aims  to  excite  the  feelings  ;  and  to  rouse 
the  hearer  to  immediate  action.  Such  was  the  eloquence  of  Demos- 
thenes, and  Cicero  ;  of  Samuel  Adams,  and  Patrick  Henry.  It  ad- 
mits of  the  boldest  figurative  language,  and  of  appeals  to  every 
allowable  passion;  which  the  orator  must  feel  himself,  or  he  will  in 
vain  endeavour  to  excite  the  feelings  of  others.  Exhortation,  in- 
tended for  a  permanent,  rather  than  transient  effect,  should  generally 
proceed  in  climatic  form ;  not  too  much  prolonged,  nor  closed  too 
abruptly. 

§  5.  The  Management  of  a  Discourse,  presupposes  that  a  suit- 
able subject  is  chosen,  and  that  the  writer  is  supplied  with  ideas  or 
materials  for  composition ;  to  the  arrangement  of  which  this  topic 
principally  relates.  The  great  rule  here  concerned,  is,  that  every 
Composition  should  have  the  requisite  degree  of  Unity,  to  give  it 
interest;  and  accordingly  the  Critics  have  treated  of  "  the  three 
Unities,"  that  is,  of  time,  place,  and  action,  as  necessary  to  every 
great  work  of  genius.  If  some  works  of  genius  have  succeeded, 
though  wanting  in  Unity,  it  has  not  been  in  consequence  of  this 
deficiency,  but  in  despite  of  it;  because  it  was  more  than  counter- 
balanced, by  other  merits.  The  parts  of  a  regular  discourse,  are, 
the  Introduction  ;  the  Statement ;  the  Explication ;  the  Argument ; 
the  Excitation ;  and  the  Conclusion : — not  all  of  which,  however, 
are  always  required,  to  make  the  discourse  complete. 

In  the  Introduction,  Exordium,  or  Proem,  the  writer  aims  to 
interest  his  readers  in  the  subject,  and  to  secure  their  favourable  atten- 
tion. It  should  therefore  be  easy  and  natural ;  modest  withal ;  and 
generally  dispassionate.  It  may  contain  some  preliminary  informa- 
tion, or  allusions  to  the  subject ;  but  without  too  far  anticipating  the 
main  parts,  which  are  to  follow.  In  the  Statement,  Proposition,  or 
Division  of  the  subject,  the  writer  should  state  more  fully  the  object 
in  view  ;  what  he  proposes  to  do,  to  prove,  or  to  disprove.  It  should 
be  perspicuous  and  methodical ;  and  so  divided  as  to  exhaust  the 
subject  without  repetition.  In  the  Explication,  or  Evidence,  should 
be  introduced  the  facts,  or  data,  from  which  the  conclusions  are  to  be 
drawn  ;  whether  resting  on  narration,  quotation,  or  direct  testimony. 

In  the  Argument,  whether  Confirmation  or  Refutation,  should  be 
given  the  conclusions  deduced,  and  the  reasons  for  them ;  the  object 
being  to  convince  the  hearer  that  these  conclusions  are  correct ;  an 
object  already  referred  to,  under  the  topic  of  Conviction.  In  the 
Excitation,  Exhortation,  or  Pathetic  part,  if  such  be  introduced,  the 
speaker  aims  to  rouse  his  audience  to  action ;  often  by  exciting  their 


76  PSYCHOLOGY. 

feelings  or  passions.  This  part  should  be  introduced  opportunely, 
when  it  is  required ;  and  treated  as  already  mentioned,  under  the 
topic  of  Persuasion.  In  the  Conclusion,  or  Peroration,  the  speaker 
should  take  leave  of  his  subject,  and  of  his  audience  ;  implicitly  at 
least,  if  not  in  a  formal  manner.  He  may  here  sum  up  his  results, 
if  addressing  their  reason,  or  make  the  appeal  personal,  if  his  object 
is  to  induce  immediate  action.  Such  are  the  general  rules  for  the 
management  of  a  discourse  ;  but  they  are  subject  to  various  modifica- 
tions, as  time,  place,  and  circumstances  may  require. 

§  6.  The  Principles  of  Elocution,  or  Delivery,  may  be  compre- 
hended under  two  heads,  Enunciation,  and  Gesticulation.  Public 
speaking  generally  requires  them  both  ;  but  in  mere  reading,  gestures 
are  for  the  most  part  superfluous,  at  least  among  our  own  country- 
men ;  though  the  enunciation  should,  we  think,  be  essentially  the 
same  in  both  cases. 

Enunciation,  is  the  pronouncing  of  a  discourse :  and  it  requires 
not  only  that  the  words  should  be  correctly  spoken,  but  with  the 
appropriate  modulations,  or  pauses  and  tones,  of  the  voice.  Pauses 
we  may  here  add,  are  of  two  kinds  ;  punctuative,  serving  to  fix  the 
sense ;  and  emphatic,  giving  time  to  comprehend  and  impress  the 
ideas.  Of  accent,  emphasis,  and  cadence,  we  have  already  spoken, 
in  treating  of  Orthoepy  ;  (p.  44) ;  but  there  are  other  modulations 
and  tones  which  are  essential  to  good  reading  or  speaking.  In 
general,  when  the  sense  of  a  phrase,  or  clause,  depends  immediately 
on  the  following  one,  this  fact  should  be  indicated  by  a  rising  in- 
flexion, or  tone,  of  the  voice ;  but  when  the  sense  is  complete,  al- 
though some  other  idea  is  to  be  added,  it  should  be  marked  by  a  fall- 
ing inflexion  or  cadence.  The  enunciation  should  always  be  distinct, 
and  forcible ;  with  a  due  inhalation  of  breath  at  the  pauses,  and  a 
constant  regard  to  the  sense. 

Gesticulation,  includes  all  postures  and  motions,  of  the  body 
or  limbs,  designed  to  give  effect  to  the  enunciation.  The  posture 
should  be  firm  and  steady  ;  the  head  elevated  ;  and  the  eyes  directed, 
generally,  to  the  farther  part  of  the  audience ;  that  the  voice  may 
reach  them  also  ;  for  the  voice  will  naturally  be  adjusted  to  the 
hearing  of  those  whom  the  speaker  is  particularly  regarding.  The 
expression  of  the  eye,  beaming  with  intelligence  and  kindness,  may 
exert  a  powerful  influence,  which  the  best  speakers  well  know  how 
to  appreciate.  The  gestures  of  the  hands  and  arms  should  be  free 
and  graceful,  animated  and  energetic;  corresponding  to  the  sense; 
and  rather  preceding,  than  following,  the  expression  of  the  idea 
which  they  enforce.  Finally,  the  great  rule  of  Oratory,  is  to  follow 
and  cultivate  nature ;  recollecting  that  the  greatest  art  is  displayed, 
when  all  appearance  of  art  is  concealed. 


LOGIC.  77 

CHAPTER  II. 

LOGIC. 

LOGIC,  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  investigates  the  pro- 
cess of  Reasoning,  and  deduces  rules  for  its  guidance.  The  name 
is  from  the  Greek  ^oyt*^,  of  the  same  meaning ;  and  this  from  a.oyoj, 
which  may  signify  reason,  as  well  as  discourse.  Logic  is  often 
defined  "  the  Art  of  Reasoning ;"  but  in  analyzing  the  process  by 
which  correct  conclusions  are  obtained,  it  equally  merits  the  title  of 
a  Science.  The  term  Logic,  in  former  times,  was  used  in  a  much 
wider  sense,  to  include  various  subjects  on  which  the  reasoning 
powers  were  employed  :  but  this,  as  in  the  case  of  Rhetoric,  is  con- 
founding the  process  with  the  materials  on  which  it  operates.  The 
study  of  Logic,  aids  us  in  forming  correct  conclusions  ;  in  detecting 
sophistry,  fallacies,  or  false  reasoning;  and  in  rectifying  our  own 
errors,  as  well  as  those  of  others. 

Zeno,  of  Elea,  hence  called  the  Eleatic,  is  the  reputed  inventor  of 
Logic,  or  rather  of  the  art  of  disputation  and  sophistry  ;  and  Euclid, 
of  Megara,  a  pupil  of  Socrates,  and  the  founder  of  the  Eristic  school, 
is  said  to  have  invented  many  fallacies,  or  specimens  of  false  reason- 
ing. To  Archytas,  of  Tarentum,  are  attributed  the  ten  Categories 
of  the  ancients ;  (topics  under  which  all  ideas  may  be  classed) ; 
viz.  substance,  quantity,  quality,  relation,  action,  passion,  time, 
place,  situation,  and  habit.  But  the  true  inventor  of  Logic,  was 
Jlristotle ;  who  first  investigated  the  process  of  correct  reasoning,  in 
a  satisfactory  and  scientific  manner.  His  writings,  after  being  lost 
for  a  time,  were  afterwards  found ;  and  in  the  fifth  century  they  were 
translated  into  Latin,  by  Boethius.  His  system  was  widely  perverted 
by  the  schoolmen  of  later  times ;  who,  among  other  things,  pretended 
to  investigate  the  laws  of  the  material  world,  by  mere  logical,  or 
rather  metaphysical  speculations. 

These  errors  were  broadly  exposed  and  counteracted  by  Lord 
Bacon ;  who  unfolded  more  fully  the  method  of  induction,  or  of 
deriving  conclusions  from  facts  and  experiments,  instead  of  specula- 
tions. As  the  schoolmen  had  styled  Aristotle's  treatise  on  Logic, 
Organon,  or  the  great  instrument  of  reasoning ;  Bacon  styled  his 
work  Novum  Organum,  or  the  new  instrument:  and  this  work  is 
believed  by  many  learned  men,  though  not  by  all,  to  have  contributed 
greatly  towards  the  unprecedented  advancement  of  the  exact  sciences, 
in  modern  times.  Dr.  Watts  has  since  written  a  valuable  work,  on 
The  Right  Use  of  Reason;  but  the  best  treatise  on  this  subject,  is 
doubtless  that  of  Archbishop  Whately,  originally  published  with  his 
Rhetoric,  in  the  Encyclopaedia  Metropolitana. 

We  proceed  to  give  some  farther  ideas  of  Logic,  under  the  heads 
of  Terms  and  Conception ;  Propositions  and  Judgment ;  Syllo- 
gisms and  Reasoning ;  Fallacies  or  Sophisms ;  Grounds  of  Judg- 
ment ;  and  Uses  of  Reason. 

§  1.  A  Term,  in  Logic,  is  a  word  or  phrase,  serving  to  express  a 


78  PSYCHOLOGY. 

single  idea,  whether  simple  or  complex ;  as  a  man,  a  good  library. 
An  idea,  we  can  only  define  as  an  object  or  subject  of  thought.  The 
act  of  the  mind,  by  which  the  idea  is  present,  or  presented,  is  called 
Conception;  or,  by  Dr.  Whately,  Simple-apprehension.  Terms, 
being  words,  are  arbitrary  signs  of  ideas,  and  hence  liable  to  be 
indistinct.  The  first  great  step  in  reasoning,  therefore,  is  to  have 
distinct  and  exact  ideas,  corresponding  to  the  terms  which  we  employ 
ourselves,  or  receive  from  others. 

A  simple  term,  as  understood  by  logicians,  consists  of  one  or 
more  words  conveying  a  simple  idea ;  as,  the  book :  but  a  complex 
term,  is  one  which  expresses  a  complex  idea ;  as,  that  good,  old 
man.  An  absolute  term,  is  one  which  has  no  necessary  relation,  or 
reference,  to  any  other :  but  a  relative  term,  implies  some  relation, 
or  has  some  reference ;  as  father,  and  son  ;  which  may  be  called 
correlative  terms.  An  abstract  term,  expresses  merely  a  quality  or 
contingent;  as  roundness,  whiteness:  but  a.  concrete  term,  also 
expresses  substance  ;  as,  a  man ;  a  book.  A  singular,  or  monental 
term,  expresses  but  one  object ;  as  George  Washington :  but  a  com- 
mon, or  universal  term,  expresses  a  whole  class,  genus,  or  species 
of  objects  ;  as  man,  tree.  A  term  expressing  a  class  of  objects, 
may  comprehend  several  genera ;  and  one  expressing  a  genus, 
may  include  many  species ;  each  of  which  may  include  several 
varieties  ;  and  each  of  these  may  comprehend  numerous  individuals. 

Privative,  or  negative  terms,  are  such  as  express  the  want  of  a 
quality,  or  absence  of  an  object:  as  dumbness,  nonentity.  Com,' 
patible  terms,  are  such  as  express  qualities,  contingents,  or  relations, 
that  are  consistent,  or  may  exist  together.  Univocal  terms,  are 
those  which  have  always  one  and  the  same  meaning ;  while  equivo- 
cal, or  ambiguous  terms,  have  more  significations  than  one.  Analo- 
gous terms  are  such  as  have  similar  meanings ;  and  synonymous 
terms  are  such  as  have  the  same  meaning;  as  omnipotent  and 
almighty;  omniscient,  and  all-knowing.  Definitions  of  terms,  are 
real,  when  they  describe  the  object,  or  its  properties;  but  nominal, 
when  they  explain  the  term  merely  by  using  its  synonyms :  as 
when  a  billow  is  defined  to  be  a  wave.  A  universal  term  is  said  to 
be  distributed,  when  applied  in  its  widest  sense,  to  include  every 
individual  which  it  comprehends. 

§  2.  A  Proposition,  is  an  expression  in  which  something  is  predi- 
cated, that  is  affirmed  or  denied  ;  as,  John  is  good  ;  horses  can  run. 
It  is  the  result  of  a  Comparison,  or  Judgment,  expressed  in  words  ; 
and  it  necessarily  consists  of  two  terms,  expressed  or  implied,  one 
of  which  is  called  the  subject  and  the  other  the  predicate;  these 
being  united  by  a  copula,  which  is  often  some  form  of  the  verb  to 
be.  In  the  first  example  above  given,  Jo hn  is  the  subject;  good, 
the  predicate  ;  and  is,  is  the  copula.  The  second  example  above,  is 
irregular,  but  signifies,  horses  are  capable  of  running;  in  which 
form,  capable  of  running  is  the  predicate.  In  a  simple  proposition, 
the  subject  and  predicate  are  both  simple  terms;  but  in  a  complex 
proposition  they  are  one  or  both  complex.  Categorical  propositions 
express  the  result  absolutely ;  but  hypothetical  propositions  express 
it  conditionally,  or  with  restrictions ;  as,  John  is  good,  if  he  is  tern- 


LOGIC.  79 

perate.  In  modal  propositions,  the  copula  or  verb  is  qualified ;  as, 
Brutus  killed  Ceesar  justly.  A.  compound  proposition  has  two  or 
more  subjects,  or  predicates  ;  and  may  be  resolved  into  two  or  more 
simple  propositions. 

As  regards  quantity,  propositions  are  either  universal  or  particu- 
lar ;  and  as  regards  their  quality,  or  nature,  they  are  either  affirmative 
or  negative.  Hence  arise  four  kinds  of  Propositions,  which  are  de- 
signated, in  Books  of  Logic,  by  the  first  four  vowels ;  and  named,  as 
in  the  following  examples. 

A.  Every  war  is  just.     Universal  Affirmative. 
E.  Every  war  is  unjust.     Universal  Negative. 
I.    Some  wars  are  just.     Particular  Affirmative. 
O.  Some  wars  are  unjust.     Particular  Negative. 

Referring  to  these  forms,  when  compared  together,  A  and  E  are  termed 
Contraries:  I  and  0,  Subcontraries  :  A  and  O,  or  I  and  E,  Contra- 
dictories ;  and  A  and  I,  or  E  and  O,  are  termed  Subalterns.  From  this, 
it  will  be  seen,  that  two  Contraries  cannot  both  be  true,  though  they 
may  both  be  false  ;  two  Subcontraries  may  both  be  true,  but  not  both 
false;  two  Contradictories  cannot  both  be  true,  nor  yet  both  false;  and 
of  two  Subalterns,  the  particular  is  true  if  the  universal  is,  but  the 
particular  may  be  true,  and  the  universal  false.  In  the  Conversion  of 
a  proposition,  or  making  the  subject  and  predicate  change  places,  care 
must  be  taken  to  restrict  the  terms  to  their  first  or  original  meaning. 

§  3.  A  Syllogism,  is  an  argument,  stated,  as  every  argument 
may  be,  in  a  regular  Logical  form  ;  as,  All  tyrants  deserve  death : 
Caesar  was  a  tyrant ;  therefore  he  deserved  death.  An  argument, 
technically  defined,  is  a  process  of  Reasoning,  or  of  inference,  in 
which  something  is  concluded  or  proved,  by  the  comparison  of  certain 
conditions  or  data.  The  use  of  a  syllogism,  is  to  test  the  correctness 
of  an  argument,  in  difficult  or  doubtful  cases ;  in  which,  though  often 
contemned,  it  is  an  instrument  of  real  importance.  It  should  be  ob- 
served, however,  that  not  only  must  the  process  of  reasoning  be  legi- 
timate, but  the  data,  to  which  it  is  applied,  must  also  be  correct,  in 
order  to  insure  a  correct  conclusion.  Every  syllogism  consists  of 
three  propositions,  expressed  or  implied  ;  two  of  which  are  given,  and 
called  the  premises,  or  data ;  while  the  third,  which,  before  being 
proved,  was  called  the  question,  becomes,  when  proved,  the  conclu- 
sion or  inference.  A  syllogism  necessarily  contains  only  three  terms  ; 
each  being  twice  employed.  In  the  example, 

Every  plant  is  combustible  : 

Every  Le  is  a  plant; 

Therefore,  every  tree  is  combustible. 

Plant  is  the  middle  term,  because  found  in  both  the  premises  ;  tree 
is  the  minor  term,  found  in  the  second  or  minor  premiss  ;  and  com- 
bustible is  the  major  term,  which  is  always  the  predicate  of  the  con- 
clusion. If  one  of  the  premises  be  negative,  the  conclusion,  if  there 
be  any,  must  be  negative  also. 

The  figure  of  a  syllogism,  has  reference  to  the  place  of  the  middle 
term ;  and  the  mood  depends  upon  the  kinds  of  propositions,  among 


80  PSYCHOLOGY. 

the  four  kinds  above  tabulated,  which  are  employed.     In  the  follow- 
ing verses,  all  the  allowable  moods  are  indicated  by  means  of  mnemo- 
nical  words  ;  the  kind  of  propositions  used,  being  designated  by  the 
vowels  in  the  name  ;  as  explained  in  the  preceding  section. 
Fig.  1.  Barbara,  Celarent,  Darii,  Ferio-que  prioris ; 
Fig.  2.  Cesare,  Camestres,  Festino,  Baroko,  secimdaj; 
Fig.  3.  Tertia  Darapti,   Disamis,   Datisi,  Felapton, 

Bokardo,  Feriso,  habet:  quarta  insuper  addit. 
Fig.  4.  Bramantip,  Camenes,  Dimaris,  Fesapo,  Fresison 
The  example  last  given,  concerning  trees  and  plants,  is  in  the  mood 
Barbara  ;  all  three  of  its  propositions  being  universal  and  affirmative  ; 
universal  as  regards  their  quantity,  and  affirmative  in  regard  to 
quality.  An  Enthymeme,  is  a  syllogism,  abridged  by  suppressing 
one  of  the  premises ;  as,  every  tree  is  a  plant,  and  therefore  combus- 
tible. An  Epichirema,  is  a  compound  argument,  in  which  the  pre- 
mises are  separately  proved  by  syllogisms,  before  drawing  from  them 
the  final  conclusion.  A  Dilemma,  is  a  complex  or  conditional  syllo- 
gism ;  in  which  something  is  proved,  either  as  still  true  under  vary- 
ing conditions ;  or  as  conditionally  true,  under  one  of  two  or  more 
alternatives.  The  reductio  ad  impossible,  and  reductio  ad  absur- 
dum,  consist  in  proving  something,  by  showing  that  the  contrary 
would  involve  either  an  impossibility  or  an  absurdity.  A  Sorites,  is 
a  series  of  abridged  syllogisms,  from  which  a  final  conclusion  is  derived. 
§  4.  A  Fallacy,  or  Sophism,  is  a  false  argument;  or  else  an  argu- 
ment leading  to  a  false  conclusion.  The  use  of  such  arguments  is 
sometimes  called  sophistry ;  and  in  complex  cases,  it  may  be  very 
difficult  to  detect.  When  the  premises  are  false,  or  unsupported,  or 
irrelevant,  the  fallacy  is  called  material ;  but  when  the  error  is  in  the 
process  of  employing  them,  the  fallacy  is  called  logical. 

Of  material  fallacies,  the  petitio  principii,  or  begging  of  the  ques- 
tion, consists  in  assuming  that  what  is  to  be  proved,  is  true,  merely 
by  stating  it  in  another  form:  as  when  it  is  said  that  miracles  are 
impossible  ;  for  nothing  contrary  to  the  course  of  nature  can  possibly 
take  place.  Here  is  assertion,  and  assumption ;  but  no  proof.  The 
elenchus  in  orbe,  or  arguing  in  a  circle,  is  where  one  thing  is  proved 
by  assuming  a  second  to  be  true  ;  and  this  second  is  then  seemingly 
proved  by  the  aid  of  the  first.  The  ignorantia  elenchi,  or  ignorance 
of  the  question,  is  where  the  arguments,  whether  true  or  false,  do 
not  strictly  apply  to  it.  All  irrelevant  matter,  such  as  a  personal 
allusion,  or  an  argumentum  ad  hominem,  comes  under  this  class. 
The  fallacy  of  equivocation,  consists  in  using  the  same  term  in 
two  different  senses :  as  if  we  should  say,  light  is  opposed  to  dark- 
ness :  but  feathers  are  light ;  therefore  feathers  are  opposed  to  dark- 
ness. Here  the  fallacy  is  evident,  and  the  conclusion  absurd ;  but 
there  are  other  cases,  where  the  conclusion  may  be  plausible,  and  the 
fallacy  very  difficult  of  detection  ;  especially  in  the  midst  of  a  sorites 
or  protracted  argumentation. 

The  fallacy  of  composition,  assumes  that  to  be  true  generally, 
which  is  only  so  in  a  restricted  sense.  The  reverse  of  this,  or  fallacy 
of  division,  assumes  that  to  be  true,  in  a  particular  case,  which  is 
not  so  in  that  case,  though  it  may  be  in  similar  ones.  The  fallacy  of 


LOGIC.  81 

accidents,  or  fallacia  accidentis,  consists  in  deriving  general  con- 
clusions from  data  which  are  only  accidentally  or  temporarily  true. 
Lord  Bacon,  in  his  Novum  Organum,  arranged  the  various  sources 
of  error  in  opinion,  under  four  heads ;  which  he  fancifully  called, 
idola  tribus,  or  general  errors  of  parties  and  sects  ;  idola  specus,  or 
peculiar  errors  of  individuals ;  idola  fori,  or  errors  of  language  and 
conception ;  and  idola  theatri,  or  errors  of  perception  and  specu- 
lation. 

§  5.  Under  the  head  of  Grounds  of  Judgment,  we  would  treat 
of  the  evidence,  or  proof,  on  which  our  premises  rest ;  and  the  de- 
gree of  weight,  or  credence,  to  be  given  to  them.  Premises,  we 
have  said,  are  results  of  judgment;  and  a  judgment  we  would  define 
to  be  an  act  of  the  mind,  by  which  it  perceives  the  correspondence, 
or  the  disagreement  of  two  ideas.  The  ground,  or  basis,  on  which  a 
judgment  rests,  is  called  Evidence  ;  which  may  be  either  personal  or 
historical,  factive  or  deductive.  Personal  evidence,  is  that  afforded 
by  our  own  senses  or  reasoning  powers  ;  being  the  result  of  con- 
sciousness, or  perception  ;  or  at  least  founded  thereon  ;  as  in  experi- 
ments, observations,  and  axioms,  which  we  perceive,  feel,  or  recog- 
nise to  be  true.  Historical  evidence,  is  that  which  we  have  on  the 
authority  of  others,  as  the  testimony  of  witnesses,  and  the  statements 
of  writers.  Factive  evidence  is  that  which  rests  immediately  on 
perception  or  consciousness,  or  on  the  memory  of  past  perception  or 
consciousness ;  while  deductive  evidence  is  that  which  is  deduced 
from  factive,  by  some  process  of  reasoning ;  and  which  is  used  for 
premises  in  deriving  farther  conclusions. 

As  regards  its  degree  of  certainty,  evidence  is  either  indubitable 
or  probable.  Demonstrative  evidence,  such  as  is  employed  in  the 
exact  sciences,  resting  on  definitions  or  axioms,  is  usually  considered 
indubitable  ;  and  distinguished  as  mathematical  certainty.  Percep- 
tive evidence,  derived  from  experiments  or  observations,  ranks  nearly 
as  high,  and  is  termed  physical  certainty.  Historical  evidence,, 
strongly  corroborated,  is  next  to  indubitable,  and  is  characterized  as 
moral  certainty.  Analogical,  or  inductive  evidence,  founded  on  the 
presumption  of  similar  effects  from  similar  causes,  or  of  like  condi- 
tions from  like  circumstances,  has  various  degrees  of  probability,  in 
different  cases,  and  requires  to  be  carefully  weighed.  Such  evidence, 
admits,  in  some  cases,  of  mathematical  valuation ;  and  some  estimate 
of  its  value  we  are  often  compelled  to  make,  in  the  ordinary  con- 
cerns of  life.  The  Calculus  of  probabilities,  in  which  such  valua- 
tion is  most  accurately  made,  belongs  to  the  department  of  Mathe- 
matics ;  and  is  the  basis  of  life  insurance,  and  other  important 
operations. 

§  6.  The  Uses  of  Reason  are  not  confined  to  the  deriving  of  con- 
clusions, nor  even  to  the  verification  of  premises  :  but  they  extend 
also  to  the  invention  of  new  premises,  or  the  discovery  of  new 
truths ;  and  to  the  methods  of  prosecuting  such  discoveries.  New 
truths  are  most  frequently  suggested  to  the  mind,  by  analogy,  or  by 
induction.  Thus,  when  it  became  known  that  lead  was  fusible,  it 
was  suggested  by  analogy  that  other  metals  might  also  be  melted ; 
and  when  this  was  found  to  be  the  case  with  all  the  metals  then 
11 


82  PSYCHOLOGY. 

known,  it  was  concluded,  by  induction,  that  all  metals  have  the  pro- 
perty of  being  fusible;  as  later  discoveries  have  farther  indicated. 
We  can  only  add,  that  analogy  and  induction  should  not  be  trusted 
too  far,  without  experimental  verifications. 

There  are  two  opposite  methods  of  employing  our  reasoning  pow- 
ers •  the  analytic  and  synthetic.  In  the  analytic  method,  we  resolve 
a  complex  subject  into  its  simple  elements ;  or  trace  effects  back  to 
their  causes;  while  in  the  synthetic  method,  we  recombme  the 
elements  to  reproduce  the  complex  result ;  or  follow  out  the  causes, 
to  discover  the  effects  which  they  may  produce.  Each  method  has 
its  advantages;  and  each  serves  to  corroborate  the  conclusions 
obtained  from  the  other.  The  analytic  method  is  the  most  useful  in 
discovering  new  truths  ;  but  is  generally  more  abstract  and  intricate. 
Hence  the  synthetic  method  is  frequently  used  for  instruction,  or 
demonstration;  and  it  serves  to  explain  the  relations  of  cause  and 
effect,  in  a  more  natural  order.  In  all  arguments,  or  controversies, 
care  should  be  taken  to  fix  and  define  the  exact  meaning  of  the  terms 
employed;  for  many  disputes  are  verbal,  and  not  real;  arising 
solely  from  different  ideas  being  attached  to  the  same  word  or  term. 
Another  important  rule  of  controversy,  is,  that  we  should  avoid  all 
personal  reflections  upon  an  adversary ;  particularly  where  abstract 
truth  is  the  object  of  the  argument. 


CHAPTER  III. 

PHRENICS. 

WE  would  apply  the  term  Phrenics,  to  Mental  Philosophy  ;  or 
to  that  branch  of  knowledge,  which  treats  of  the  faculties  of  the 
human  mind,  and  their  laws  of  action ;  with  a  general  reference  to 
their  use  and  cultivation.  The  early  improvement  of  the  mind 
depends  upon  the  laws  of  Phrenics  ;  but  is  made  a  special  study 
under  the  branch  of  Education.  The  name  Phrenics,  is  from  the 
Greek  $wv,  the  mind ;  from  which  is  also  derived  the  term  Phreno- 
logy, a  term  now  appropriated  to  a  particular  scheme,  or  system,  of 
Mental  Philosophy.  The  terms  Metaphysics,  and  Pneumatology, 
have  also  been  applied  to  this  branch ;  but  of  their  impropriety  we 
have  already  spoken,  (p.  36).  Much  as  this  study  has  been  obscured 
by  conflicting  systems,  it  is  one  of  practical  utility ;  especially  as 
introductory  to  Ethics,  and  Education. 

Although  the  nature,  or  essence  of  the  mind  is  unknown  to  us ; 
we  know  that  its  actions,  or  manifestations,  consist  of  either  thought 
or  feeling;  and  that  all  thought  is  composed  of  ideas;  which  may  be 
defined  objects  or  simple  elements  of  thought.  We  know  the  exist- 
ence of  the  mind,  as  distinct  from  matter,  by  our  own  consciousness ; 
by  analogical  reasoning  ;  and  by  the  evidence  of  the  Scriptures.  We 
have  like  strong  reasons  for  believing  the  mind,  or  soul,  to  be  immor- 
tal, and  imperishable ;  although  the  mortal  body,  which  connected  it 
with  the  material  world,  after  having  performed  its  task,  shall  be  laid 


PHRENICS.  83 

aside.  "  Although  the  scaffolding  of  the  senses  should  be  thrown 
down  :"  the  edifice  will  be  complete  ;  the  object  for  which  the  senses 
were  given  will  have  been  attained  ;  "  and  no  argument  against  the 
soul's  immortality  can  be  deduced  from  their  decay." 

Aristotle  supposed  ideas  to  be  images,  or  phantasms  ;  resembling 
their  original  objects,  but  conveyed  to,  and  existing  in,  the  mind! 
Hence  the  doctrine  of  the  Schoolmen,  that  "  nothing  exists  in  the 
mind,  which  was  not  first  perceived  by  the  senses."  Descartes,  on 
the  contrary,  maintained  the  doctrine  of  innate  ideas :  that  is,  of 
certain  impressions  or  principles,  coexistent  with  the  mind,  or  at 
least  independent  of  the  senses.  Locke  rejected  this  doctrine  also  ; 
but  he  admitted  that  the  mind  may  derive  ideas,  by  reflecting  on  its 
own  operations,  as  well  as  by  means  of  the  senses.  Hobbes,  prior 
to  Locke,  had  proposed  a  material  theory  of  the  mind ;  attributing 
all  thought  to  certain  sensations,  or  motions,  of  the  body.  This 
probably  led  Berkeley  to  promulge  his  ideal  theory ;  maintaining 
that  what  are  called  sensible,  material  objects,  are  not  external,  but 
exist  only  in  the  mind.  Thus,  while  Hobbes  denied  the  existence 
of  the  mind,  Berkeley  went  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  denying  the 
existence  of  matter. 

Hume  was  so  sceptical  as  to  deny  that  we  can  know  any  thing 
certainly,  or  even  that  there  is  any  necessary  connection  between  cause 
and  effect ;  while  Kant,  on  the  other  hand,  maintained  not  only  the 
existence  of  this  connection,  but  that  our  knowledge  of  it  is  sponta- 
neous or  intuitive.  Dr.  Reid  also  maintained  the  existence  of  cer- 
tain ideas,  which  cannot  be  derived  from  the  senses ;  as  the  percep- 
tion of  right  and  wrong,  or  the  moral  sense.  Stewart  modified  this 
theory,  by  admitting  that  sensible  objects  first  occasion  the  use  of 
our  faculties ;  though  he  maintained  that  the  mind  can  afterwards 
operate  upon*  the  ideas  or  materials  derived  from  perception :  and  this 
view  of  the  subject  we  are  inclined  to  adopt.  Dr.  Brown  and  others 
have  endeavored  to  show  how  we  may  trace  the  connection  of  ideas, 
by  the  laws  of  suggestion  or  association :  laws  which  are  well  wor- 
thy of  attention,  so  far  as  they  can  be  proved  to  exist. 

The  doctrine  of  Phrenology,  proposed  by  Dr.  Gall,  as  early  as 
1798,  and  improved  by  Dr.  Spurzheim,  considers  the  mind  as  pos- 
sessed of  certain  faculties,  or  influenced  by  certain  affections ;  each 
of  which  is  connected  with  a  certain  portion  of  the  brain,  as  its  seat, 
or  organ ;  on  the  developement  of  which,  its  strength  and  activity 
depend.  This  theory  does  not  controvert  the  unity  of  the  mind,  as  a 
spiritual  and  responsible  agent ;  but  attempts  to  explain  its  phenomena 
more  fully  than  the  older  systems.  We  are  not  prepared  to  adopt  it 
in  full ;  still  less  to  disprove  it ; — but  we  think  that  its  introduction 
has  been  of  benefit  to  this  branch  of  knowledge ;  particularly  in  im- 
proving the  classification  of  the  mental  powers.* 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Phrenics,  under  the  four  heads  of  Propen- 
sities ;  Sentiments  ;  Perceptive  Powers  ;  and  Reflective  Powers  ; — 
the  two  former  comprising  the  affections  ;  the  two  latter,  the  intel- 
lect, or  reason. 

*  The  positions  and  names  of  the  cerebral  organs,  are  given  in  Plate  III. ;  ac- 
cording to  the  latest  Boston  edition  of  Combe's  Phrenology. 


84  PSYCHOLOGY. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Propensities,  we  here  include  those 
appetites,  and  instincts,  by  which  man  is  influenced,  in  common  with 
the  lower  animals ;  most  of  them  having  the  preservation  of  the  in- 
dividual, or  that  of  the  species,  for  their  object,  or  final  cause. 
Though  capable  of  suggesting  thoughts,  they  more  commonly  excite 
desires,  irrespective  of  the  reasoning  powers.  Among  them  the 
Phrenologists  include  Alimentiveness,  or  the  desire  of  food  and 
drink ;  and  Amativeness,  or  the  attachment  of  the  sexes  ;  these  being 
termed  the  animal  appetites  :  also  Philoprogenitiveness,  or  fondness 
for  children  ;  Concentrativeness,  or  an  instinct  to  perseverance,  and 
concentration  of  thought;  Adhesiveness,  or  attachment  to  persons 
and  places ;  Combativeness,  or  an  impulse  to  repel  aggressions,  and 
when  excessive,  an  impulse  to  attack  others  ;  Destructiveness,  or  an 
impulse  to  kill  or  destroy,  belonging  chiefly  to  carnivorous  animals ; 
Secretiveness,  or  an  impulse  to  conceal ;  Acquisitiveness,  or  an  im- 
pulse to  acquire  and  possess ;  and  Constructiveness,  or  an  impulse 
to  build  and  fabricate. 

All  these  propensities,  it  may  be  observed,  belong  to  other  orders  of 
animals,  as  well  as  to  the  human  race.  Granting  their  existence,  as 
elementary  principles,  by  which  the  mind  is  more  or  less  influenced, — 
whether  connected  with  particular  organs  of  the  brain,  or  not, — we 
think  that  Imitativeness,  or  an  impulse  to  imitate  persons  and  things  ; 
and  perhaps  Cautiousness,  if  it  be  a  distinct  affection,  should  be 
placed  in  the  same  class.  Each  of  these  propensities,  may  produce  a 
desire,  which,  when  violent,  is  termed  a  passion:  and  these  passions, 
it  is  the  province  of  reason  to  direct  and  control ;  lest  they  should 
prove  impulses  to  destruction,  rather  than  to  preservation.  Emotions, 
which  differ  from  passions,  in  being  unaccompanied  by  desire,  may 
also  result  from  these  propensities ;  but  they  more  commonly  belong 
to' the  next  class  of  mental  affections. 

§  2.  The  Sentiments,  so  called,  are  a  higher  class  of  feelings ; 
generally  excited  or  called  forth  by  the  perceptive  powers,  though 
afterwards  capable  of  acting  reflectively.  We  call  them  feelings  ; 
conceiving  that  they  are  to  the  mind,  what  sensation  is  to  the  body. 
Their  use,  like  that  of  the  propensities,  seems  to  consist  in  prompting 
men  to  action,  where  reason  might  fail ;  and  rewarding  right  conduct 
with  mental  enjoyment;  through  the  wise  provision  of  our  beneficent 
Creator.  These  sentiments  are  so  similar  to  some  of  the  propensities 
before  mentioned,  that  we  think  the  line  of  distinction  between  them 
somewhat  doubtful  and  arbitrary.  They  may  be  classed  as  either 
moral  or  intellectual.  Of  Moral  Sentiments,  Phrenologists  enumerate 
Self-esteem,  or  a  sense  of  personal  merit  and  importance;  Jlppro- 
bativeness,  or  a  desire  for  the  esteem  of  others  ;  Cautiousness,  which 
we  have  already  mentioned ;  Benevolence,  or  the  desire  of  good  to 
others;  Veneration,  or  the  sense  of  dependence,  and  feeling  of 
reverence  ;  Firmness,  or  the  sense  of  power  and  free  agency,  when 
excessive,  leading  to  obstinacy ;  Conscientiousness,  sense  of  duty, 
or  the  Moral  Sense ;  and  Hope,  or  inclination  to  expect  some  future 
good.  Of  Intellectual  Sentiments,  the  Phrenologists  enumerate 
Wonder,  or  rather  Curiosity,  by  which  the  mind  is  impressed  with 
things  new  or  remarkable ;  Ideality,  or  a  sense  of  the  beautiful,  and 


PLATE    III.       1'HRKNOLOGY. 


ORGANS. 


*  Al.  Alimentiveness. 

1.  Jim.  Amativeness. 

2.  Phil.  Philoprogenitiveness. 

3.  Cone.  Concentrativeness. 

4.  Ad.  Adhesiveness. 

5.  Com.  Combativeness. 

6.  Des.  Destructiveness. 

7.  Sec.  Secretiveness. 

8.  Ac.  Acquisitiveness. 

9.  Co.  Const ructiveness. 

10.  S.  E.  Self  Esteem. 

11.  App.  Love  of  Approbation. 

12.  Caut.  Cautiousness. 

13.  Ben.  Benevolence. 

14.  Ven.  Veneration. 

15.  Fir.  Firmness. 

16.  Cora.  Conscientiousness. 

17.  Ho.  Hope. 

18.  Wo.  Wonder. 

19.  Id.  Ideality. 

20.  Wi.  Wit. 

21.  fm.  Imitation. 

22.  /re.  Individuality. 

23.  F.  Form.  — 24.   S.  Size. 

25.  W.  Weight. 

26.  C.  Coloring. 

27.  IM.  Locality. 
2H.  JV.  Number. 

29.  O   Order. 

30.  Ev.  Eventuality. 

31.  T.  Time.  — 32.    Tu   Tune. 

33.  L.  Language. 

34.  Comp.  Comparison. 

35.  Cans.  Causality. 


Engraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


PHRENICS.  85 

perhaps  also  of  the  sublime;  Wit,  or  a  sense  of  the  ludicrous;  and 
Imitation,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken. 

To  these  simple  or  primitive  sentiments,  in  connection  with  the 
propensities  and  reasoning  powers,  and  with  the  influence  of  external 
causes,  we  think  all  other  sentiments,  so  called,  may  be  traced.  Thus, 
Energy  and  Cheerfulness  arise  from  good  health,  uprightness,  and 
prosperity;  but  Languor,  and  Melancholy,  from  ill  health,  and  ad- 
versity, or  sometimes  from  vicious  conduct.  Joy  and  Sorrow, 
Gratification  and  Regret,  Pleasure  and  Pain,  are  produced  by  various 
causes,  physical,  intellectual,  or  moral;  their  nature  and  intensity 
varying  with  the  cause.  Sympathy,  Friendship,  and  Love,  arise 
from  benevolence,  adhesiveness,  or  personal  congruities ;  but  Anti- 
pathy, or  Dislike,  and  Hatred,  from  personal  incongruities,  with  ex- 
cessive combativeness,  or  want  of  benevolence.  Anger,  results  from 
personal  injuries  ;  and  Gratitude,  from  personal  favours.  Pride  is  an 
excess,  and  Humility,  a  deficiency,  of  self-esteem  ;  the  latter  con- 
joined perhaps  with  veneration.  Vanity  is  an  excessive  manifestation 
of  approbativeness  ;  Misanthropy,  a  want  of  benevolence  ;  Remorse, 
a  reflective  action  of  conscientiousness  ;  and  Despair,  is  the  absence 
or  inactivity  of  hope,  in  depressing  circumstances.  It  may  be  doubted 
whether  Moral  Approbation,  or  the  "  sympathetic  emotion  of  virtue" 
should  be  reckoned  as  a  primitive  sentiment,  or  as  one  derived  from 
conscientiousness.  The  distinction,  given  by  Lord  Kames,  between 
emotions,  and  passions,  is,  that  the  latter  excite  desire ;  while  the 
former  do  not :  but  both  these  results,  we  think,  may  belong  to  the 
same  sentiment,  at  different  times  or  stages. 

§  3.  The  Perceptive  Powers,  are  those  which  enable  us  to  form 
ideas  of  external  objects,  through  the  medium  of  the  senses;  that  is, 
by  means  of  sensation.  Sensation  is  an  effect  produced  by  mate- 
rial objects  upon  the  organs  of  sense,  and  by  them,  through  the  ner- 
vous system  and  the  brain,  upon  the  mind  ;  causing  that  mental 
operation  which  is  called  Perception.  The  different  modes  of  sen- 
sation, are  the  Jive  senses  ;  Seeing,  Hearing,  Smelling,  Tasting,  and 
Feeling.  By  these  we  derive  the  simple  ideas  of  Color,  Form, 
Size,  Tone  or  Sound,  Smell,  Taste,  Weight  or  Resistance,  Tempe- 
rature, and  Physical  Pleasure  or  Pain.  Dr.  Darwin  regarded  the 
sensations  of  heat  and  of  pain  as  primitive ;  ranking  them  with  the 
five  senses  above  named.  The  ideas  of  Number,  Order,  Time, 
Motion,  Action  or  Eventuality,  and  Position  or  Locality,  we  regard 
as  complex,  and  dependent  in  part  on  the  reasoning  powers.  Ideas 
of  shape,  and  size,  may  be  acquired  either  by  seeing,  or  feering ;  but 
ideas  of  color,  sound,  smell,  taste,  and  resistance,  can  only  be 
acquired  each  by  a  single  mode  of  sensation. 

The  enumeration  of  simple  and  of  complex  ideas  above  given, 
differs  somewhat  from  the  assignment  of  organs  by  the  Phrenolo- 
gists, and  is  offered  with  diffidence,  though  derived  from  high  autho- 
rities. (Plate  III).  We  may  here  add,  that  the  senses  cannot  always 
be  implicitly  depended  upon  ;  even  when  the  most  acute.  The  eye  is 
often  deceived,  in  the  distance  of  objects,  and  the  ear,  in  the  direction 
of  sounds.  We  may  sometimes  imagine  that  we  see  or  hear,  when 
influenced  only  by  mental  excitement ;  or  on  the  other  hand,  our 

H 


86  PSYCHOLOGY. 

organs  of  sense  may  receive  impressions,  and  the  mind  remain  insen- 
sible to  them,  from  "inactivity  or  pre-engagement.  Hence  the  import- 
ance of  Mention,  to  insure  correct  perceptions.  The  eye  and  the 
ear,  or  the  senses  of  seeing  and  hearing,  are  the  sources  of  nearly  all 
those  ideas  which  are  connected  with  the  Fine  Arts;  and  from 
which  the  Intellectual  sentiments  are  chiefly  derived.  Hence,  they 
are  the  senses  chiefly  concerned  in  the  cultivation  of  taste  ;  though 
subordinate  to  the  intellectual  powers.  Wonderful  is  the  adaptation 
of  our  senses  to  the  world  in  which  we  live.  Were  the  whole  body 
as  sensible  to  light  as  the  eye,  or  to  sound  as  the  ear,  we  should  be 
in  continual  torture  ;  and  were  the  eye  and  ear  less  sensible  to  these 
agents,  the)'-  would  no  longer  serve  their  purpose,  to  put  the  mind  in 
communication  with  the  external  world.  This  admirable  harmony  of 
our  being,  is  one  among  many  proofs  of  the  existence  and  benevo- 
lence of  the  Deity. 

§  4.  The  Reflective  Powers,  of  which  we,  are  lastly  to  treat,  are 
the  highest  class  of  intellectual  powers;  by  the  action  of  which,  all 
the  others  are,  or  should  be  regulated.  They  are  developed  later 
than  most  of  the  preceding  powers  ;  on  which  they  are  primarily 
dependent  for  ideas  and  motives.  Ideas  being  once  acquired  by 
Perception,  may  be  recalled  by  Memory,  prompted  by  their  previous 
relations ;  and  may  be  variously  modified  or  combined  by  the  Ima- 
gination or  Fancy.  Memory,  and  Imagination,  have  been  termed 
reflex  perception ;  and  though  not  reasoning  powers,  they  are  men- 
tal exercises  auxiliary  to  them,  as  furnishing  the  materials  on  which 
these  are  employed.  That  cognisance  which  the  mind  takes  of  its 
own  operations  may  be  called  internal  perception,  or  reflection  ;  and 
this  likewise,  furnishes  materials  for  reasoning.  Habit,  or  the  forma- 
tion of  habits,  we  regard  as  depending  on  Memory,  and  the  Will, 
influenced  by  the  Association  of  ideas.  The  writers  on  Phrenology, 
rank  Language  with  the  perceptive  powers ;  but  it  seems  to  us  to 
belong  rather  to  the  reflective  powers,  and  is  be  intimately  connected 
with  the  Association  of  ideas  ;  which  we  regard  as  the  basis  of  all 
reasoning. 

The  process  of  reasoning,  including  Conception,  Comparison,  and 
Inference  or  Causality,  has  already  been  alluded  to,  under  the 
branch  of  Logic.  By  Conception,  we  recall  ideas,  not  necessarily 
as  matters  of  feeling  or  fact,  but  simply  as  objects  of  thought:  by 
the  faculty  of  Individuality,  we  consider  several  ideas  belonging  to 
a  complex  object,  as  a  whole,  or  generalize  them  :  and  by  Abstrac- 
tion, we  consider  the  simple  or  component  ideas  separately,  or  ana- 
lyze them.  By  Comparison,  we  examine  two  ideas  in  connection, 
and  form  a  Judgment ;  and  by  Inference  or  Causality,  we  combine  two 
or  more  judgments  or  propositions,  to  deduce  a  Conclusion  ;  or  we 
seek  a  cause  of  some  effect,  or  an  effect  of  some  cause.  Analogy, 
and  Induction,  or  rather  analogical  and  inductive  reasoning,  which 
we  have  referred  to,  under  Logic,  may,  we  think,  be  considered  as 
distinct  processes,  if  not  distinct  mental  powers. 

In  describing  the  mental  powers,  we  must  carefully  guard  against 
the  idea  that  these  powers  collectively  constitute  the  mind ;  as  an 
assemblage  of  Senators  may  compose  a  Senate.  They  are  to  be 


ETHICS.  87 

regarded  only  as  affections  or  faculties,  with  which  the  soul  is 
endowed  ;  and  for  the  right  use  of  which,  it  will  be  held  responsible, 
by  its  Creator.  It  remains  to  speak  of  the  Will,  or  Volition  ;  which 
we  conceive  to  be  the  final  decision  of  the  mind ;  or  if  regarded  as 
a  mental  power,  it  is  the  power  to  act,  sometimes  called  the  power 
of  agency.  Our  actions  depend  on  our  thoughts  ;  and  these  are 
influenced  not  only  by  passing  events,  but  by  their  own  associa- 
tions,— previously  existing, — from  resemblance,  proximity,  contrast, 
or  other  causes  ;  whereby  one  idea  suggests  another,  often  involun- 
tarily. Hence  the  great  importance  of  correct  associations  of  ideas, 
to  prompt  the  memory,  and  aid  the  reason.  That  the  Will  is  so 
often  opposed  to  reason;  and  reason  itself  enfeebled  by  the  affec- 
tions ;  clearly  evinces  a  fall,  or  deterioration,  from  the  primeval  per- 
fection of  our  nature. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ETHICS. 

ETHICS,  or  Moral  Philosophy,  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which 
treats  of  our  duties,  to  ourselves,  to  our  fellow-men,  and  to  our 
Maker ;  and  the  reasons  by  which  those  duties  are  enforced.  Its 
name  is  from  the  Greek  ^0o$,  morals  :  and  it  is  also  termed  Morality, 
Casuistry,  or  the  study  of  Natural  or  Moral  Law :  but  we  think 
that  Morality  refers  rather  to  the  performance  of  duty,  than  to  the 
study  of  it;  and  that  the  term  Casuistry  is  the  least  appropriate  of 
them  all.  The  great  object  of  Ethics,  is  to  promote  the  cause  of 
virtue  ;  by  showing  its  reasonableness,  its  excellence,  and  beauty ; 
and  the  melancholy  consequences  of  neglecting  or  forsaking  it. 
Virtue,  consists  in  the  performance  of  our  duty,  from  a  sense  of 
obligation ;  and  Vice,  is  the  neglect  or  violation  of  our  duty,  where 
it  should  reasonably  be  known :  for  to  learn  what  is  our  duty,  is  one 
part  of  that  duty  itself. 

Socrates  comprehended  all  virtue  under  two  heads ;  temperance, 
or  the  duty  which  man  owes  to  himself:  and  justice,  or  that  which 
he  owes  to  his  fellow-men.  The  obligation  to  virtue  he  derived  from 
the  will  of  the  Supreme  Being.  Zeno  the  stoic,  and  Seneca,  of  the 
stoic  school  in  philosophy,  adopted  the  same  views.  Plato,  copying 
Pythagoras,  enumerated  four  cardinal  virtues,  temperance,  prudence, 
fortitude,  and  justice,  which  have  since  been  called  philosophical  vir- 
tues ;  while  faith,  hope,  and  charity,  have  been  termed  Christian 
virtues  ;  though  Christianity  includes  them  all.  Modern  writers  have 
differed  much  concerning  the  obligation,  or  foundation,  of  virtue. 
Hobbes  places  it  in  political  enactment ;  Mandeville,  in  the  love  of 
praise  ;  Dr.  Clarke,  in  the  fitness  of  things  ;  Adam  Smith,  in  sympa- 
thy for  our  race ;  Grotius,  and  Puffendorf,  in  the  duty  of  improvement ; 
Hume  and  Paley,  in  personal  utility ;  while  Hutcheson,  Cudworth, 
Butler,  Reid,  Stewart,  and  others,  derive  it  from  a  Moral  Sense,  or 
natural  impulse  to  do  right,  implanted  by  our  Creator. 


88  PSYCHOLOGY. 

Of  course,  the  obligation  of  virtue  rests  ultimately  on  the  will  of 
God ;  and  is  a  consequence  of  the  Divine  Perfection :  but  we  fully 
believe  in  a  Moral  Sense,  or  sentiment  of  Conscientiousness,  im- 
planted by  our  Creator,  to  incline  us  to  do  what  we  know  to  be  our 
duty.  Conscience,  we  believe  to  be  this  principle,  guided  by  reason, 
and  acting  retrospectively,  by  the  aid  of  memory.  Both  conscien- 
tiousness, and  reason,  are,  however,  liable  to  be  enfeebled  and  per- 
verted ;  and  hence  the  necessity  for  a  higher  incentive  to  duty,  in  the 
sanction  of  religion,  enforced  by  Divine  Revelation.  Dr.  Paley,  con- 
sidering private  happiness  as  our  motive  to  virtue,  and  rejecting  the 
•doctrine  of  a  Moral  Sense,  founds  our  inducement  to  virtue  on  selfish 
principles,  of  mere  reason,  and  personal  benefit.  While  we  admit 
that  such  principles  often  govern  the  actions  of  men,  we  think  that 
the  gratification  of  the  Moral  Sense,  in  the  consciousness  of  virtuous 
conduct,  is  a  high  and  peculiar  inducement  to  virtue,  independent  of 
all  reasoning :  and  that  a  feeling  of  this  kind  was  necessary,  in  order 
to  counterbalance  other  feelings;  which  without  this,  would  more 
frequently  lead  us  astray.  Thus,  by  a  wise  Providence,  the  duties 
enjoined  upon  us,  in  our  present  state,  are  made  to  contribute  to  our 
happiness :  while  the  crimes  forbidden  by  virtue  and  religion,  are 
such  as,  if  generally  allowed,  would  soon  spread  misery  and  destruc- 
tion among  mankind. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Ethics,  under  the  four  heads  of  Personal, 
Cognate,  Social,  and  Religious  Duties  ;  the  last,  strictly  speaking, 
including,  and  sanctioning  all  the  others. 

§  1.  Personal  duties,  are  those  which  relate  especially  to,  or 
which  we  owe  immediately  to  ourselves.  They  all  refer  to  Self-pre- 
servation, the  first  law  of  nature  :  or  to  Self-improvement,  which  is  of 
no  less  importance.  The  first  three  of  the  cardinal  virtues,  tempe- 
rance, prudence,  and  fortitude,  are  a  part,  but  only  a  part,  of  the  vir- 
tues which  come  under  this  head.  Temperance,  includes  the  control 
and  regulation  of  all  our  propensities  and  sentiments.  It  comprehends 
therefore  sobriety,  and  all  its  kindred  virtues.  The  opposite  vices 
are  gluttony,  drunkenness,  impurity,  covetousness,  anger,  and  the 
like ;  the  indulgence  of  which  is  a  voluntary  sacrifice  of  life,  health, 
and  happiness,  for  a  false  and  momentary  enjoyment.  Prudence,  in 
avoiding  useless  risk  or  danger;  and  Fortitude,  in  opposing  or  con- 
fronting danger,  when  unavoidable,  are  also  duties  which  we  owe 
chiefly  to  our  own  happiness.  Patience  in  enduring  pain  or  dis- 
appointment, is  often  confounded  with  fortitude ;  but  is  more  pro- 
perly its  effect.  Industry  and  Economy,  are  doubtless  moral  duties  ; 
necessary  to  our  future  comfort  and  support,  especially  in  sickness 
and  age.  Sloth,  and  prodigality,  or  extravagance,  are  criminal  there- 
fore, even  towards  ourselves  ;  however  countenanced  by  the  luxurious 
and  the  vain. 

The  duties  of  Mental,  Moral,  and  Religious  Cultivation,  result, 
like  the  preceding,  from  the  will  of  God,  that  we  should  promote  our 
own  happiness,  and  his  honor  and  glory.  The  acquisition  of  know- 
ledge, promotes  our  happiness,  by  enlarging  our  sphere  of  usefulness, 
and  giving  us  more  elevated  views  of  the  Creator  and  his  works. 
Moral  improvement,  subserves  the  same  object,  besides  the  gratifica- 


ETHICS.  89 

tion  of  the  moral  sense ;  and  if  sought  with  the  right  motive,  it  is 
the  sure  avenue  to  higher  views  of  our  duty  and  our  destiny.  It  will 
lead  us  to  realize  how  imperfect  is  that  Code  of  Honor  which  the 
world  has  formed  for  its  own  convenience  ;  which  permits  the  game- 
ster, the  adulterer,  the  drunkard,  the  plunderer,  the  swindler,  the 
calumniator,  and  the  duellist,  though  a  murderer,  to  mingle  with 
honorable  men,  unpunished  and  unreproached.  It  will  also  bring 
us  to  realize  how  far  the  Civil  law  falls  short  of  defining  and  prescrib- 
ing our  moral  and  religious  duties  ;  for  which  use  indeed  it  was 
never  intended ;  having  reference  to  our  political  duties  only. 

§  2.  By  Cognate  or  Domestic  duties,  we  mean  those  which  grow 
out  of  the  different  family  relations  ;  and  which  may  be  classed  as 
conjugal,  parental,  filial,  and  fraternal.  Conjugal  duties,  are  those 
which  pertain  to  the  husband,  and  wife,  in  the  married  state.  Most 
of  these  are  reciprocal  ;  as  affection,  constancy,  sympathy,  comfort, 
and  assistance  ;  which  the  parties  pledge  to  each  other  at  the  altar.  As 
the  wife  is  necessarily  more  or  less  dependent  upon  the  husband ;  he 
is  in  duty  bound  not  only  to  support  and  protect  her  for  the  present 
time,  but  also  to  provide  for  her  future  support,  in  case  of  his 
disability  or  death.  The  wife,  on  the  other  hand,  is  pledged  to  obe- 
dience ;  because  there  should  be  but  one  head  to  a  family :  but  the 
husband  who  can  abuse  his  power,  tyranically,  is  unworthy  of  the 
name. 

Parental  duties,  are  among  the  most  important,  and  responsi- 
ble, which  can  be  assumed  :  as,  on  their  faithful  performance,  the  wel- 
fare of  society,  and  the  fate  of  individuals  greatly  depends.  The  pa- 
rent is  bound  not  only  to  maintain  his  child,  in  sickness  and  in  health, 
but  to  prepare  him  to  become  a  useful  member  of  society ;  to  form 
his  character,  and  to  imbue  his  mind  with  right  principles,  and  useful 
knowledge.  This  subject  will  be  treated  of  more  fully,  in  the  branch 
of  Education ;  but  we  may  here  remark  that  the  parent  who  with- 
holds the  time  and  attention  required  for  these  objects,  is  answerable 
to  God  and  to  his  conscience,  for  the  consequences,  however  serious. 
The  father  should  also  provide  for  his  child's  comfortable  establish- 
ment in  life  ;  and  still  advise  and  sympathize  with  him,  when  sepa- 
rated from  the  paternal  home.  Filial  duties,  are  those  which  child- 
ren owe  to  their  parents  ;  including  affection,  respect,  sympathy, 
obedience  ;  and  assistance,  as  far  as  they  have  the  power  to  render  it. 
We  might  add  probity,  and  candour  ;  but  these  are  alike  necessary  in 
all  the  domestic  and  social  relations :  for  confidence,  which  is  the  soul 
of  affection,  and  the  key  to  respect  and  esteem,  cannot  exist  without 
them.  Obedience  to  parents,  in  all  reasonable  commands,  we  deem 
one  of  the  cardinal  duties  ;  which  should  be  enforced  from  early 
infancy  ;  and  which,  if  rightly  understood,  will  be  less  a  task  than  a 
pleasure.  In  the  same  class  with  filial  duties,  we  would  place  those 
towards  all  elder  Relations. 

Among  Fraternal  Duties,  or  those  relating  to  brothers  and  sisters, 
are  affection,  respect,  sympathy,  and  assistance  ;  the  latter  particular- 
ly from  brothers  to  sisters,  and  from  the  elder  to  the  younger.  It 
includes  watchfulness  over  manners  and  morals ;  and  instruction  as 
far  as  possible  in  useful  and  entertaining  knowledge.  In  early  age, 
12  H  2 


90  PSYCHOLOGY. 

these  duties  extend  to  the  sharing  of  each  other's  labors ;  the  preser- 
vation of  each  other's  character;  the  prevention  of  errors;  and  the 
redress  of  wrongs :  and  in  maturity,  they  extend  to  the  assistance 
of  each  other,  as  means  and  opportunities  are  afforded,  in  obtaining 
a  comfortable  settlement  and  support. 

§  3.  Social  Duties,  are  those  which  we  owe  to  our  fellow-men, 
in  the  relations  of  society ;  or  as  members  of  the  great  human  fami- 
ly. These  duties  may  be  classed  as  either  active  or  passive :  that 
is,  we  are  to  avoid  doing  harm,  and  to  strive  to  do  good,  to  those 
around  us,  with  a  view  to  promote  both  their  happiness  and  our 
own.  Among  the  active,  or  positive  social  duties,  are  those  of 
friendship,  benevolence,  and  patriotism ;  while  the  passive,  or  nega- 
tive, may  all  be  comprehended  under  the  single  head  of  justice, — 
as  regards  the  persons,  property,  reputation,  peace,  and  virtue  of  our 
fellow-men. 

The  duties  of  Friendship,  are  reciprocal;  and  closely  resemble 
those  of  fraternity ;  including  fidelity,  kindness,  defence  against 
slander  or  wrong,  and  such  advice  or  assistance  as  the  relative  situa- 
tion of  the  parties  may  enable  them  to  give.  As  these  duties  are 
voluntarily  assumed,  they  should  not  be  exacted  by  either  party, 
longer  than  may  be  agreeable  to  the  other ;  but  neither  should  past 
favors  be  forgotten,  nor  old  friends  neglected  ;  nor  can  a  cessation  of 
friendship  justify  subsequent  injury,  or  betrayal  of  confidence.  One 
of  the  most  disagreeable  traits  of  character,  is  a  disposition  to  with- 
draw friendships  once  formed,  on  slight  or  insufficient  cause.  Great 
care  should  be  exercised  in  the  choice  of  friends  ;  but  still  greater  in 
preserving  this  relation,  and  performing  its  duties,  when  once 
assumed,  either  expressly,  or  by  implication.  The  duties  of  Benevo- 
lence are  not  optional,  but  imperative  on  every  human  being.  As- 
sistance to  the  needy,  and  comfort  to  the  distressed,  whenever  they 
can  be  afforded,  belong  to  the  very  essence  of  humanity.  Besides 
these  more  active  duties,  we  owe  courtesy  and  kindness  to  all  per- 
sons whom  we  meet :  as  feeling  the  need  of  a  like  civility  towards 
ourselves.  Gratitude,  prompting  to  make  a  due  return  for  favors 
received,  is  a  sacred  duty ;  allied  to  benevolence,  if  it  be  not  a  sim- 
ple act  of  justice. 

Patriotism,  comprehends  the  duties  which  we  owe  to  our  coun- 
try ;  that  is  to  our  fellow-citizens  collectively.  Among  these  duties 
are  obedience  to  the  laws,  and  constituted  authorities,  so  long  as  they 
accord  with  justice  and  virtue ;  support  of  them,  and  of  all  useful 
public  institutions,  by  our  quota  of  time  and  money  ;  and  influence, 
in  favor  of  public  virtue,  of  the  best  measures  and  the  worthiest 
men, — through  the  ballot-box,  or  the  press;  by  precept  and  by  exam- 
ple. It  is  no  excuse  to  say  that  we  can  do  but  little  towards  the 
election  of  public  officers,  or  the  founding  and  support  of  benevolent 
institutions,  or  the  preservation  of  public  morals.  If  we  neglect  our 
share,  we  not  only  cause  a  deficiency ;  but  encourage  others  to  do  the 
same,  and  make  the  deficiency  greater:  and  so  far  as  these  effects 
may  extend,  we  are  answerable  for  the  consequences. 

Justice  to  our  fellow-men,  in  regard  to  their  persons,  requires  that 
we  should  avoid  inflicting  pain,  whether  by  wounding,  maiming, 


ETHICS.  91 

contagion,  contamination,  or  death.  In  regard  to  property,  it  re- 
quires that  we  should  neither  interfere  with  its  lawful  acquisition, 
nor  take  it  from  others  when  acquired,  without  just  reason  therefor. 
Hence  it  forbids  theft,  robbery,  extortion,  fraud,  circumvention,  or 
the  withholding  of  just  dues.  It  regard  to  reputation,  justice  for- 
bids that  we  should  injure  it  by  slander,  falsehood,  prevarication,  or 
even  by  divulging  the  truth,  except  for  their  own  good  or  that  of 
others.  We  should  not  disparage  their  capacity,  skill,  principles,  or 
motives,  without  just  cause ;  nor  injure  them  in  the  affections  or 
esteem  of  our  fellow-men*.  As  regards  peace,  or  tranquillity,  we 
should  not  disturb,  or  alarm  them,  or  excite  their  passions,  without 
just  reason  ;  and  as  regards  virtue,  we  should  not  only  avoid  impair- 
ing it,  where  found ;  but  even  justice  requires  that  we  should  mani- 
fest our  displeasure  at  every  vicious  word,  action,  or  example,  that 
we  are  compelled  to  witness. 

§  4.  Religious  Duties,  are  those  which  we  owe  to  the  Supreme 
Being,  the  Great  Author  of  our  existence ;  whose  will  we  are  im- 
pelled to  obey,  both  from  a  sense  of  obligation,  and  a  desire  of  future 
happiness,  implanted  in  our  minds  through  His  beneficence.  These 
duties,  we  repeat,  comprehend  all  others  ;  for  to  God  we  owe  them 
all :  but  we  here  include,  more  particularly,  Adoration  of  the  Deity 
for  his  perfections  ;  Thanksgiving  for  his  past  goodness,  both  to  our- 
selves and  to  our  fellow-men ;  Prayer  for  its  continuance  ;  Submis- 
sion to  his  will ;  and  Obedience  to  his  laws,  whether  recognised  in 
nature  or  in  revelation. 

Among  the  Perfections  of  the  Deity,  which  demand  our  highest 
veneration,  we  may  name  his  Eternity  and  Ubiquity,  or  existence 
in  all  time  and  space ;  his  Omniscience,  or  infinite  knowledge  and 
wisdom ;  his  Omnipotence,  or  infinite  power ;  his  Excellence,  or 
infinite  purity  and  glory  ;  his  Benevolence,  or  unspeakable  kindness  ; 
his  Justice,  which  time  may  impeach,  but  eternity  will  vindicate  ; 
and  his  Mercy,  in  providing  a  way  of  salvation,  by  an  eternal  and 
infinite  sacrifice,  by  which  he  may  be  just,  and  yet  a  Saviour  of  sin- 
ners,— of  every  one  who  will  accept  the  proffered  grace.  In  reve- 
rencing the  Deity  for  these  perfections,  we  are  necessarily  inspired 
with  those  emotions  which  conduce  to  a  virtuous  life  ;  and  hence, 
such  reverence  becomes  a  part  of  our  moral  duty,  aside  from  its 
higher  or  religious  bearing. 

No  system  of  Morals  can  be  complete,  which  does  not  lay  its 
foundation  firmly  on  our  unchangeable  relation  to  the  Deity,  and  our 
obligation  to  worship  him  in  spirit  and  in  truth.  By  Prayer  and 
Thanksgiving,  we  draw  near  to  Him  ;  and,  in  this  communion,  our 
worldly  passions  are  purified,  or  brought  back  to  their  healthy  state. 
Submission  to  His  will,  has  a  like  effect  upon  the  mind  ;  especially 
in  affliction;  which  often  serves  to  wake  the  drowsy  soul  from 
dreams  of  earthly  bliss,  and  wing  its  flight  for  heaven.  As  we  are 
bound  to  obey  the  divine  law,  it  is  also  our  duty  to  study  this  law ; 
both  in  the  book  of  nature,  and  in  that  of  Revelation.  The  more 
we  study  the  Bible,  the  more  we  shall  realize  that  it  is  indeed  the 
inspired  book  of  Eternal  Wisdom.  The  peculiar  duties  which  it 
inculcates ; — Repentance  and  Faith  in  the  Saviour,  and  the  obser- 


92  PSYCHOLOGY. 

vance  of  the  Christian  Sabbath  and  Ordinances ;  are  those  which 
nature  must  sanction,  though  she  could  never  teach :  and  they  alone 
can  prepare  us  for  that  spiritual  world  to  which  we  are  rapidly  ad- 
vancing. Of  these  duties,  we  are  to  treat  farther,  in  a  subsequent 
department;  and  we  therefore  conclude  the  branch  of  Ethics  by 
repeating  the  expressive  terms  of  Scripture  ;  Love  to  God,  and  Good 
Will  toward  men ;  as  the  sum  and  substance  of  morality ;  the  fruits 
of  Christian  piety ;  and  among  the  essential  conditions  of  happiness  ; 
both  in  this  life,  and  in  that  which  is  to  come. 


CHAPTER  V. 

EDUCATION. 

EDUCATION,  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  relates  to  the 
training  and  guardianship  of  young  persons,  from  infancy  to  mature 
age.  The  name  is  from  the  Latin,  educo,  I  bring  up,  or  educate  ; 
and  it  has  also  been  termed  Pedagogics,  and  Pedeutics,  from  Greek 
words  of  similar  meaning.  We  would  lay  great  stress  on  its  import- 
ance ;  as  relating  to  the  preparation  of  youth  for  subsequent  life,  and 
influencing  the  character,  and  prospects,  not  only  of  individuals,  but 
of  nations, — through  ages  yet  to  come.  The  highest  powers,  and 
noblest  sentiments  of  our  nature,  might  remain  forever  dormant,  were 
they  not  developed  by  the  instruction  of  the  wise  and  good ;  who 
have  themselves  received  like  instruction  from  their  predecessors. 
But  we  may  use  the  term  Education  in  a  still  wider  and  higher  sense, 
to  include  the  whole  training  of  the  soul,  by  inward  reflection  and 
outward  events,  by  intercourse  with  men,  and  instruction  from  above, 
— the  whole  training  of  the  human  soul,  for  the  enjoyment  of  immor- 
tality. 

That  the  ancients  were  not  inattentive  to  this  branch  of  knowledge, 
is  shown  by  the  Cyrop&dia  of  Xenophon ;  in  which  he  developes 
his  ideas  of  a  perfect  education ; — as  also  by  the  institutions  of  Ly- 
curgus  and  Solon ;  the  former  of  whom  made  education  a  business 
of  the  state ;  and  the  latter  besides  prescribing  public  instruction  at 
the  Gymnasia,  excused  the  son  from  supporting  his  parents,  if  they 
had  taught  him  no  trade.  In  modern  times  we  may  point  to  the  exam- 
ple of  Oberlin,  who,  in  1767,  became  the  pastor  of  the  Ban  de  la 
Roche ;  and  instructed  the  poor  peasantry,  in  religion  and  science, 
agriculture  and  the  arts,  till  that  sterile  region  became  the  happy  abode 
of  plenty,  peace,  and  piety.  Another  noble  example  was  that  of 
Fellenberg;  who,  about  the  year  1800,  devoted  his  fortune  to  the 
establishment  of  the  farm  school  of  Hofwyl;  and  has  there  perfected 
the  manual  labor  system;  by  which  the  pupils  labor  for  their  own 
support,  and  thus  practise  the  useful  arts,  while  they  are  devoting  a 
portion  of  the  time  to  letters  and  science.  He  liberally  adopted  Pes- 
talozzVs  modes  of  instruction,  by  diagrams  and  experiments,  in  aid 
of  verbal  description;  and  many  farm,  or  manual  labor  schools,  have 
since  been  formed,  on  this  improved  model. 


EDUCATION.  93 

Another  kindred  improvement,  is  the  system  of  mutual  instruc- 
tion ;  introduced,  in  1797,  by  Rev.  Dr.  Bell,  who  borrowed  it  from  the 
natives  of  Madras,  in  Hindoostan ;  and  in  the  promulgation  of  which 
he  was  greatly  aided  by  Mr.  Lancaster.  By  employing  the  advanced 
pupils  to  instruct  the  younger,  under  the  careful  inspection  of  the 
Superintendent,  it  imparts  the  greatest  possible  amount  of  knowledge, 
where  there  is  a  deficiency  of  teachers.  We  have  no  room  to  de- 
scribe the  national  systems  of  education,  in  Prussia,  France,  Scotland, 
and  other  European  countries ;  or  even  in  the  different  states  of  our 
own  republic  ;  but  would  refer,  for  information  concerning  the  former, 
to  the  recent  and  able  report  of  Prof.  Bache,  on  Education  in  Europe  ; 
a  like  report  to  which,  on  American  Education,  is  still  a  desideratum. 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  branch  of  Education,  under  the  heads 
of  Physical,  Intellectual,  Secular,  and  Religious  ;  concluding  with 
some  brief  views  of  Public  Education,  as  compared  with  Private, 
and  the  provisions  required  for  its  support. 

§  1.  Physical  Education,  includes  the  instruction  and  supervi- 
sion which  are  required  for  the  health,  strength,  and  developement  of 
the  body ;  depending  on  the  principles  of  Anatomy,  Physiology  and 
Hygienics  ;  the  study  of  which  in  full  belongs  to  the  department  of 
Androphysics.  We  can  here  only  allude  to  the  effects  of  air,  tempe- 
rature, clothing,  cleanliness,  diet,  exercise,  rest,  and  regular  and  pro- 
per habits,  on  our  physical  wellbeing.  The  air  which  we  breathe, 
yields  oxygen  to  the  blood ;  without  which,  life  would  soon  become 
extinct ;  as  in  cases  of  drowning,  or  suffocation.  The  oxygen  of 
the  air,  is  partly  exhausted  by  the  first  breathing,  and  still  more  by 
a  second  and  third :  hence  the  absolute  necessity  of  pure  and  fresh 
air,  to  preserve  health  and  life.  Confinement  in  a  close  room,  espe- 
cially in  a  crowd,  or  with  a  close  fire,  is  a  frequent  cause  of  debility 
and  disease  ;  and  its  effect  soon  becomes  visible  upon  the  countenance, 
as  well  as  the  feelings,  of  the  person  thus  confined.  If  the  weather 
be  not  too  damp  and  cold,  it  is  doubtless  better  that  children  should 
pass  much  of  their  time  in  the  open  air. 

The  temperature  which  children  require,  varies  with  their  constitu- 
tion ;  but,  generally,  we  think  it  best  that  they  should  be  frequently 
exposed  to  as  great  extremes  as  they  can  safely  bear :  the  effect  being 
to  make  them  more  hardy  and  vigorous.  The  limits  of  safety  will 
vary  much  with  their  constitution  and  habits  ;  for  the  same  exposure 
which  would  be  beneficial  to  one,  might  be  injurious  or  fatal  to  an- 
other. Their  clothing  should  of  course  be  adapted  to  the  tempera- 
ture ;  and  not  too  tight.  Neither  should  it  be  too  warm  ;  but  yet 
warm  enough  to  guard  them  against  being  chilled,  by  sudden  changes 
of  the  weather;  especially  when  they  are  fatigued,  or  perspiring 
freely.  On  this  account,  flannel  is  preferable  for  the  underdress  ; 
while  it  is  less  dangerous  in  case  of  its  taking  fire.  Personal  clean- 
liness, and  frequent  bathing,  are  also  important ;  in  promoting  the 
insensible  perspiration,  so  necessary  to  health. 

The  diet,  should  be  such  as  is  easily  digestible  ;  neither  too  coarse, 
nor  too  dainty.  On  this  subject  more  will  be  said,  in  treating  of  Hy- 
gienics :  but  whatever  be  the  diet,  it  should  be  taken  at  regular  inter- 
vals, and  never  in  excess.  Exercise,  is  no  less  essential  to  the 


94  PSYCHOLOGY. 

health  than  are  food  and  rest.  It  stimulates  digestion,  circulation,  and 
all  the  vital  functions ;  preventing  disease,  languor,  and  enervation. 
It  should  be  taken  before,  rather  than  after  eating ;  and  should  be 
such  as  to  call  into  action  both  the  chest  and  the  limbs.  Rest  should 
also  be  taken  regularly,  both  as  regards  retiring,  and  rising  early. 
Many  other  things  belong  to  the  formation  and  preservation  of  regu- 
lar and  proper  habits,  which  we  have  no  room  here  to  mention. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Intellectual  Education,  we  include  the  ac- 
quisition of  useful  and  ornamental,  scientific  and  literary  knowledge  ; 
such  as  may  be  attained  in  seminaries  of  learning.  How  far  this  acqui- 
sition may  be  carried,  in  individual  cases,  will  depend  on  many  con- 
ditions :  but  there  are  some  branches  of  knowledge,  so  practically 
useful,  and  so  essential  to  good  citizenship,  that  we  think  the  study 
of  them  should  be  required  of  every  youth,  by  legislative  enforce- 
ment, and,  where  it  is  necessary,  by  pecuniary  aid  from  the  state. 
Among  these  essential  branches,  we  would  mention  Reading,  Writing, 
Arithmetic,  Geography,  and  Grammar  ;  as  the  lowest  permissible 
degree  of  attainment.  If  these  studies  be  tolerably  acquired,  they 
will  enable  any  individual,  however  humble  be  his  station,  with  the 
facilities  which  our  age  and  country  afford,  to  make  farther  advances 
in  knowledge  ;  each  step  of  which  will  render  still  farther  attainments 
more  easy.  The  studies  next  in  importance,  in  the  common  walks 
of  life,  are,  we  think,  the  first  principles  of  Morals,  Government, 
History,  Geometry,  and  Natural  Philosophy,  including  Astronomy 
and  Chemistry ;  the  theory  of  Agriculture  and  the  Mechanic  Arts ; 
and  especially  the  study  of  the  Bible,  its  evidences,  doctrines,  and 
precepts.  Those  who  aspire  to  intellectual  eminence,  of  course  will 
climb  far  higher  than  this,  up  the  hill  of  science ;  but  the  studies 
here  named  should,  we  think,  be  taught  in  our  Common  Schools,  and 
should  occupy  the  attention  of  young  persons  generally,  during  a  part 
of  each  year,  until  the  age  of  maturity. 

The  time,  we  trust,  has  gone  by,  when  more  general  knowledge, 
and  higher  studies,  were  deemed  superfluous,  to  all  except  profes- 
sional men, — the  lawyer,  the  physician,  or  the  divine.  It  is  now 
admitted  by  many  of  the  best  judges,  that  a  more  liberal  education, 
either  Academical  or  Collegiate,  may  be  alike  beneficial  to  the 
Farmer,  the  Mechanic,  and  the  Merchant ;  as  serving  to  expand  and 
quicken  the  mind,  and  to  prepare  the  aspiring  youth,  not  only  for 
engaging  in  the  labors  of  his  profession,  but  for  adorning  a  higher 
station,  and  becoming  more  extensively  useful,  should  prosperity 
attend  his  career.  At  least,  the  study  of  languages  and  calculative 
processes,  of  mental  and  physical  philosophy,  of  historical  and 
political  truths,  of  the  works  of  nature  and  of  art,  will  lay  a  wide 
basis  for  intellectual  cultivation ;  and  it  will  be  the  student's  own 
fault  if  it  is  not  improved,  for  his  secular  and  eternal  benefit. 

The  value  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages,  is,  we  apprehend, 
often  underrated.  As  sources  of  our  own  tongue,  and  of  all  the 
modern  languages  of  Southern  Europe,  they  deserve  the  attention 
of  all  thorough  scholars  ;  aside  from  the  rich  treasures  of  history, 
poetry,  and  philosophy  which  they  embody.  With  regard  to  the 
best  order  of  the  higher  branches  of  study,  we  have  high  authority 


EDUCATION.  95 

for  advising  that  the  Languages  should  be  studied  before  Mathe- 
matics and  Physics  ;  and  that  these  subjects  should  be  studied  be- 
fore Mental,  Moral,  and  Political  Philosophy.  Geography,  and 
History,  and  the  Physical  Arts,  may  be  regarded  as  subordinate  sub- 
jects, and  pursued  at  intervals,  by  way  of  relaxation.  The  number 
of  studies  pursued  together  should,  we  think,  be  very  limited ;  one 
subject  being  predominant,  and  one  or  two  others  serving  to  relieve 
the  attention  from  too  close  confinement. 

The  great  object  of  the  teacher,  should  be  to  give  interest  to  the 
subjects  of  study ; — by  clearing  up  difficulties,  where  insurmounta- 
ble ;  though  still  leaving  full  exercise  for  the  faculties  of  the  student ; 
by  explaining  the  reasons,  if  they  can  be  assigned,  for  every  princi- 
ple and  process  ;  and  by  tracing  the  various  relations  and  applica- 
tions of  each  subject,  so  as  to  show  its  connective  importance  :  in  all 
which,  amusement  may  often  be  combined  with  instruction. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Secular  Education,  we  place  the  acqui- 
sition of  a  Trade  or  Profession  ;  and  the  study  of  Economy?  Method, 
Manners,  and  Morals,  as  preparatory  to  the  duties  of  this  present 
life.  Even  the  young  heir  of  countless  thousands,  would  be  uneasy 
and  exposed  to  every  temptation,  without  some  regular  employment; 
and  hence  far  happier  for  having  learned  some  regular  and  worthy 
pursuit.  His  wealth  will  be  squandered  less  thoughtlessly,  if  he 
has  experienced  the  toil  of  acquiring  it.  But  let  no  young  man 
regret  the  want  of  wealth,  who  is  blessed  with  health  and  strength, 
and  the  means  of  acquiring  a  trade  or  profession :  for  this  will  ena- 
ble him,  by  perseverance  in  well  doing,  and  with  the  favor  of  Provi- 
dence, to  build  up  a  name  and  a  fortune  of  his  own,  no  less  honora- 
ble than  that  which  is  obtained  by  inheritance.  He  may  at  least 
acquire  competence,  if  not  wealth  ;  respect,  if  not  distinction  ;  influ- 
ence, if  not  power ;  and  happiness,  which  princes  might  sigh  for, 
though  it  be  in  the  common  walks  of  life. 

When  circumstances  permit,  the  choice  of  a  profession  should  not 
be  made,  till  the  mind  is  sufficiently  mature,  and  cultivated,  to  appre- 
ciate the  various  pursuits  of  life  ;  and  to  judge  what  one  is  best 
adapted  to  its  powers,  or  suited  to  its  taste.  Hence,  those  who  can 
study,  or  survey  the  wide  range  of  arts  and  sciences,  during  a 
thorough  education,  before  commencing  their  career,  will  have  the 
vantage  ground  in  the  race,  if  they  do  not  wait  too  long  in  choosing 
their  goal.  It  is  a  great  error,  though  often  committed,  for  young 
men  of  feeble  frame,  or  delicate  health,  to  engage  closely  in  sedenta- 
ry, and  especially  literary  pursuits  ;  which  sedulously  followed,  are 
perhaps  the  severest  of  all  to  the  physical  constitution.  Men  of 
vigorous  frames,  are  often  worn  out  prematurely,  by  too  close  mental 
application  ;  which  the  wisdom  of  antiquity  pronounces  to  be  "wea- 
risome to  the  flesh."  In  every  profession  there  is  room  for  Method 
and  Order;  "  a  time  for  every  thing,  and  every  thing  in  its  time ;  a 
place  for  every  thing,  and  every  thing  in  its  place."  We  must  con- 
clude this  topic  by  observing  that  Punctuality,  Fidelity,  Industry, 
Skill,  and  Honesty,  combined  with  Economy,  Good  Manners,  and 
Morals,  and  a  desire  for  Self-improvement,  have  raised  many  men 
of  humble  station  to  the  illustrious  distinction  of  being  benefactors  to 


96  PSYCHOLOGY. 

their  race.  On  the  selection  of  Friends,  forming  of  Alliances,  man- 
agement of  Property,  and  on  the  details  of  Manners  and  Etiquette,  we 
have  no  room  here  to  dilate. 

§  4.  Religious  Education,  includes  all  that  instruction  which  en- 
forces the  duties  of  young  persons  to  their  Creator,  and  the  reasons 
therefor.  Of  these  duties,  we  have  already  briefly  spoken,  under  the 
branch  of  Ethics ;  alluding  to  the  importance  of  Piety,  as  including 
the  whole  of  Morality,  and  as  the  only  source  of  true  happiness. 
We  think  that  Parents  sometimes  err,  in  attempting  to  give  formal 
instruction,  on  this  as  on  other  subjects,  before  the  mind  is  mature 
enough  to  comprehend  it.  It  is  not  by  teaching  catechisms  mecha- 
nically, nor  by  a  system  of  rigid,  unnatural  austerity,  that  religion  is 
best  instilled  into  the  young  mind  ;  but  by  training  its  affections  ;  by 
exciting  religious  meditations  ;  and  by  connecting  the  duties  of  Chris- 
tian worship,  and  practice,  with  all  the  endearments  of  home,  and 
social  intercourse. 

The  most  pleasing  instruction,  for  the  young  mind,  is  doubtless 
that  conveyed  in  the  narrative  form.  Hence,  the  descriptive,  and 
pathetic  passages  of  the  Bible,  will  be  read  with  interest,  and  their 
lessons  of  truth  imbibed,  by  the  youngest  pupils ; — those  to  whom 
the  more  abstruse  and  doctrinal  parts  would  be  unintelligible.  Reli- 
gion, like  many  other  things,  is  best  taught  by  example ;  and  the 
Christian  Parent  should  hence  derive  new  motives  to  watchfulness 
and  piety.  Family  worship,  in  the  still  evening  hour,  has  an  influence 
that  few  hearts  can  resist ; — an  influence  that  comes  over  the  feelings 
like  the  dews  of  heaven  on  the  thirsty  earth,  pure  and  refreshing. 
The  Sabbath  School  is  a  valuable  auxiliary  to  Christian  education ; 
but  it  should  not  usurp  the  place  of  parental  instruction,  and  example. 

As  reason  advances  to  maturity,  the  young  mind  is  prepared  to 
receive  and  comprehend  the  sublime  doctrines  of  Christianity,  and 
the  basis  on  which  they  rest.  Then  it  is  that  systematic  instruction 
comes  in  place ;  and  the  Catechism  and  Articles  of  Faith  may  be 
studied  with  interest  and  advantage.  But  while  some  Parents  err  in 
bringing  these  subjects  forward  too  early,  the  solemn  truth  must  be 
told,  that  the  far  greater  number  go  to  the  opposite  extreme  of  neglect- 
ing such  instruction,  and  leaving  their  children  to  the  influence  of 
every  chance  associate,  unguarded  and  unarmed  against  the  approach 
of  evil.  The  sad  effects  of  such  neglect,  those  Parents  often  live  to 
witness ;  though  generally  too  late  to  remedy  them,  even  did  they 
perceive  the  cause,  and  make  the  attempt. 

§  5.  On  the  relative  advantages,  and  different  Systems  of  Public 
and  Private  Education,  we  must  speak  with  extreme  brevity.  Could 
every  Parent  qualify  himself,  and  devote  the  requisite  time,  he  would 
be  the  best  of  all  teachers :  and  no  aid  from  others  can  entirely  ex- 
onerate him  from  taking  a  part  in  the  great  work.  Could  private 
teachers  always  be  procured  and  compensated,  home  would  still  be 
the  best  school,  morally,  if  not  intellectually.  But  as  these  condi- 
tions are  generally  unattainable,  our  resource  is  found  in  public 
schools,  academies,  and  colleges ;  the  support  of  which  we  regard 
as  a  sacred  duty  of  every  statesman,  moralist,  and  Christian.  The 
support  of  schools,  we  may  add,  is  incomplete,  without  provisions 


EDUCATION.  97 

for  .educating  competent  teachers ;  and  for  securing  those  who  will 
guard  the  morals,  as  well  as  train  the  understanding. 

We  believe  that  Infant  Schools  may  be  made  useful,  if  properly 
managed ;  so  that  they  do  not  injure  the  health  of  children,  by  too 
long  sitting,  and  close  confinement.  This  may  be  obviated,  by 
allowing  them  to  stand,  or  march,  or  sing ;  with  frequent  intermis- 
sions for  more  active  exercise,  under  the  eye  of  the  teacher.  Their 
attention  should  first  be  turned  to  sensible  objects ;  next  to  pictures 
and  diagrams  ;  and,  lastly,  to  books  :  but  systematic  instruction,  we 
think,  should  be  delayed,  till  they  have  acquired  a  stock  of  ideas, 
and  made  some  progress  in  the  exercise  of  their  reasoning  powers. 
After  all,  such  schools  are  chiefly  useful,  in  those  classes  of  society 
where  children  would  otherwise  be  physically,  mentally,  or  morally 
neglected.  For  those  who  have  willing  and  competent  parents  to  take 
charge  of  them,  there  is  no  place  like  home. 

We  think  that  the  system  of  Mutual  Instruction  might  be  exten- 
sively and  usefully  applied,  were  school-houses  properly  arranged, 
for  several  classes  to  recite  at  the  same  time, — and  were  a  certain  por- 
tion of  time  devoted  by  the  teacher  to  a  thorough  examination  of  the 
classes  instructed  by  monitors,  in  presence  perhaps  of  the  whole  school. 
Most  of  our  common  schools  are  already  conducted  more  or  less  on 
the  Manual  Labor  System  ;  the  scholars  laboring  a  part  of  the  day, 
or  a  part  of  the  year,  in  assisting  their  parents  at  home.  This  is  a 
principle,  which,  if  not  carried  so  far  as  to  interrupt  their  course  of 
study,  we  cannot  hesitate  to  approve.  We  have  no  doubt  that  a  por- 
tion of  the  time  devoted  to  manual  labor,  would  be  beneficial,  rather 
than  injurious,  to  the  studies  and  health  of  Collegiate  and  Academi- 
cal Students  ; — but  how  large  a  portion  it  should  be,  we  will  not  here 
attempt  to  decide. 


13 


HI.  DEPARTMENT: 

NOMOLOGY. 


IN  the  Department  of  Nomology,  we  include  those  branches  of 
knowledge  which  treat  of  Law,  Legislation,  and  Government.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  vopo$,  law ;  and  it  is  used  by  Am- 
pere, in  his  Classification  of  the  Sciences,  though  in  a  more  limited 
sense.  We  include  under  Nomology,  both  Statesmanship  and 
Jurisprudence:  the  former  comprehending  the  subjects  of  Govern- 
ment and  Legislation  ;  while  the  latter  comprehends  the  study  and 
application  of  the  Laws  which  result  from  the  former.  The  term 
Politics,  properly  signifying  the  science  or  principles  of  government, 
is  now,  we  think,  too  widely  perverted,  and  too  vaguely  used,  to  be  an 
appropriate  name  for  this  department  of  knowledge.  The  studies 
here  included,  aflbsd  a  wide  range  for  reason  and  research;  and  rank 
high  in  relative  importance,  as  greatly  contributing  to  the  protection 
of  individuals,  and  the  advancement  of  society. 

The  term  Law,  from  the  Saxon  laga,  signifies  in  general  a  rule 
of  action,  whether  relating  to  animate  or  inanimate  objects  :  but  in 
a  technical  sense,  it  may  be  defined,  a  rule  of  conduct ;  prescribed 
by  the  common  consent  of  nations,  to  regulate  their  intercourse ;  or 
by  the  supreme  power  in  a  state,  to  define  the  civil  rights  and  duties 
of  its  officers  and  citizens,  and  of  foreigners,  when  under  its  control. 
The  necessity  for  such  laws  arises  chiefly  from  the  tendency,  both 
of  nations  and  individuals,  to  selfishness  and  injustice,  when  not 
restrained  by  some  efficient  power  or  motive.  They  have  therefore 
adopted  these  rules  as  a  standard  of  civil  conduct ;  the  violation  of 
which  is  punished,  in  the  case  of  individuals,  by  the  judicial  and 
executive  powers  ;  and  among  nations,  by  non-intercourse,  by  retalia- 
tion, or  too  often  by  an  appeal  to  arms,  the  last  arguments  of  kings. 

As  regards  their  immediate  sources,  Laws  may  be  distinguished  as 
either  Divine,  or  Human:  the  former  emanating  directly  from  the 
will  of  God :  the  latter  framed  by  men ;  though  they  are  wise  and 
safe  only  when  they  conform  to  the  divine  law.  If  History  can 
cite  examples  where  human  laws  have  conflicted  with  those  of  the 
Deity,  it  can  also  prove  that  such  laws  have  uniformly  resulted  in 
misery,  or  destruction,  to  those  who  framed  or  adopted  them.  Natural 
Law,  depends  on  the  principles  of  justice  and  expediency,  already 
alluded  to  in  the  branch  of  Ethics :  and,  next  to  the  Divine  Law,  it 
should  form  the  basis  of  Legislation.  Conventional  Law,  is  that 
which  is  mutually  established  by  the  parties  concerned ;  as  in  true 
Republics :  while  Arbitrary  Law,  is  that  imposed  on  the  weaker 
party  by  the  stronger ;  as  in  Monarchies,  and  especially  in  Despo- 
tisms. 

98 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  99 

As  regards  their  form,  Laws  may  be  divided  into  written,  and  pre- 
scriptive. Written  Laws,  are  those  which  are  established  by  positive 
enactment :  and  they  consist  of  Constitutions,  Treaties,  and  Statutes. 
By  a  Constitution,  we  here  mean  a  solemn,  written  declaration  of 
the  sovereign  will  of  the  people,  defining  the  form,  mechanism,  and 
powers  of  the  government.  In  Great  Britain,  however,  and  in  other 
countries,  the  term  is  applied  to  the  system  of  government  which 
has  grown  up,  under  various  influences  ;  and  which  has  been  acqui- 
esced in,  rather  than  ratified  by  the  people.  A  Treaty,  is  a  solemn, 
written  compact,  between  independent  nations ;  or  sometimes  between 
nations,  and  subordinate  or  tributary  states.  A  Statute,  is  a  law 
duly  enacted  by  a  competent  legislative  power:  and  it  may  be  either 
a  public  statute,  relating  to  the  whole  community  ;  or  a  private 
one,  relating  only  to  certain  individuals  or  associations. 

Prescriptive  or  Unwritten  Laws,  are  those  established  by  pre- 
scription, or  ancient  usage :  as  the  Common  Law,  and  Chancery. 
Common  Law  is  an  extensive  system  of  rules  and  principles,  the 
growth  of  ages,  resulting  from  natural  justice,  and  judicial  decisions, 
and  applied  in  cases  not  otherwise  provided  for.  It  is  called  un- 
written, simply  because  it  is  not  found  in  the  Statute  Books  ;  though 
it  is  mostly  embodied  in  the  Reports  of  causes  decided,  and  princi- 
ples settled  in  the  various  Courts  of  Justice.  Chancery  Law  or 
Equity,  embraces  those  general  principles  by  which  Courts  of 
Chancery  or  Equity  are  governed,  in  deciding  on  appeals  made  to 
them,  as  the  last  arbiters,  from  Courts  of  other  grades.  Though 
founded  on  natural  law,  these  principles  are  now  for  the  most  part 
settled,  like  those  of  the  common  law,  by  prescription  and  judicial 
decisions. 

The  term  Civil  Law,  was  originally  applied,  and  is  often  re- 
stricted to  the  old  system  of  Roman  Law  :  but  we  may  also  use  it, 
as  in  the  French  Civil  Code,  to  include  the  Relations  of  Persons 
and  Property  ;  or  the  Rights  of  Persons  and  the  Rights  of  Things  ; 
in  contradistinction  from  Criminal  or  Penal  Law,  which  relates  to 
Crimes  and  Punishments ;  or  Private  Wrongs,  and  Public  Wrongs, 
and  the  means  of  redress.  Mercantile  or  Commercial  Law,  called 
also  Law  Merchant,  prescribes  the  rights  and  duties  of  merchants, 
in  their  relations  to  each  other,  and  to  their  respective  countries. 
Martial  Law,  comprehending  both  Military  and  Naval,  is  that  sys- 
tem which  prescribes  the  rights  and  duties  of  military  and  naval 
men  ;  or  which  is  enforced  in  places  that  are  the  seat  of  war.  Ec- 
clesiastical or  Canon  Law,  is  that  system  which  relates  to  the 
affairs  of  the  Church  ;  and  which  is  the  rule  of  Ecclesiastical  Courts, 
whether  under  secular  or  sacerdotal  authority.  A  system,  or  body 
of  laws  relating  to  any  one  of  these  divisions,  or  belonging  to  and 
one  nation  or  state,  is  called  a  Code. 

With  these  introductory  remarks,  we  proceed  to  the  individual 
branches  ; — Political  Philosophy  ;  International  Law  ;  Constitutional 
Law  ;  Municipal  Law  ;  and  Political  Economy  ; — under  which  we 
think  that  all  the  topics  of  Nomology  may  be  comprised. 


100  NOMOLOGY. 

^  V  *  *      ^ 

CHAPTER  I. 

POLITICAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

THE  branch  of  Political  Philosophy,  may  properly  include  all  the- 
ories and  general  views  of  Government;  with  a  description  of  its 
different  forms,  the  principles  on  which  they  are  founded,  and  the 
modes  in  which  they  are  administered.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Greek,  TtoAtj,  a  city  or  state ;  whence  also  the  term  Politics, 
already  referred  to.  This  study  rests  upon  the  basis  of  Natural  Law, 
or  justice ;  and  therefore  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  Ethics  ;  the 
principles  of  which  have  already  been  explained.  It  requires  also 
enlarged  and  elevated  views  of  human  nature,  and  the  constitution 
of  society  ;  with  the  means  by  which  virtue  may  be  diffused,  justice 
enforced,  and  order  preserved,  throughout  the  community.  It  is 
alike  important  to  the  Statesman,  who  administers  the  affairs  of  a  na- 
tion; and  to  the  Legislator,  who  is  concerned  in  making  or  amending 
the  laws,  though  not  directly  engaged  in  their  execution. 

The  earliest  works  of  value  on  this  subject,  were  Plato's  Republic, 
and  Aristotle's  Treatise  on  Politics.  Aristotle,  and  other  ancient 
writers,  reduced  all  governments  to  one  of  the  three  forms,  Democracy, 
Aristocracy,  and  Despotism ;  the  only  forms  with  which  they  were 
acquainted.  Cicero,  in  his  work  De  Republica,  endeavored  to  show 
by  what  policy,  morals,  and  resources,  Rome  had  obtained  the  domi- 
nion of  the  world  ; — and  later  writers  have  shown  by  what  vices  and 
weaknesses  she  lost  it.  In  modern  times,  Macchiavelli's  work,  enti- 
tled The  Prince,  developes  the  various  means  of  acquiring  absolute 
power :  and  whatever  may  have  been  its  object,  it  affords  much  poli- 
tical instruction.  Montesquieu's  Spirit  of  the  Laws,  published  in 
1748,  is  a  work  of  much  value  on  this  branch  of  knowledge;  in 
which  he  regards  all  governments  as  either  Republican,  Monarchical, 
or  Despotic,  and  discusses  very  fully  their  principles  and  mechanism. 
To  this  branch,  in  part,  belong  the  great  works  of  Grotius,  Puffen- 
dorf  and  Wolf,  which  treat  largely  of  Natural  Law  ;  though  in  con- 
nection with  the  laws  of  nations. 

In  England,  Sir  Robert  Filmer's  Patriarcha,  published  in  1680, 
maintaining  the  divine  right  of  kings,  was  the  occasion  of  Sydney's 
and  Locke's  masterly  treatises,  in  defence  of  the  rights  of  the  people; 
rights  which  had  previously  found  a  champion  in  Milton.  Locke's 
doctrine  of  an  implied  social  compact,  or  consent  of  the  people,  as 
the  only  legitimate  source  of  power,  though  opposed  by  Mr.  Hume, 
has  been  gradually  prevailing ;  and  in  our  own  government  has  found 
its  full  application.  Waiving  further  reference  to  Rutherford,  Fergu- 
son, Bentham,  and  other  later  writers  on  this  subject ;  we  have  only 
room  to  add  that  the  principle  of  representation,  by  which  the  peo- 
ple select  legislators,  as  well  as  executive  and  judicial  officers,  to  act 
in  their  behalf,  may  we  think  be  regarded  as  the  greatest  of  modern 
improvements  in  government,  and  the  avenue  to  any  further  improve- 


POLITICAL    PHILOSOPHY.  101 

ments,  of  which,  limited  as  our  faculties  now  are,  this  science  is 
susceptible. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Political  Philosophy  under  the  heads  ef 
Theory  of  Government ;  Principles  of  Legislation ;  Principles  of 
Adjudication  ;  and  Principles  of  Administration,  or  Statesmanship  and 
Diplomacy. 

§  1.  The  Theory  of  Government,  investigates  the  principles  of 
the  different  forms  of  government ;  and  the  mechanism  by  which  they 
are  made  to  fulfil  their  great  objects,  the  security  and  improvement 
of  individuals  and  of  society.  The  principal  forms  of  government 
are  Monarchies,  Aristocracies,  and  Democracies,  separate  or  combined. 
A  Monarchy,  is  that  form,  in  which  the  will  of  one  man,  styled  mo- 
narch, emperor,  king,  or  otherwise,  is  the  supreme  law  of  the  nation. 
If  his  will  is  restricted  by  charters,  constitutions,  or  other  means,  the 
monarchy  is  said  to  be  constitutional  or  limited;  but  if  not,  it  is 
called  an  absolute  monarchy  or  a  despotism.  A  Mixed  Monarchy, 
is  one  in  which  the  supreme  power  is  shared  with  the  nobles,  or 
people,  or  both.  An  Aristocracy,  is  that  form,  in  which  the  govern- 
ment is  controlled  by  a  privileged  class  of  men  ;  whether  their  power 
be  hereditary,  or  derived  from  their  own  body,  by  intro-election. 
An  Oligarchy  or  government  of  a  few  men,  as  of  the  former  Council 
of  Ten  in  Venice,  is  perhaps  the  most  despotic  form  of  an  aristo- 
cracy. A  Democracy,  is  that  form,  in  which  the  supreme  power  is 
shared  by  the  whole  people  ;  either  immediately,  as  in  the  Pantocra- 
cies  or  Republics  of  Greece  and  Rome  ;  or  by  agents  of  their  own 
selecting,  as  in  our  Representative  Democracies  ;  to  which  the  term 
Republic  is  now  most  frequently  applied. 

The  first  governments  were  doubtless  either  patriarchal  or  military ; 
and  the  origin  of  political  society  may  be  traced  back,  first  to  the  pri- 
mitive establishment  of  families;  next,  to  the  union  of  families  in 
tribes,  under  one  or  more  chiefs  or  leaders;  and  lastly  to  the  union 
of  several  tribes,  either  voluntarily  or  by  conquest,  in  one  great  na- 
tion. The  origin  of  aristocratic  and  democratic  forms  of  government, 
may  we  think  be  traced  to  the  abuse  of  supreme  power,  in  the  hands 
of  individual  chiefs  or  monarchs  ;  which  led  the  people  to  take  the 
reins  into  their  own  hands.  Such  was  the  origin  of  the  Roman  Re- 
public, called  into  existence  by  the  enormities  of  the  Tarquins ;  and 
of  the  French  Republic,  evoked  by  the  follies  of  the  Bourbons.  At 
the  present  day  governments  rest  on  the  voluntary  consent  of  the 
governed  ;  or  on  implied  consent,  with  long  acquiescence  ;  or  on  the 
coercion  of  superior  force. 

The  object  of  civil  government  being  the  welfare  of  the  whole 
community,  it  is  necessary  that  each  individual  should  surrender  a 
portion  of  his  natural  liberty,  by  obeying  the  laws,  in  return  for  the 
protection  which  they  afford  to  his  person  and  property.  The  high- 
est practicable  degree  of  civil  liberty,  is  that  which  remains  after  this 
necessary  surrender.  It  is  important  that  the  legislators  and  magis- 
trates should  themselves  be  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  their  fellow- 
citizens  ;  and  responsible  to  the  latter  for  the  due  execution  of  their 
trusts.  The  two  great  safeguards,  against  the  abuse  of  power,  are 
its  distribution  in  different  hands,  and  their  liability  to  impeachment 

I  2 


102  NOMOLOOY. 

or  removal  from  office,  for  neglect  of  duties,  or  abuse  of  delegated 
powers.  Hence  arose  the  division  of  authority  which  now  prevails, 
in  the  best  governments,  between  the  legislative,  judicial,  and  execu- 
tive departments:  each  having  a  check  on  the  power  of  the  others. 
Of  these  departments,  we  proceed  briefly  to  speak. 

§  2.  The  Principles  of  Legislation,  include  the  organization  of 
legislatures  ;  legislative  forms,  or  parliamentary  usages  ;  and  the  prin- 
ciples of  natural  and  divine  law,  on  which  all  laws  should  be  founded. 
Legislative  power,  or  the  power  of  making  laws,  even  when  en- 
trusted to  the  immediate  representatives  of  the  people,  is  found  to  be 
most  safely  vested  in  two  co-ordinate  bodies,  whose  separate  consent 
should  be  necessary  to  the  enactment  of  a  law.  The  more  popular 
branch  should  of  course  be  so  numerous,  as  to  secure  a  full  represent- 
ation of  the  interests  and  wishes  of  the  whole  people ;  beyond  which 
an  increase  of  numbers  obstructs  the  efficiency  and  weakens  the 
responsibility.  The  other  branch  of  the  legislature  should  be  so 
limited  as  to  embrace  only  the  highest  order  of  political  talent,  expe- 
rience, and  wisdom.  Each  house  of  the  legislature  is  usually  organ- 
ized by  the  appointment,  or  election  of  a  presiding  officer  and  one  or 
more  clerks,  or  recorders  of  its  proceedings  ;  and  each  house  is  the 
proper  judge  of  the  qualifications  of  its  own  members. 

In  the  proceedings  of  legislative,  as  of  other  deliberative  bodies, 
certain  rules  are  necessary  to  be  observed,  for  the  preservation  of  order, 
and  expediting  of  business.  Such  rules,  having  been  introduced 
into  the  British  Parliament,  at  an  early  period,  have  been  very  gene- 
rally styled  Parliamentary  Rules  or  Usages.  Those  of  our  Con- 
gress and  State  Legislatures,  though  founded  on  the  English  rules, 
have  been  modified,  as  the  spirit  of  our  institutions,  and  the  change  of 
circumstances  required ;  and  they  are  still  liable  to  farther  modifica- 
tions. They  relate  to  the  duties  of  the  presiding  officer ;  the  mode 
of  qualifying  members  ;  the  general  order  of  business  ;  the  reference 
of  subjects  to  committees,  or  to  a  committee  of  the  whole  house; 
the  mode  of  receiving  and  acting  upon  bills  or  amendments  ;  the 
courtesy  due  to  co-ordinate  houses,  or  to  the  executive  ;  the  recording 
and  verification  of  the  journal ;  and  similar  topics,  of  which  we  have 
no  farther  room  to  speak.  These  rules  are  the  more  important,  from 
their  being  used  in  regulating  the  proceedings  of  public  meetings 
generally  ;  even  those  for  religious  or  scientific  purposes. 

The  style  of  laws  should  be  as  precise  as  possible;  and  they 
should  be  changed  as  seldom  as  a  due  regard  to  the  public  welfare 
will  allow  ;  lest  they  should  lose  in  dignity,  and  fail  in  the  requisite 
publicity.  They  should  of  course  be  founded  in  justice,  and  should 
be  as  few  and  as  simple  as  the  condition  of  society  will  admit ;  leav- 
ing things  to  regulate  themselves,  wherever  they  are  not  likely  to  pro- 
duce public  injury;  unless  much  good  will  clearly  result  from  posi- 
tive legislation.  The  object  of  good  laws  should  be,  not  only  to 
punish  crimes  when  committed,  but  as  far  as  possible  to  prevent  the 
commission  of  them.  Montesquieu  very  properly  enumerates  four 
ipecies  of  crimes ;  those  against  religion ;  against  morals ;  against 
private  security  ;  and  against  public  safety  ;  all  of  which  come  within 


POLITICAL    PHILOSOPHY.  103 

the  cognisance  of  legislative  authority  ;  and  require  active  measures 
for  their  prevention  of  punishment. 

As  regards  punishments,  they  should  be  commensurate  with 
offences  ;  and  so  framed  as  if  possible  both  to  redress  the  injured 
party,  and  vindicate  the  violated  laws  ;  having  reference  also  to  the 
prevention  of  future  crimes,  and  the  moral  reformation  of  the  offender. 
Among  the  various  reasons  theoretically  assigned  to  justify  the  inflic- 
tion of  punishments,  those  to  which  we  have  just  referred,  including 
the  preservation  of  public  safety,  seem  to  be  the  strongest.  The  pub- 
lic exhibition  of  capital  punishments,  we  are  fully  persuaded,  has  a 
very  demoralizing  and  injurious  effect ;  but  such  punishment  may, 
we  think,  be  justified  in  extreme  cases,  by  reason  as  well  as  by  Scrip- 
tural authority.  Still  it  remains  a  question,  with  some  minds,  whe- 
ther, even  in  these  cases,  solitary  confinement  would  not  be  prefera- 
ble. Imprisonment  for  debt,  we  conceive  to  be  justifiable,  only  where 
the  debtor  is  chargeable  with  fraud,  or  culpable  negligence,  in  con- 
tracting obligations  without  providing  the  means  of  discharging  them. 

§  3.  The  Principles  of  Adjudication,  or  judicial  action,  relate  ta 
the  organization  of  courts,  with  the  right  construction  or  interpreta- 
tion of  laws,  and  their  due  enforcement.  Were  the  power  of  exe- 
cuting the  laws  intrusted  to  the  same  persons  who  make  them ;  it  would 
be  much  more  likely  to  be  abused  than  when  placed  in  different  hands. 
Hence  the  propriety  of  distinct  Courts  of  Justice,  and  these  of  dif- 
ferent grades ;  that  there  may  be  room  for  appealing  from  the  lower 
to  the  higher,  in  cases  of  supposed  injustice.  The  Judges  or  jus- 
tices are  properly  nominated  by  the  Chief  Magistrate  of  the  Nation, 
or  State  ;  but  to  prevent  corruption,  they  should  be  approved  by  some 
responsible  body,  and  should  afterwards  be  independent  of  the  ap- 
pointing power,  at  least  for  a  long  term  of  years,  except  when  im- 
peached for  misconduct.  A  judge  should  not  only  be  impartial,  but 
he  should  pay  implicit  obedience  to  the  law,  without  regard  to  its 
merits ;  except  in  chancery  or  constitutional  questions ;  his  office  be- 
ing not  to  make  the  law,  but  to  declare  and  enforce  it.  In  general, 
more  confidence  may  be  placed  in  the  decision  of  three  or  more 
judges,  than  in  that  of  a  single  individual,  though  of  equal  capacity. 

To  secure  more  effectually  the  rights  of  citizens,  the  law  allows 
them,  in  many  cases,  the  privilege  of  trial  by  a  Jury,  composed  of 
their  fellow-citizens,  who  are  supposed  to  have  an  immediate  interest 
in  doing  them  full  justice.  The  origin  of  this  institution  is  lost  in 
antiquity  ;  but  it  was  confirmed  in  England,  by  Henry  II.  in  the  Con- 
stitutions of  Clarendon,  in  1164.  The  number  of  jurors,  and  mode 
of  selecting  them,  vary  in  different  places  and  courts.  A  Grand  Jury, 
consists  of  at  least  twelve,  and  usually,  when  full,  of  twenty-three 
persons  ;  who  are  charged  with  a  general  supervision  of  the  public 
safety,  interest,  and  morals.  Petit  Juries,  on  the  other  hand,  are 
summoned  and  sworn  for  the  trial  of  special  causes.  The  other  officers 
of  a  court  of  justice,  are  the  Clerk  or  Prothonotary,  who  records 
its  proceedings  and  decisions;  and  the  Marshall,  Sheriff,  or  Con- 
stable, who  executes  its  processes  and  orders.  The  Attorneys, 
Solicitors,  and  Counsellors,  or  Advocates,  are  lawyers,  commis- 
sioned by  the  court,  to  manage  causes  before  it.  An  Attorney  or 


104  NOMOLOGY. 

Solicitor  General,  is  a  lawyer  specially  appointed  by  the  executive, 
to  manage  causes  in  which  the  government  is  a  party  directly  con- 
cerned. 

The  jurisdiction  of  a  court,  signifies  the  extent  of  its  powers,  in 
regard  to  the  causes  which  may  be  tried  before  it.  It  has  original 
jurisdiction  in  cases  which  may  come  primarily  before  it;  and 
appellate  jurisdiction,  in  those  cases  which  can  only  be  brought  be- 
fore it  by  an  appeal  from  some  other  court.  Jurisdiction  is  also  termed 
civil,  when  it  extends  only  to  the  rights  of  persons  and  property ; 
and  criminal,  when  it  extends  to  the  trial  of  imputed  crimes.  Of 
legal  hermeneutics,  or  the  just  interpretation  of  laws,  we  have  only 
room  here  to  remark  that  it  depends  upon  the  same  principles  as 
biblical  hermeneutics ;  that  is,  the  just  principles  of  grammar,  logic, 
ethics,  and  sound  criticism  in  general. 

§  4.  The  Principles  of  Administration  of  governments,  compre- 
hend the  greater  part  of  what  is  usually  termed  Statesmanship,  in- 
cluding Diplomacy.  They  relate  to  the  duties  of  the  chief  Magis- 
trate, and  his  immediate  assistants  and  advisers,  whether  called  Se- 
cretaries, Ministers,  or  by  other  names.  The  propriety  of  having 
a  single  and  responsible  chief,  at  the  head  of  every  government  or 
society  of  men,  is  too  evident  to  need  any  argument.  Whether  that 
chief  be  called  President,  or  Consul,  or  King,  or  Emperor,  is  far  less 
important,  than  that  he  should  feel  himself  responsible  to  the  people, 
for  the  manner  in  which  he  exercises  the  power  confided  to  him ; 
and  that  he  should  be  competent  to  direct  the  government  beneficially 
and  wisely,  with  the  aid  of  competent  assistants  and  advisers. 

The  necessity  of  a  cabinet,  or  ministry,  to  assist  the  chief  magis- 
trate, will  at  once  appear,  from  the  manifold  duties  of  the  executive 
branch.  These  duties  are,  for  the  most  part,  supervisory ;  to  see 
that  the  laws  are  faithfully  executed,  and  to  advise  for  their  alteration 
or  improvement ;  to  manage  the  fiscal  and  financial  affairs  of  the 
nation ;  to  superintend  public  improvements  ;  to  preserve  friendly 
intercourse  with  foreign  nations ;  and  to  provide  for  the  public  de- 
fence, with  the  aid  of  the  military  and  naval  forces.  Accordingly,  in 
most  governments,  there  are  distinct  departments,  of  State,  for  cor- 
respondence and  intercourse  with  foreign  powers  ;  of  the  Treasury, 
or  of  Finance,  for  the  collection  and  disbursement  of  the  public 
moneys ;  of  War,  for  the  management  of  military  affairs ;  of  the 
Navy  or  Marine,  for  naval  affairs  :  besides  others  for  various  express 
purposes,  as  Posts,  and  Mails  ;  Internal  Improvements  ;  Education  ; 
Patents  ;  and  the  like. 

Diplomacy,  is  that  portion  of  Statesmanship,  which  relates  to  the 
intercourse  of  a  government  with  foreign  powers,  by  means  of  its  ac- 
credited agents.  It  treats  of  the  qualifications,  and  the  duties  of  these 
agents ;  and  the  rules  and  precedents  by  which  they  are  governed  in 
their  official  acts.  Diplomatic  agents  of  the  highest  rank,  are  called 
Ambassadors,  or  Ministers  ;  of  whom  ministers  plenipotentiary, 
and  envoys  extraordinary,  usually  take  precedence.  Resident  minis- 
ters rank  next ;  and  inferior  to  these  in  official  grade,  are  Charges 
d'affaires,  and  finally  Secretaries  of  legation,  and  Attaches.  As 
the  interests  and  honor  of  a  nation  are  confided,  in  a  great  degree,  to 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW.  105 

an  ambassador,  he  should  of  course  be  a  person  of  great  dignity ;  of 
extensive  knowledge  ;  well  versed  in  the  forms  and  courtesies  due  to 
his  station ;  familiar  with  the  affairs  both  of  his  own  state,  and  of 
that  to  which  he  is  accredited ;  and  of  uncompromising  integrity. 
When  affairs  of  the  highest  importance  are  to  be  transacted,  it  is  per- 
haps the  safest,  to  intrust  them  to  a  Commission,  or  Embassy  of 
several  persons,  of  the  highest  capacity,  and  with  joint  powers. 

Consuls,  as  they  are  now  styled,  are  regarded  by  some  as  diplo- 
matic officers  ;  but  more  generally,  as  commercial  agents,  stationed 
in  foreign  parts,  to  afford  protection  to  their  fellow-citizens,  and  per- 
form certain  magisterial  and  legal  duties ;  being  themselves  subject 
to  the  civil  authorities  of  the  places  where  they  reside,  at  least,  in 
criminal  cases.  It  is  usually  a  part  of  their  duty,  to  watch  over  the 
fulfilment  of  commercial  treaties,  in  their  respective  vicinities ;  and 
to  transmit  to  their  own  government  any  information  which  they  may 
deem  of  service.  A  Consul  General,  is  one  appointed  for  several 
places,  or  over  several  other  consuls. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INTERNATIONAL    LAW. 

THE  branch  of  International  Law,  frequently,  though  less  properly, 
called  the  Law  of  Nations,  comprises  that  system  of  rules,  which 
defines  the  rights,  and  prescribes  the  duties  of  nations,  in  their  inter- 
course with  each  other.  It  does  not  properly  include  what  have  been 
termed  the  internal  laws  of  nations,  or  the  rights  and  obligations 
which  subsist  between  the  government  and  the  citizens  of  the  same 
state ;  and  hence  those  laws  are  here  referred  to  the  subsequent 
branches  of  Nomology.  But  it  does  properly  include  the  subjects 
of  Commercial,  Maritime,  and  Admiralty  Law  ;  in  so  far  as  they 
are  instituted  not  by  any  one  nation  singly,  but  by  the  common  con- 
sent of  two  or  more  sovereign  states.  International  Law  is  based 
upon  the  principles  of  justice ;  and  it  consists  of  the  natural  or 
necessary  laws  ;  the  prescriptive,  or  customary  laws ;  and  the  positive, 
or  express  laws  ;  by  which  the  intercourse  of  nations  is  regulated. 

A  nation,  or  state,  is  a  community,  or  body  of  men,  united  under 
one  government,  for  mutual  safety  and  benefit.  It  consists  of  officers, 
who  are  its  agents ;  and  of  citizens,  from  among  whom  those  officers 
are  selected,  or  to  whom  they  should  be  responsible.  Nations  are 
here  considered  as  moral  persons,  possessing  certain  rights,  and  hav- 
ing certain  duties  to  perform,  in  that  capacity.  And  what  is  incum- 
bent upon  a  nation,  is  morally  incumbent  on  all  its  citizens,  according 
to  their  respective  stations  and  circumstances.  The  rules  which  pre- 
scribe the  rights  and  duties  of  governments  towards  each  other,  are 
sometimes  termed  public  laws,  and  those  relating  to  the  citizens  of 
a  nation,  in  regard  to  foreign  powers,  are  then  termed  private  laws, 
of  nations.  It  is  an  admirable  remark  of  Montesquieu,  that  nations 
14 


106  NOMOLOGY. 

ought  to  do  each  other  as  much  good  in  peace,  and  as  little  harm  in 
war,  as  possible,  consistently  with  the  attainment  of  their  just  and 
reasonable  objects. 

Perhaps  the  earliest  example  of  International  Law,  was  afforded  by 
the  Grecian  States,  in  the  establishment  of  the  Jlmphictyonic  Coun- 
cil ;  which  was  designed  to  settle  all  disputes  between  them  ;  though 
it  failed  of  success.  Rome,  in  its  infancy,  made  some  approach  to 
an  international  code ;  particularly  in  the  institution  of  a  college  of 
heralds,  and  of  the  fecial  law  :  and  this  subject  found  an  able  advocate 
in  Cicero  ;  but  still  the  principles  of  just  intercourse  with  other  na- 
tions were  often  violated.  At  a  later  period,  when  the  Roman  Law 
became  most  highly  cultivated,  the  law  of  nations  was  incorporated 
therein,  to  a  considerable  extent,  though  not  in  a  separate  or  syste- 
matic form.  Since  that  period,  the  Christian  religion,  the  crusades, 
the  institution  of  chivalry,  the  feudal  system,  and  the  family  alliances 
of  European  sovereigns,  have  successively  favored  the  development 
of  International  Law,  as  now  generally  recognised  and  understood. 

The  great  work  of  Grotius,  On  the  Rights  of  War  and  of  Peace. 
(De  Jure  Belli  et  Pacis),  published  in  1025,  was  the  first  which  re- 
duced International  Law  to  a  regular  system  ;  procuring  for  its  author 
the  title  of  father  of  this  science.  PurTendorf,  in  his  work  On  the 
Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,  (De  Jure  Naturae  et  Gentium),  pub- 
lished in  1672,  treated  the  subject  in  a  highly  philosophical  manner: 
but  the  treatise  of  Vattel  on  the  Law  of  Nations,  (Droits  des  Gens), 
first  published  in  1758,  has  contributed,  perhaps,  more  than  any  other 
work,  to  give  influence  and  popularity  to  this  important  study.  The 
influence  of  these  and  similar  works,  in  modern  times,  is  shown,  we 
think,  in  the  frequency  of  treaty  stipulations  ;  settling  points  of  inter- 
national law,  at  least  between  the  parties  concerned,  which,  in  former 
times,  might  have  caused  long  and  bloody  wars,  and  finally  have  been 
decided  by  force,  rather  than  by  justice. 

We  proceed  to  treat  farther  of  International  Law,  under  the  heads 
of  Laws  of  Nations  in  Peace ;  Laws  of  Nations  in  "War ;  Maritime 
Law  ;  and  Commercial  Law. 

§  1.  The  Laws  of  Nations  in  Peace,  depend  upon  the  principle 
that  nations,  like  moral  persons,  are  responsible  for  their  actions,  and 
equal  in  respect  to  their  rights  and  duties ;  whatever  difference  may 
exist  in  their  strength,  extent,  forms  of  government,  or  systems  of  re- 
ligion. Every  nation  therefore  has  a  right  to  choose  its  own  form  of 
government;  to  exercise  exclusive  jurisdiction  over  its  own  territory, 
and  the  adjacent  waters,  so  far  as  may  be  necessary  for  its  defence  ; 
and  to  regulate  its  commerce  and  intercourse  with  other  nations; 
provided  always  that  it  observe  the  principles  of  justice,  including  of 
course,  conformity  to  its  treaties  and  other  obligations.  Foreigners, 
residing  in  any  nation,  are  amenable  to  its  laws,  unless  they  be  public 
ministers ;  and  in  return  they  are  entitled  to  protection  for  their  per- 
sons and  property.  Criminals,  fleeing  from  justice  out  of  their  own 
country,  should  be  surrendered,  on  due  proof,  to  the  government  of 
the  injured  party  ;  since  they  cannot  be  seized  by  the  same  in  another 
nation's  territory.  The  granting,  by  one  nation,  of  a  free  passage 
across  its  territory,  to  the  citizens  or  troops  of  another,  is  a  matter  of 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW.  107 

courtesy  and  good  will ;  always  subject  to  the  restrictions  necessary 
for  its  own  safety. 

Every  nation  is  bound  to  respect  the  ambassador  or  public  minis- 
ter of  another  nation,  so  long  as  the  laws  of  nations  are  respected  by 
him.  As  the  representative  of  his  nation,  his  person  is  inviolate ; 
nor  is  he  subject  to  the  laws  of  the  nation  receiving  him.  He  may 
be  ordered  away,  or,  if  necessary,  expelled ;  but  if  practicable,  com- 
plaint should  first  be  made  to  his  own  government,  that  he  may  be 
recalled.  A  government  may,  at  its  discretion,  refuse  to  receive  an 
ambassador;  but  then  it  should  speedily  explain  to  the  government 
sending  him,  the  reason  for  this  refusal.  Treaties  made  by  minis- 
ters, are  not  understood  to  be  binding,  until  ratified  by  their  respective 
governments;  unless  made  by  ministers  plenipotentiary,  clothed 
with  full  and  irrevocable  powers.  If  there  be  a  dispute  concerning 
the  rightful  government  of  a  foreign  nation,  the  government  de  facto, 
or  actual  government,  is  the  one  usually  recognised. 

As  every  nation  is  bound  to  protect  its  own  citizens,  in  the  enjoy- 
ment of  their  rights,  an  injury  to  a  single  one  of  them,  if  reparation 
be  refused,  may  be  deemed  a  cause  for  war ;  though  war  may  not, 
even  then,  be  advisable.  In  such  cases,  the  injured  citizen  is  doubt- 
less entitled  to  reparation  from  his  own  government.  Disputes 
between  nations,  may  be  settled  by  mediation,  by  conference,  or  by 
arbitration  :  and  not  until  all  attempts  to  obtain  justice  by  these 
means  have  failed,  can  there  be  just  cause  for  war. 

§  2.  The  Laws  of  Nations  in  War,  presuppose  that  war  is 
undertaken  only  in  order  to  obtain  justice,  when  all  other  means 
have  failed.  War  is  the  ultima  ratio,  or  last  resort,  of  nations  who 
acknowledge  no  earthly  superior,  but  appeal  to  the  God  of  battles  in 
defence  of  their  existence,  liberty,  or  other  dearest  rights.  Some- 
times recourse  is  had  to  a  limited  warfare  ;  as  by  retaliation,  reprisals, 
blockades,  or  embargoes,  to  extort  or  compel  redress.  A  blockade, 
is  an  interception  of  all  communication  with  a  place,  by  the  fleets  or 
armies  of  a  hostile  power :  and  an  embargo,  is  an  order  of  the 
government  detaining  the  vessels  of  another  nation,  or  interdicting  all 
trade  therewith,  as  a  contingent  means  of  redress  or  coercion.  War  is 
sometimes  commenced,  as  it  was  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  by 
a  formal  declaration  of  hostilities  ;  but  the  failure  of  negotiations,  and 
the  withdrawal  of  ministers,  is  generally  deemed  a  sufficient  warning 
to  the  opposite  party. 

The  effect  of  War  is  to  put  all  the  citizens  of  each  nation,  politi- 
cally speaking,  in  a  hostile  position  towards  those  of  the  other ;  sus- 
pending, but  not  cancelling  their  respective  claims  and  obligations. 
It  is  just  that  foreigners  in  each  country  should  have  time  to  with- 
draw themselves  and  their  property  therefrom  ;  but  the  law  of  reci- 
procity generally  prevails ;  and  if  imprisonment  or  confiscation 
follow,  they  have  a  just  claim  on  their  own  country  for  the  damage. 
It  is  just,  also,  that  actual  hostilities  should  be  restricted  to  those  per- 
sons who  are  commissioned  in  the  public  service  of  the  belligerent 
states  ;  and  that  they  should  be  permitted  to  act  offensively  only 
against  armed  forces  and  public  property ;  but  not  against  peaceable 
-itizens.  Captured  goods  are  often  bestowed  on  the  captors;  but 


108  NOMOLOGY. 

captured  territory  becomes  subject  to  the  victorious  power.  A  cap- 
tured vessel  may  be  ransomed  ;  and  the  ransom  bill,  or  note  of 
promise  given  to  the  captor,  is  one  of  the  few  contracts  allowable 
between  hostile  parties.  A  vessel  recaptured,  returns  to  its  original 
owners,  by  the  jus  postliminii,  which  supposes  that  it  had  never 
ceased  to  belong  to  them.  The  poisoning  of  wells,  or  food;  the 
injury  of  private  citizens ;  the  maltreatment  of  prisoners ;  and  the 
violation  of  passports,  cartels,  flags  of  truce,  conventions,  or  capitula- 
tions, are  universally  forbidden,  among  civilized  nations. 

Those  powers,  or  states,  which  are  not  parties  to  the  war,  are  called 
neutral:  and  they  have  important  relations  to  the  belligerents.  They 
are  expected  to  aid  neither  party ;  and  their  trade  with  both  parties 
is  restricted,  but  how  far  is  not  exactly  decided.  The  neutral  mer- 
chant may  carry  his  own  goods,  if  not  contraband  of  war,  to  any 
ports  of  either  hostile  party,  not  actually  blockaded :  but  a  block- 
aded port  he  is  not  permitted  to  enter.  All  articles  useful  solely 
in  war,  are  contraband ;  and  other  articles  may  become  so,  if  car- 
ried to  a  besieged  place,  or  designed  to  aid  directly  in  carrying  on 
the  war.  The  punishment  for  carrying  contraband  articles,  is 
generally  the  confiscation  of  the  whole  cargo.  The  right  of  search, 
usually  conceded  to  belligerents,  to  see  that  neutral  vessels  have  no 
contraband  goods,  extends  only  to  neutral  merchant  vessels,  and 
not  to  national  ships.  Neutral  property,  on  board  ships  captured 
from  the  enemy,  must  be  restored ;  but  an  enemy's  property,  on 
board  of  a  neutral  ship,  may  be  seized  by  the  searching  vessel. 
Neutral  territory  is  inviolable  ;  protecting  even  the  enemy's  property ; 
but  the  neutral  nation  may  either  grant  or  withhold  free  passage 
across  its  territory,  so  that  it  treat  both  the  hostile  parties  alike.  The 
character  of  individuals  is  either  neutral  or  belligerent,  according  as 
they  reside  in  neutral  or  hostile  territory ;  or  if  they  have  no  actual 
residence,  it  depends  upon  their  previous  intention,  if  clearly  proved. 

§  3.  Maritime  Law,  is  that  division  of  Jurisprudence  which  re- 
lates to  crimes  and  transactions  on  the  high  seas ;  including  the  laws 
of  maritime  captures,  and  privateering;  with  those  relating  to  piracy, 
the  slave  trade,  and  other  offences  ;  which  in  England  are  tried  by 
the  Admiralty  Courts,  but  in  our  own  country,  by  the  Courts  of  the 
General  Government.  Contracts  made  upon  the  high  seas  may  also 
be  included  under  Maritime  Law;  and  the  distinction  between  this 
and  Commercial  Law  is  perhaps  not  very  clearly  defined.  Many 
principles  of  Maritime  Law,  particularly  those  relating  to  maritime 
captures,  belong  to  the  preceding  section  of  International  Law  ;  but 
as  this  division  is  separately  treated  of  in  other  works,  we  have 
thought  it  proper  to  assign  it  here  a  distinct  place.  The  English 
Admiralty  Court  was  instituted  by  Edward  III.,  in  1357;  but  re- 
ceived a  more  popular  form,  under  Henry  VIII.,  in  1517.  Its  juris- 
diction extends  to  some  cases  of  Commercial  as  well  as  Maritime 
Law ;  and  to  all  such  cases,  the  term  Admiralty  Law  has  been 
applied.  Azuni,  in  his  work  on  the  Maritime  Law  of  Europe,  has 
the  merit  of  being  the  first  writer  who  reduced  this  subject  to  a 
regular  system. 

The  necessity  of  requiring  a  judicial  decision  to  legalize  captures 


INTERNATIONAL    LAW.  109 

of  merchant  vessels,  in  war,  will  appear  from  the  abuse  to  which 
this  practice  would  otherwise  be  exposed.  Hence  privateers,  com- 
missioned by  government  to  make  such  captures,  are  forbidden  to 
dispose  of  them,  till  they  are  legally  condemned,  by  some  court  of 
the  captor's  own  country.  Even  those  merchant  vessels  which  are 
captured  by  national  ships,  must,  we  believe,  undergo  this  legal  con- 
demnation, at  least  before  they  can  be  safely  purchased  by  any  indi- 
vidual citizen.  Such  prizes  become  the  property  of  the  state; 
though  their  proceeds  are  usually  distributed  among  the  captors,  as  a 
reward  for  bravery,  and  a  stimulus  to  exertion.  All  seizures,  under 
the  laws  of  impost,  navigation  or  trade,  when  those  seizures  are 
made  on  waters  navigable  from  the  sea,  by  vessels  of  a  certain  size, 
may  also  be  considered  as  under  the  cognisance  of  Maritime  Law. 
Piracy,  including  the  seizure  of  vessels,  or  robbery  and  murder  on 
the  high  seas,  is  punishable  with  death  by  the  law  of  nations  ;  and 
pirates,  on  becoming  such,  cease  to  have  any  national  rights ;  but 
are  held  amenable  to  any  nation,  into  whose  hands  they  may  fall. 
Several  nations,  including  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain,  have 
already  agreed  to  rank  the  slave  trade  in  the  same  heinous  class  of 
crimes.  Most  others  have  forbidden  it ;  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that 
all  will  soon  effectually  unite  in  putting  a  stop  to  this  horrid  traffic. 

§  4.  Commercial  Law,  otherwise  called  Law  Merchant  or  Lex 
Mercatoria,  "  is  that  which  relates  to  trade,  navigation,  and  maritime 
contracts  ;  such  as  those  of  insurance,  bottomry,  bills  of  lading, 
charter-parties,  general  average,  seamen's  wages ;  and  also  to  bills 
of  exchange,  bills  of  credit,  factors  and  agents."  Cases  of  these 
kinds  between  citizens  of  different  nations,  evidently  rest  on  prin- 
ciples of  International  Law,  which  no  one  nation  can  greatly  alter ; 
and  in  our  own  country,  they  are  mostly  tried  before  the  Courts  of 
the  General  Government.  The  earliest  laws  of  this  kind  were  pro- 
bably the  Rliodian  Laws,  of  which  some  fragments  only  remain. 
The  Jlmalfitan  Table,  prepared  at  Amalfi,  in  Italy,  about  1096;  the 
Laws  of  Oleron,  prepared  at  Oleron,  in  France,  in  1266;  and  the 
Consolato  del  Mare,  probably  digested  at  Barcelona,  in  Spain,  in 
1494  ;  were  the  basis  of  Commercial  Law  ;  which  has  since  been 
improved  by  the  French  Ordinances  framed  by  Colbert ;  by  the 
labors  of  Lord  Mansfield,  who  first  methodized  the  system  in  Eng- 
land ;  and  in  our  own  country,  by  the  able  decisions  of  Marshall, 
Story,  and  other  jurists. 

Marine  Insurance,  rests  on  a  contract,  by  which  the  underwriters, 
for  a  certain  premium,  guarantee  a  ship  against  loss  ;  or  if  lost,  en- 
gage to  make  good  the  damage.  Bottomry,  is  the  borrowing  of 
money,  by  pledging  the  ship's  bottom,  that  is  the  ship  itself,  in  pay- 
ment. A  bill  of  lading,  is  a  written  statement  of  goods  shipped : 
and  it  is  usually  directed  to  the  person  to  whom  they  are  sent.  A 
charter  party,  is  a  written  agreement,  concerning  the  shipment  and 
freight  of  a  cargo.  Primage  and  average,  are  certain  contingent 
charges,  as  for  towage  and  pilotage ;  and  general  average  signifies 
extraordinary  expenses  and  sacrifices,  made  to  save  the  cargo,  when 
in  danger;  as  throwing  articles  overboard,  paying  ransom,  and  the 
like.  On  all  these  points,  certain  general  rules  and  principles  are 

K 


110  NOMOLOGT. 

understood,  or  agreed  upon,  by  merchants,  even  of  different  nations  : 
and  hence  these  subjects  become  a  part  of  International  Law. 

Cambial  Laws,  are  those  relating  to  Exchange  ;  or  the  transfer 
and  payment  of  moneys  in  distant  places.  A  bill  of  exchange,  is  a 
written  direction  of  one  person,  for  another  person  named,  to  pay  a 
sum  of  money  therein  mentioned,  to  a  third  person ;  and  this  bill 
may  be  sold  to  a  fourth  person,  or  by  him  to  others,  before  it  is 
regularly  paid.  The  parties  to  a  bill  of  exchange  are  called  the 
drawer,  who  makes  it ;  the  drawee,  or  the  person  to  whom  it  is  ad- 
dressed ;  the  payee,  in  whose  favor  the  bill  is  nominally  drawn ; 
and  the  presenter,  who  finally  presents  it  for  payment.  When  the 
drawee  has  acknowledged  the  bill  to  be  payable  by  him,  he  becomes 
the  acceptor ;  and  any  person  guaranteeing  the  payment,  by  writing 
his  name  on  the  back  of  it,  is  called  its  endorser.  Numerous  and 
complicated  cases  may  arise,  under  bills  of  exchange  ;  but  such  we 
have  no  room  here  to  consider. 


CHAPTER  III. 

CONSTITUTIONAL    LAW. 

IN  the  branch  of  Constitutional  Law,  using  the  term  in  its  more 
general  sense,  we  would  include  the  study  of  the  Constitutions,  or 
fundamental  laws  of  the  various  nations ;  that  is,  the  structure  and 
mechanism  of  their  government,  and  the  appointments,  powers,  and 
duties  of  their  officers.  In  our  own  country,  this  branch  is  often 
limited  to  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States,  and  the  Statutes  and 
Treaties  framed  under  its  authority  ;  but  even  here,  we  think  it  should 
include  the  Constitutions  of  the  several  states,  and  the  mechanism  of 
their  governments.  The  Constitutions,  so  called,  of  the  Roman  Law, 
were  merely  the  edicts  of  the  successive  emperors.  The  famous 
Golden  Bull,  of  Charles  IV.,  issued  in  1356,  so  named  from  its 
golden  seal,  was  the  Constitution  of  the  German  Empire  ;  on  which 
the  present  constitutions  of  Austria  and  Prussia  have  been  partly 
modelled.  It  contained  many  chapters  on  the  public  law  ;  together 
with  the  rules  for  the  election  and  crowning  of  the  emperors ;  the 
order  and  rank  of  the  imperial  court ;  and  the  functions  of  the  arch- 
officers  of  the  empire.  In  France,  notwithstanding  the  existence  of 
the  ancient  States  General,  of  nobles  and  clergy,  to  which  the  Third 
Estate,  or  representatives  of  cities  were  added  about  the  year  1300, 
the  Constitution  was  chiefly  monarchical  and  hierarchal,  till  the  revo- 
lution of  1789 ;  since  which  time  France  has  had  nine  different  con- 
stitutions, including  the  present  one. 

The  English  Constitution  has  been  successively  modified,  by  the 
Wit tenag emote,  or  Council  of  Wise  Men,  of  King  Alfred  ;  the 
Feudal  System  of  William  the  Conqueror ;  the  Constitutions  of 
Clarendon,  enacted  in  1164,  under  Henry  II.,  to  check  the  pspal 
power;  the  Magna  Chart a,  or  Great  Charter  of  Rights,  extorted 
by  the  barons  from  King  John,  in  1215;  the  Establishment  of  the 


CONSTITUTIONAL    LAW.  Ill 

House  of  Commons,  under  Henry  III.,  in  1258  ;  and  the  recognition 
of  the  Bill  of  Rights,  by  William  III.  and  Mary,  in  1689.  Except- 
ing in  the  hereditary  power  of  the  king  and  house  of  lords,  and  the 
unequal  representation  of  the  people  in  parliament,  it  closely  resem- 
bles our  own  Constitution,  of  which  it  was  the  principal  model. 
The  British  Constitution  is  the  result  of  the  successive  struggles  of 
the  people  for  liberty  ;  and  it  exists,  in  part,  by  mere  prescription  ; 
having  never  been  digested  or  sanctioned,  as  a  whole,  by  any  posi- 
tive act  of  the  people. 

The  United  States  of  America,  having  been  originally  British 
Colonies,  brought  with  them  the  rights,  laws,  and  institutions  of  their 
mother  country  :  and  most  of  them  had  local  Legislatures,  subordinate 
to  the  British  Parliament.  Their  right  to  the  soil,  rested  on  purchases 
from  the  Indians,  or  conquests  made  in  wars  with  them  ;  and  in  regard 
to  foreign  nations,  they  held  it  by  the  right  of  discovery,  in  virtue  of 
Cabot's  first  expedition,  under  the  authority  of  King  Henry  VII. 
Having,  for  the  most  part,  common  interests,  they  several  times  formed 
a  partial  union  ;  as  in  1643,  when  the  New  England  colonies  united 
against  the  Indians  ;  in  1754,  when  delegates  met  at  Albany,  to  take 
measures  against  the  French  and  Indians,  but  Dr.  Franklin's  plan  of 
union  failed ;  and  in  1765,  when  a  Congress  of  delegates  from  nine 
of  the  colonies  met  at  New  York,  to  oppose  the  stamp  act,  and  to 
maintain  their  rights  against  the  mother  country.  When  at  length 
the  acts  of  Parliament,  and  the  regal  power  became  intolerable,  they 
united  in  1774,  in  a  virtual  league,  or  offensive  and  defensive  alliance ; 
and  elected  representatives  to  the  Continental  Congress,  which,  two 
years  thereafter,  declared  "  that  these  United  Colonies  are,  and  of 
right  ought  to  be,  free  and  independent  states."  Formal  Articles 
of  Confederation  were  proposed  in  Congress,  in  1778  ;  but  they  were 
not  adopted  until  1781. 

The  Revolutionary  War  left  the  states  independent,  but  languishing 
under  a  feeble  league,  and  inefficient  form  of  government.  With  a 
view  to  the  settlement  of  some  local  difficulties,  resulting  from  this 
state  of  things,  delegates  from  five  states  met  at  Annapolis,  in  1786 ; 
and  at  their  instance,  a  General  Convention  met  at  Philadelphia,  in 
1787,  and  framed  our  present  Constitution ;  which  went  into  opera- 
tion March  4,  1789.  Its  preamble  is  as  follows.  «*  We,  the  people 
of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  establish 
justice,  ensure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common  defence, 
promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings  of  liberty  to 
ourselves,  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain,  and  establish  this  constitution 
for  the  United  States  of  America."  The  first  article  treats  of  the 
national  legislature  ;  the  second,  of  the  executive ;  and  the  third  of 
the  judiciary  :  the  fourth  defines  certain  relations  of  the  states,  and 
their  citizens,  to  each  other  and  to  the  Union ;  the  fifth  prescribes 
the  mode  of  amending  the  Constitution ;  the  sixth  article  recognizes 
the  previous  government,  but  declares  that  this  Constitution  shall  be 
the  supreme  law  of  the  land ;  and  the  seventh  and  last  article,  relates 
to  its  ratification. 

We  proceed  to  treat  briefly  of  United  States  Constitutional  Law, 
under  the  heads  of  Legislative  powers  ;  Executive  powers  ;  Judicial 


NOMOLOGY. 

powers  ;  State  rights  and  restrictions  ;  and  United  States  Statutes  and 
Treaties. 

§  1.  The  Legislative  powers  of  the  United  States,  are  vested  in  a 
Congress,  consisting  of  a  Senate,  and  House  of  Representatives. 
The  Representatives,  are  chosen  every  second  year,  by  the  people 
of  the  several  states;  among  whom  they  are  apportioned.  They 
must  be  at  least  25  years  of  age  ;  must  have  been  seven  years  citizens 
of  the  United  States  ;  and  must  be  inhabitants  of  the  state  from  which 
they  are  chosen.  The  House  of  Representatives  chooses  its  own 
Speaker,  Clerk,  and  other  officers.  The  Senate,  is  composed  of  two 
members  from  each  state,  chosen  by  the  legislature  thereof,  for  six 
years ;  provision  having  been  made  that  about  one-third  of  the  num- 
ber shall  be  elected  every  two  years,  in  place  of  those  whose  terms 
expire.  A  Senator  must  be  at  least  30  years  of  age  ;  must  have  been 
nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States  ;  and  must,  when  elected,  be 
an  inhabitant  of  the  state  for  which  he  is  chosen.  The  Vice  Presi- 
dent of  the  United  States  is  President  of  the  Senate ;  but  has  only  a 
casting  vote,  in  cases  where  the  Senators  are  equally  divided.  The 
Senate  chooses  its  other  officers,  and  a  President  pro  tempore,  when 
necessary.  It  has  judicial  power  only  in  cases  of  impeachment :  but 
the  power  of  impeaching  officers  of  the  general  government,  or 
arraigning  them  before  the  Senate,  belongs  solely  to  the  House  of 
Representatives. 

Congress  must  assemble  annually  on  the  first  Monday  in  Decem- 
ber, unless  it  shall  by  law  appoint  some  other  day.  Each  house 
judges  of  the  election  and  qualifications  of  its  own  members ;  and 
makes  rules  for  its  own  proceedings,  of  which  it  is  required  to  keep 
a  journal.  Neither  house  can  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor 
change  its  place  of  session,  without  the  consent  of  the  other.  Both 
senators  and  representatives  are  paid  by  law  ;  and  privileged  from 
arrest  in  civil  cases  ;  but  they  are  inhibited  from  appointment  to  any 
office  which  may  have  been  created,  or  enhanced  in  value,  during  their 
term  of  service ;  nor  can  they  hold  any  office  from  the  executive, 
while  they  retain  their  seats.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue,  must  ori- 
ginate in  the  House  of  Representatives ;  and  every  bill  or  resolution 
passed  in  Congress,  except  for  adjournment,  must  be  approved  and 
signed  by  the  President,  before  it  can  become  a  law,  unless  it  be  again 
passed  by  two-thirds  of  both  houses,  respectively. 

The  chief  powers  of  Congress,  are,  to  lay  and  collect  taxes,  duties, 
&c.  for  revenue  ;  to  pay  the  debts,  and  provide  for  the  common  defence 
and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States ;  to  regulate  commerce ;  to  coin 
money,  and  punish  counterfeiters ;  to  establish  post  offices  and  post 
roads  ;  to  grant  copyrights  and  patents  ;  to  constitute  tribunals,  inferior 
to  the  Supreme  Court ;  to  declare  war  ;  to  raise  and  support  armies  ;  to 
provide  and  maintain  a  navy ;  to  give  efficiency  to  the  militia  ;  to 
exercise  exclusive  legislation  over  a  district  not  more  than  ten  miles 
square,  as  the  seat  of  government,  and  over  sites  for  forts  and  other 
public  works,  purchased  with  the  consent  of  the  states ;  to  sell  the 
public  lands,  and  admit  new  states  into  the  union  ;  and  to  make  any 
laws  necessary  for  accomplishing  these  objects ;  subject  to  some 
restrictions,  which  we  have  no  room  here  to  mention. 


CONSTITUTIONAL    LAW.  113 

§  2.  The  Executive  power  is  vested  in  a  President  of  the  United 
States  of  America.  He  holds  his  office  during  the  term  of  four  years  ; 
and  together  with  the  Vice  President,  chosen  for  the  same  term,  is 
elected  by  electors,  who  are  appointed  by  the  states,  in  such  manner 
as  the  respective  legislatures  may  direct.  The  electors  meet  in  their 
several  states,  and  vote  by  ballot  for  a  president  and  vice  president ;  and 
their  votes  are  transmitted  to  the  president  of  the  senate,  who  opens  the 
certificates  before  both  houses  of  Congress,  and  declares  the  result. 
If  no  person  has  a  majority  of  the  electoral  votes  for  president,  then 
one  of  the  three  highest  candidates  for  that  office  is  chosen  to  it,  by  the 
representatives,  voting  by  states  ;  each  state  having  one  vote.  In  the 
like  case  with  regard  to  a  vice  president,  he  is  chosen  by  the  Senate  ; 
being  one  of  the  two  highest  candidates.  The  president  and  vice 
president,  must  have  been  natural  born  citizens,  or  else  citizens  of  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  .the  adoption  of  the  Constitution :  they 
must  be  at  least  35  years  of  age  ;  and  must  have  resided  14  years 
within  the  United  States.  In  case  of  the  death,  inability,  or  removal 
of  the  former,  his  office  devolves  on  the  latter. 

The  President  is  commander  in  chief  of  the  army  and  navy,  and  of 
the  militia,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States. 
He  has  pardoning  powers,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment;  and 
has  power  to  make  treaties,  by  and  with  the  consent  of  two-thirds 
of  the  senators  present  in  session.  He  appoints  ambassadors, 
judges,  and  various  other  officers,  subject  to  the  senate's  approval; 
and  he  may  fill  vacancies,  which  occur  during  the  recess  of  the  senate, 
by  granting  commissions,  which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  the  next 
senatorial  session.  He  gives  information  and  proposes  measures  to 
Congress  ;  which  body  he  may  convene  by  proclamation  ;  but  he 
can  adjourn  it  only  when  the  houses  disagree  in  regard  to  the  time  of 
adjournment.  He  receives  foreign  ministers ;  takes  care  that  the  laws 
be  faithfully  executed ;  and  commissions  all  the  officers  of  the  United 
States,  with  whose  appointment  he  is  concerned.  The  president,, 
vice  president,  and  all  civil  officers  of  the  United  States,  are  remova- 
ble from  office,  on  impeachment  by  the  house  of  representatives,  and 
conviction  by  the  senate,  of  high  crimes  or  misdemeanors. 

The  distribution  of  the  higher  executive  duties,  not  having  been 
prescribed  by  the  Constitution,  has  since  been  made  by  Acts  of  Con- 
gress. The  Secretaries  of  State,  of  the  Treasury,  of  War,  and  of 
the  Navy,  with  the  Attorney  General,  and  the  Postmaster  Gene- 
ral, are  the  immediate  advisers  of  the  President ;  corresponding  to 
the  ministry,  in  foreign  governments ;  and  together  they  constitute  the 
Cabinet.  'The  Department  of  State,  the  Treasury  and  War  depart- 
ments, and  the  office  of  Attorney  General,  were  established  in  1789  : 
but  the  Navy  department  was  not  established,  as  a  distinct  one,  until 
1798  ;  nor  the  Post  Office  department,  until  1810. 

§  3.  The  Judicial  power  of  the  United  States,  is  vested  in  a  Su- 
preme Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  Judges,  of  all  the  courts,  hold 
their  office  during  good  behaviour ;  and  their  salary  cannot  be  dimi- 
nished during  their  continuance  in  office.  The  Judicial  power  ex- 
tends to  all  cases,  in  law  and  equity,  arising  under  the  Constitution* 
15  K2 


114  NOMOLOGY. 

Laws,  or  Treaties  of  the  United  States;  to  all  cases  affecting  ambas- 
sadors, other  public  ministers,  and  consuls :  to  all  cases  of  admiralty 
and  maritime  jurisdiction  ;  to  controversies,  in  which  the  United  States 
are  a  party  :  to  controversies  between  two  or  more  states ;  between 
a  state  and  citizens  of  another  state ;  between  citizens  of  different 
states  ;  between  citizens  of  the  same  state,  claiming  lands  under  grants 
of  different  states ;  and  between  a  state  or  the  citizens  thereof,  and 
foreign  states,  citizens,  or  subjects. 

At  present,  the  Supreme  Court  consists  of  one  Chief  Justice, 
and  eight  Associate  Justices :  and  it  holds  one  session  annually  at 
the  seat  of  government ;  commencing  on  the  second  Monday  in 
January.  It  has  original  jurisdiction  in  all  cases  affecting  ambassa- 
dors, other  public  ministers,  or  consuls ;  and  in  all  cases  to  which  a 
state  is  a  party.  In  all  other  cases,  its  jurisdiction  is  only  appellate  ; 
that  is,  it  may  revise  the  decisions  of  the  inferior  courts,  in  cases 
legally  brought  before  it,  by  writ  of  error,  or  appeal.  Congress  has 
created  two  inferior  grades  of  courts,  called  Circuit  and  District 
Courts  ;  besides  Territorial  Courts,  for  the  territories  belonging  to 
the  Union,  but  not  yet  raised  to  the  rank  of  states.  The  United 
States  are  divided,  for  judicial  purposes,  into  nine  circuits,  to  each 
of  which  one  of  the  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court  is  assigned,  as  a 
Circuit  Judge ;  and  they  are  subdivided  into  34  districts,  to  each  of 
which  a  District  Judge  is  appointed  by  the  national  executive. 
Each  of  these  latter  judges  is  required  to  hold  a  District  Court,  at 
least  twice  in  each  year:  and  in  each  district  there  is  also  held  a  Cir- 
cuit Court,  twice  a  year ;  in  which  the  Circuit  Judge  for  that  circuit 
is  associated  with  the  District  Judge  for  that  district. 

The  Circuit  Courts  have  original  jurisdiction,  in  various  civil 
causes,  where  the  sum  in  controversy  exceeds  five  hundred  dollars ; 
and  they  have  also  criminal  jurisdiction,  either  exclusive,  or  concur- 
rent with  the  district  courts,  over  all  crimes  cognizable  by  the  laws 
of  the  Union,  except  official  misconduct.  The  District  Courts  have 
cognizance  only  of  the  less  important  cases ;  and  when  an  appeal  is 
made  from  them  to  the  Circuit  Court,  the  opinion  of  the  Circuit 
Judge  prevails ;  subject  to  a  farther  appeal  to  the  Supreme  Court. 
The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  must  be 
by  jury ;  and  if  they  were  committed  within  the  limits  of  any  state, 
the  trial  must  take  place  therein.  Treason  is  limited  to  levying  war 
against  the  United  States,  or  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving  them 
aid  and  comfort. 

§  4.  On  State  Rights  and  Restrictions,  we  must  here  be  very 
brief.  The  powers  not  delegated  by  the  Constitution  to  the  United 
States,  nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  states,  are  reserved  to  the  states 
respectively,  or  to  the  people.  No  state  can  enter  into  any  treaty, 
alliance,  or  confederation  ;  grant  letters  of  marque  or  reprisal ;  coin 
money;  emit  bills  of  credit;  make  any  thing  but  specie  a  legal 
tender;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  or  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law  im- 
pairing the  obligation  of  contracts ;  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 
No  state  can,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  imposts,  or 
duties  on  imports  or  exports,  for  the  sake  of  revenue  ;  nor  can  any 
state  keep  troops,  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace  ;  nor  enter  into 


CONSTITUTIONAL    LAW.  115 

any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  state,  or  with  a  foreign 
power;  nor  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded,  or  in  such  immi- 
nent danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 

Full  faith  and  credit  must  be  given,  in  each  state,  to  the  public 
acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings,  of  every  other  state ;  and 
the  citizens  of  each  state,  are  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  and  im- 
munities of  citizens  in  the  several  states.  A  person  charged  with 
crime,  and  fleeing  from  justice,  to  another  state,  must,  on  demand  of 
the  executive  authority  of  the  state  from  which  he  fled,  be  delivered 
up  for  trial  therein.  Persons  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  state, 
under  the  laws  thereof,  and  escaping  into  another,  must  be  delivered 
up,  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service  or  labor  is  proved  to 
be  due.  No  new  state  can  be  formed,  or  erected,  within  the  juris- 
diction of  any  other  state ;  nor  can  any  state  be  formed  by  the  junc- 
tion of  two  or  more  states,  or  parts  of  states,  without  the  consent  of 
the  legislatures  of  the  states  concerned,  as  well  as  of  the  congress. 
The  United  States  guaranty,  to  every  state  in  the  union,  a  republican 
form  of  government ;  and  must  protect  each  of  them  against  inva- 
sion, and,  on  due  application,  against  domestic  violence. 

§  5.  The  Statutes  and  Treaties  of  the  United  States,  are  so 
numerous,  that  we  cannot  here  attempt  even  a  summary  of  the  most 
important.  Among  the  Statutes,  are  laws  establishing  the  executive 
departments,  the  judiciary  system,  the  post-office  system,  the  mint, 
the  army  and  navy,  and  military  academy ;  laws  for  collecting  a  reve- 
nue, and  paying  the  national  debt ;  for  selling  the  public  lands,  and 
admitting  new  states  into  the  Union ;  for  establishing  a  protecting 
tariff  and  national  bank  ;  for  granting  patents  to  inventors,  and  copy- 
rights to  authors  ;  for  laying  an  embargo,  and  declaring  war ;  for 
building  government  edifices,  fortifications,  and  light-houses  ;  and  for 
improving  harbors,  and  internal  communications.*  Among  the  Trea- 
ties, are  those  of  Peace  and  Commerce  with  foreign  states  ;  some- 
times defining  boundaries,  and  international  rights,  and  settling  points 
of  international  law ;  and  those  for  the  purchase  of  territory,  in- 
cluding Louisiana  and  Florida,  and  especially  the  lands  of  the  In- 
dians ;  often  stipulating  for  their  removal  to  more  western  regions. 
Notwithstanding  all  the  Statutes  and  Treaties  which  have  been  made 
by  the  proper  authorities,  many  minor  points  of  law  have  been  left 
to  be  settled  by  the  national  courts  ;  and  are  only  to  be  found  embo- 
died in  the  Reports  of  their  decisions. 

The  Martial  Law  of  the  United  States,  to  which  the  army  and 
navy  are  subject,  having  been  established  by  the  national  authorities, 
is  connected,  we  think,  more  closely  with  Constitutional  Law,  than 
with  the  branch  which  succeeds  it;  but  this  is  a  subject  which 
entirely  transcends  our  limits.  Of  the  Constitutions  of  the  different 
states  ;  which  are  very  similar  to  that  of  the  United  States  ;  we  have 
no  room  here  to  speak.  The  Governors  and  Legislatures  of  the 
states  correspond  to  the  President  and  Congress  of  the  United  States ; 
and  the  distribution  of  functions  is  in  most  of  the  states  essentially 
uniform  ;  differing  only  in  the  minor  details. 

*  Some  of  these  acts,  and  particularly  those  relating  to  a  national  bank,  an  em- 
bargo, and  war,  it  will  readily  be  understood,  are  no  longer  in  force. 


116  NOMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

MUNICIPAL    LAW. 

THE  branch  of  Municipal  Law,  includes  the  rules  of  civil  conduct, 
prescribed  by  the  competent  authorities  of  the  various  nations,  for 
protecting  the  ordinary  rights,  and  defining  the  duties,  of  their  citi- 
zens. The  name  is  from  the  Latin,  municipia,  or  corporate  towns  ; 
which,  in  ancient  Rome,  had  their  own  peculiar  codes  of  laws,  dis- 
tinct from  those  of  the  empire.  It  applies,  therefore,  with  great 
propriety,  to  the  laws  of  the  different  states,  and  of  their  corporate 
cities,  in  our  own  country  ;  as  distinguished  from  those  of  the  United 
States.  The  Laws  which  govern  the  ordinary  courts  of  justice  in 
Great  Britain,  France,  and  other  nations,  must,  in  the  present  classi- 
fication of  knowledge,  be  placed  under  this  head.  Municipal  Law, 
it  will  be  seen,  is  that  branch  of  Nomology  which  relates  most  im- 
mediately to  the  rights  and  obligations  of  individuals,  in  their 
private  capacity.  Hence,  a  knowledge  of  its  provisions  is  more  or 
less  important  to  every  citizen,  as  a  guide  to  the  discharge  of  his 
civil  duties. 

The  earliest  municipal  code  of  laws  on  record,  is  that  of  the  Jews, 
promulgated  by  Moses,  under  divine  authority;  1491  to  1451,  B.  C. 
Its  morals  are  still  obligatory ;  though  its  ceremonials  have  passed 
away.  The  Laws  of  Lycurgus,  established  in  Sparta,  884  B.  C. 
were  adapted  to  a  nation  of  warriors,  supported  by  their  slaves.  Those 
of  Draco,  imposed  on  Athens,  623  B.  C.,  famous  only  for  their 
severity,  were  succeeded  by  the  milder  code  of  Solon,  594  B.  C., 
which  favored  an  aristocratic  and  commercial  system  of  administra- 
tion. Under  these  laws,  public  offences  were  tried  before  the  Areo- 
pagus, and  higher  courts ;  but  private  suits  were  prosecuted  before 
new  tribunals,  the  members  of  which  were  chosen  by  lot  from  among 
the  whole  people.  The  Areopagus  was  also  empowered  to  punish 
vagabonds,  and  to  watch  over  the  public  morals,  and  the  rigorous 
observance  of  the  laws. 

The  first  Roman  Laws  which  we  can  here  notice,  were  those  of 
the  Twelve  Tables,  compiled  by  the  Decemviri,  450  B.  C.  They 
were  amended,  and  extended,  by  the  successive  Praters,  acting  as 
judges;  whose  edicts,  collected  by  Julianus,  under  Adrian,  A.  D.  131, 
were  pronounced  perpetual.  The  imperial  constitutions,  or  ordi- 
nances, were  first  digested  and  codified  under  Theodosius  II.,  A.  D. 
438  ;  and  finally  at  Byzantium,  by  Tribonian  and  others,  under  Jus- 
tinian, A.  D.  533.  Tribonian  prepared  the  Institutes,  or  element- 
ary laws ;  the  Pandects,  or  digests  of  the  opinions  of  eminent  law- 
yers ;  and  the  Codex,  or  new  code,  of  revised  imperial  constitutions  ; 
to  which  were  afterwards  added  the  Novels,  or  new  constitutions, 
partly  subsequent  to  the  time  of  Justinian :  the  whole  constituting  the 
corpus  juris  civilis,  or  Roman  Civil  Law.  This  system  of  laws 
was  for  a  time  lost,  in  the  confusion  of  the  dark  ages  ;  but  a  copy  of 
the  pandects,  found  at  Amalfi,  in  Italy,  in  1137,  led  to  the  codification 


MUNICIPAL    LAW.  117 

of  the  Papal  Canon  Law,  commencing  with  the  labors  of  Gratian, 
about  1151  ;  and  to  the  introduction  of  the  Roman  law  in  the  various 
catholic  states  of  Europe. 

The  French  laws,  were  first  generally  reduced  to  writing,  under 
Charles  VII.,  in  1453  ;  and  they  were  systematized  by  Louis  XIV.; 
who  promulgated  ordinances,  on  the  Civil  process,  in  1667  ;  on  the 
Criminal  process,  in  1670;  on  Commercial  law,  in  1673  ;  on  Forest 
law,  in  1669  ;  on  the  Marine,  in  1681 ;  and  on  Ecclesiastical  law,  in 
1695.  These  laws  were  greatly  simplified,  in  the  Codes  prepared 
under  the  Emperor  Napoleon,  which  are  still  occasionally  called  by 
his  name.  The  Civil  Code,  or  general  law  of  the  country,  was  ela- 
borated in  1805 ;  and  is  emphatically  styled  the  "  Code  Napoleon;11 
as  he  assisted  personally  in  preparing  it.  The  Code  of  Civil  Pro- 
cedure, was  published  in  1806;  that  of  Criminal  Procedure,  in  1808  ; 
and  the  Penal  Code  in  1810.  These  codes,  with  that  of  Commerce, 
published  in  1807,  are  often  termed  the  Five  Codes  ;  and  are  still  the 
basis  of  French  Municipal  Law.  The  Constitutio  Carolina,  was  the 
basis  of  the  Criminal  Law  of  Germany.  It  was  first  sketched  by 
the  emperor  Maximilian,  and  proposed  to  the  Diet  at  Worms,  in 
1521  ;  but  revised  and  augmented  at  the  Diet  of  Spire,  in  1529  ;  and 
published  in  the  form  of  a  law,  in  1532,  under  Charles  V.;  from 
whom  it  took  its  name. 

In  England,  an  excellent  municipal  code  was  established  by  Alfred 
the  Great,  A.  D.  886 :  which  was  the  basis  of  the  English  Common 
Law.  This  was  greatly  modified  by  the  Feudal  Laws,  introduced 
by  William  the  Conqueror,  in  1070 ;  by  which  the  nobles  held  their 
land  as  the  gift  of  the  king,  and  dealt  it  out  to  their  serfs  or  vassals, 
who  were  the  disfranchised  Saxons,  or  the  Norman  soldiers.  Fealty, 
and  service,  were  the  conditions  by  which  the  fiefs  or  feudal  lands 
were  thus  held.  This  system  was  gradually  superseded  by  the 
changes  which  we  have  referred  to,  in  speaking  of  the  English  Con- 
stitution ;  (p.  110);  by  which  popular  liberty  has  been  partially 
restored.  The  English  Municipal  Law  is  derived,  then,  from  the 
ancient  common  law,  the  feudal  law,  the  Roman  civil  law,  and  the 
ecclesiastical  law,  partly  blended  together,  and  more  or  less  modified 
by  acts  of  Parliament ;  the  whole  forming  a  complicated  and  hetero- 
geneous system.  The  character  of  the  English  law  has  been  gradu- 
ally becoming  milder  ;  and  many  offences  which  were  formerly  capital, 
are  now  punished  by  transportation  or  imprisonment. 

The  Municipal  Law  of  our  own  country,  is  based  on  that  of  Eng- 
land ;  but  variously  modified  by  the  statutes  of  the  different  states  ;  in 
some  of  which,  systematic  codes  have  been  prepared ;  and  in  all  of 
which,  we  think  such  codes  would  be  beneficial.  Cases  not  provided 
for  by  statutes,  are  generally  decided  by  reference  to  the  common  law, 
or  to  the  principles  of  natural  law  and  justice.  The  Judicial  power 
of  the  states,  is  vested  in  various  courts  ;  one  of  which  is  usually 
styled  Supreme;  and  the  others  are  called  Circuit  Courts,  District 
Courts,  Courts  of  Appeals,  Courts  of  Common  Pleas,  County  Courts, 
Probate  Courts,  Justices'  Courts,  and  in  cities,  Municipal,  Mayor's,  or 
Police  Courts  ;  according  as  the  respective  states  have  provided. 
Each  state  has  also  made  provision  for  proceedings  in  Equity;  by 


118  KOMOLOGY. 

vesting  Chancery  powers  in  a  Chancellor,  in  the  Senate,  or  other 
high  authorities.  The  Civil  Code  of  Louisiana,  which  was  di- 
gested from  all  the  heterogeneous  pre-existing  laws,  chiefly,  we  be- 
lieve, by  the  labors  of  Mr.  Livingston,  and  promulgated  in  1824, 
has  been  highly  praised  as  a  model  of  its  kind,  and  a  specimen  of  the 
benefits  of  a  judicious  codification. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Municipal  Law,  on  points  which  are  com- 
mon to  most  of  the  states,  under  the  heads  of  Laws  of  Persons ; 
Laws  of  Property  ;  Laws  of  Crimes  ;  and  Laws  of  Procedure. 

§  1.  The  Laws  of  Persons,  or,  as  they  are  termed  by  Blackstone, 
the  Rights  of  Persons,  arise  from  their  relations  to  the  government,  or 
to  each  other ;  and  hence  are  either  official  or  private.  Of  official 
rights  and  duties,  we  have  already  spoken,  as  far  as  we  had  room, 
under  the  branch  of  Constitutional  Law.  In  their  private  rights,  per- 
sons are  regarded  as  either  citizens,  or  aliens ;  males  or  females  ; 
adults  or  minors  ;  sane  or  insane  ;  masters  or  servants  ;  principals  or 
agents  ;  and  as  either  natural  or  artificial  persons  ;  the  latter  mean- 
ing corporations  or  partnerships.  We  shall  first  speak  of  the  laws 
concerning  domestic  relations ;  or  those  of  husband  and  wife ; 
parent  and  child  ;  guardian  and  ward  ;  and  master  and  servant :  and 
afterwards  treat  of  business  relations,  which  are  more  public  in  their 
character. 

Females,  in  this  country,  have  no  political  rights,  as  of  voting,  or 
holding  public  offices ;  but,  while  single,  they  have  the  same  legal 
rights  as  males.  By  marriage,  their  legal  rights  pass  mostly  to  the 
husband ;  who,  with  his  wife,  is  considered  as  one  legal  person. 
He  can  dispose  of  her  personal,  but  not  of  her  real  property,  or 
land,  without  her  voluntary  consent ;  and  he  becomes  liable  for  her 
support,  and  for  her  debts,  whether  contracted  before  or  after  mar- 
riage. Marriage  is  considered,  in  law,  only  as  a  civil  contract ;  but 
as  one  of  the  highest  importance  and  obligation.  The  marriage  of 
idiots,  or  lunatics,  or  of  persons  nearly  related,  is  generally  forbidden 
by  the  civil  law.  Parents  are  the  legal  guardians  of  their  children, 
whom  the  law  regards  as  their  servants.  Guardians  of  idiots  or 
insane  persons  are  usually  appointed  over  them  ;  but  guardians  of 
orphan  minors  are  more  frequently  chosen  by  themselves,  to  manage 
their  affairs,  under  proper  restrictions.  Apprentices  are  temporary 
servants,  bound  to  their  masters  for  a  certain  term,  by  an  indenture, 
or  form  of  law ;  and  held  to  faithful  service,  in  return  for  the  art 
which  they  acquire. 

•Artificial  persons,  are  either  corporations,  or  partnerships.  A 
corporation,  is  a  body  of  men  incorporated  by  statute  or  charter,  for 
certain  express  purposes ;  as  banking  or  manufacturing.  It  may 
hold  property,  and  be  subject  to  obligations,  like  individuals.  Cor- 
porations are  usually  managed  by  responsible  trustees  or  directors  ; 
and  they  are  public  or  private,  perpetual  or  temporary,  according  to 
their  objects  and  charters ;  their  seal,  and  the  signatures  of  their 
officers,  being  the  evidence  of  their  obligations.  Partnerships,  are 
associations  of  two  or  more  persons,  by  contract,  for  business  or 
other  specified  purposes.  Each  partner  is  a  legal  agent  for  the 
whole  firm,  within  its  proper  scope,  and  is  liable  for  its  debts  and 


MUNICIPAL    LAW.  119 

obligations.     Executors,  and  administrators,  are  persons  appointed 
or  chosen  to  settle  the  estates  of  persons  deceased. 

§  2.  The  Laws  of  Property,  are  included  by  Blackstone  under 
the  title,  Rights  of  Things ;  a  term  borrowed  from  the  Roman  law. 
Property,  is  any  thing  deemed  valuable,  which  can  be  exclusively 
owned  by  one  person ;  whether  in  actual  possession,  or  in  expect- 
ancy, as  when  secured  by  contracts,  or  expected  by  inheritance. 
Personal  property,  or  personalty,  includes  moveable  articles,  called 
goods  and  chattels ;  but  Real  property,  or  realty,  includes  things 
fixed  and  immoveable,  and  hence  said  to  be  tangible ;  as  lands,  tene- 
ments, and  hereditaments.  The  word  tenement,  comprehends  not 
only  land  itself,  but  the  fixtures  upon  it,  and  privileges  connected  with 
it.  Lands  are  termed  corporeal  hereditaments;  while  easements,  or 
privileges,  which  may  be  held  distinct  from  the  land  itself,  as  right 
of  way,  right  of  rivers,  commons,  and  the  like,  are  termed  incorpo- 
real hereditaments.  The  right  of  real  property,  in  our  own  country, 
rests  originally  on  first  possession,  or  purchase  from  the  aborigines ; 
and  it  is  generally  held  allodially,  that  is,  by  independent  right ;  and 
not,  as  it  is  often  held  in  Europe,  by  feudal  tenure. 

An  Estate,  is  an  interest  in  any  real  property.  An  estate  in  pos- 
session, is  one  actually  held :  but  an  estate  in  reversion,  is  one  which 
by  law  will  revert  to  the  person  claiming  it,  after  the  temporary  right  of 
some  other  person  to  it  has  expired.  An  estate  in  remainder,  is  one 
expressly  granted  to  the  expectant,  after  the  termination  of  some 
previous  grant  or  particular  estate  in  the  same.  A  freehold  estate, 
is  one  held  in  fee  simple,  subject  to  no  conditions  or  contingencies; 
and  an  estate  in  fee,  is  one  which,  at  the  death  of  its  owner,  if  not 
otherwise  disposed  of  by  him,  descends  to  his  heirs.  An  estate  for 
life,  is  one  terminating  with  the  life  of  the  tenant,  or  of  some  other 
person  ;  the  tenant  holding  it  either  for  life,  or  for,  that  is,  during 
another's  life.  An  estate  for  years,  is  one  secured  to  the  tenant,  by 
lease,  for  a  certain  period.  An  estate  tail  or  entailed,  is  one  which 
must  revert  to  the  grantor,  in  case  the  grantee  should  not,  at  his 
decease,  leave  heirs  as  prescribed  :  and  an  estate  in  trust,  is  one  con- 
veyed to  a  trustee  or  trustees,  for  the  benefit  or  use  of  a  third  party, 
called  the  beneficiary,  or  cestui  que  trust.  An  estate  in  severally, 
is  one  entirely  owned  by  a  single  person ;  but  an  estate  in  joint 
tenancy,  in  coparcenary,  or  in  common,  has  two  or  more  owners ; 
with  certain  differences  implied  by  these  several  terms. 

A  title,  which  is  the  evidence  of  right  to  an  estate,  may  be  acquired 
by  occupancy  for  a  sufficient  time ;  by  marriage  ;  by  descent  or  in- 
heritance ;  by  devise  or  bequest,  that  is,  by  the  will  of  another ;  and 
by  deed  of  purchase,  or  by  mortgage,  with  failure  of  redemption. 
A  mortgage  is  the  grant  or  conveyance  of  an  estate  in  fee,  as 
security  for  the  payment  of  money ;  with  the  condition  that  if  the 
money  be  duly  paid,  the  grant  shall  thereby  become  void.  A  con- 
tract, is  an  agreement  between  two  or  more  legal  persons,  respec- 
tively to  do,  or  not  to  do  a  certain  thing  or  things,  for  a  consideration 
therein  specified.  Such  are  indentures,  deeds,  bonds,  mortgages, 
policies  of  insurance,  and  promissory  notes.  A  promise,  differs  from 
a  contract,  in  having  no  specified  consideration  or  inducement.  A  witt, 


120  NOMOLOGY. 

or  testament,  is  a  voluntary  instrument,  disposing  of  the  testator's 
property,  after  his  decease. 

§  3.  The  Laws  of  Crimes,  are  included  in  the  first  parts  of  Black- 
stone's  Books  on  Private,  and  Public  Wrongs.  Crimes  may  be 
classed  either  as  directly  against  the  public  welfare  ;  or  against  private 
persons  ;  or  against  private  property.  In  the  first  class  may  be  men- 
tioned treason,  piracy ;  insurrection,  riots,  or  affrays ;  resisting  the 
execution  of  the  law ;  obstructing  or  injuring  public  works,  as  high- 
ways ;  creating  public  nuisances,  by  contaminating  the  air,  or  water, 
and  the  like;  gambling,  profanity,  and  other  violations  of  public 
morals  ;  and  all  similar  offences.  Perjury,  or  false  swearing  ;  and 
bribery,  which  is  hiring  or  being  hired  to  pervert  justice  ;  including 
embracery,  or  an  attempt  to  corrupt  or  unjustly  influence  a  jury;  are 
usually  both  public  and  private  wrongs.  Crimes  against  private  per- 
sons, are  such  as  murder,  or  inflicting  death  unlawfully  and  inten- 
tionally ;  manslaughter,  or  doing  the  same  criminally,  though  with- 
out direct  intention  ;  injury  to  personal  safety,  as  assaulting,  maim- 
ing, stabbing,  shooting,  or  poisoning;  injury  to  personal  liberty,  as 
seizing  or  kidnapping ;  injury  to  personal  character,  as  slander,  or 
libelling ;  and  injury  to  personal  purity,  as  bigamy,  adultery,  and  the 
like.  Crimes  against  private  property,  are  arson,  or  setting  fire  in- 
tentionally to  dwellings  or  buildings  contiguous  to  them ;  and,  of  like 
character,  setting  fire  to,  or  destroying  other  property  ;  also  burglary, 
or  house-breaking  by  night ;  and,  analogous  to  it,  other  house-break- 
ing ;  also  robbery,  or  forcibly  taking  away  property ;  and  larceny, 
or  stealing ;  together  with  forgery,  counterfeiting,  fraudulent  convey- 
ances, swindling,  and  the  like. 

Of  the  particular  punishments,  which,  for  these  and  other  offences, 
vary  in  the  different  states,  we  have  riot  sufficient  room  to  speak  par- 
ticularly. The  punishments  generally  in  use,  are  capital  punish- 
ment, or  the  infliction  of  death,  usually  by  hanging ;  next  imprison- 
ment, either  in  penitentiaries,  which  are  state  prisons,  or  in  jails, 
which  are  county  prisons;  and  lastly, fines  or  amercements,  exact- 
ing the  payment  of  money  to  the  state,  the  informer,  or  prosecutor; 
or  damages,  awarded  to  the  injured  party.  Corporal  punishments, 
such  as  whipping,  branding,  and  cropping,  are  now  seldom  inflicted ; 
solitary  confinement  being  generally  regarded  as  the  punishment  best 
calculated  to  reform  the  offender.  On  the  theory  of  punishments 
we  have  already  briefly  spoken,  under  the  head  of  Political  Philo- 
sophy, (p.  103.) 

§  4.  The  Laws  of  Procedure,  include  the  latter  parts  of  Black- 
stone's  Books  on  Private  and  Public  Wrongs ;  relating  to  the  mode 
of  redressing  injuries,  or  of  punishing  crimes.  Proceedings  in 
Courts  of  Justice,  are  styled  either  civil  or  criminal,  according  as 
they  relate  to  the  former  or  the  latter  objects.  The  violation  of  any 
legal  right,  produces  an  injury  or  wrong.  If  it  be  a  dangerous  one 
to  society,  the  public  authorities  take  cognizance  of  it,  as  a  public 
crime ;  otherwise  it  is  regarded  as  a  private  wrong,  for  which  the 
injured  party  has  a  civil  remedy ;  whether  it  relates  to  his  lands, 
goods,  person,  or  reputation.  The  redress  usually  sought,  is  the 
recovery,  either  of  some  specific  article  of  property,  or  of  damages, 


POLITICAL    ECONOMY.  121 

to  compensate  for  some  injury  sustained.  An  action  or  suit,  is  the 
whole  course  of  legal  proceedings,  to  obtain  redress  for  a  private 
wrong.  The  party  who  commences  it,  or  sues,  is  called  the  plain- 
tiff; the  other,  the  defendant.  An  action  of  debt,  is  one  for  the 
recovery  of  a  debt ;  an  action  of  covenant,  is  for  breach  of  a  sealed 
contract ;  and  one  of  assumpsit,  is  for  breach  of  a  contract  not  sealed ; 
these  being  all  termed  actions  of  contract.  Among  actions  of  tort, 
are  those  of  trespass,  for  violent  or  forcible  injury  to  person  or  pro- 
perty ;  of  trover,  for  the  recovery  of  goods  stolen  or  wrongfully 
taken ;  of  detinue,  or  of  replevin,  for  obtaining  goods  wrongfully 
withheld ;  and  of  ejectment,  for  recovering  possession  of  real  property. 
An  action  on  the  case,  or  of  trespass  on  the  case,  is  for  any  injury 
to  the  person,  property,  health,  reputation,  or  comfort  of  the  com- 
plaining party,  inflicted  without  actual  or  constructive  force. 

The  term  process,  includes  all  writs  and  orders,  issued  by  courts 
to  their  executive  officers,  in  the  course  of  judicial  proceedings.  A 
summons,  is  a  writ,  commanding  the  sheriff  or  constable  to  summon 
the  defendant ;  and  a  capias,  requires  him  to  take  the  defendant,  and 
bring  him  into  court.  In  some  cases,  the  defendant  is  permitted  to 
give  bail,  or  security,  in  a  certain  sum  of  money,  for  his  appearance. 
A  writ  of  attachment,  is  one  for  the  seizure  of  property.  The 
declaration  or  count,  is  the  plaintiff's  statement  of  the  cause  of  ac- 
tion ;  to  which  the  defendant  may  either  demur ;  maintaining  that 
there  is  no  sufficient  cause  of  action,  or  that  it  is  not  brought  in  legal 
form  ;  or  he  may  plead  in  abatement,  against  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
court,  the  identity  of  the  parties,  or  the  like  ;  or  finally,  he  may  plead 
in  bar,  that  is  in  traverse,  denying  the  allegations  of  the  plaintiff 
entirely.  After  this  may  come  the  evidence  of  witnesses ;  the  argu- 
ments of  counsel ;  the  charge  of  the  judge  to  the  jury  ;  the  verdict 
of  the  jury  ;  and  the  judgment  of  the  court ;  enforced  by  a  writ  of 
execution,  unless  the  cause  be  removed  to  a  higher  court. 


CHAPTER  V. 

POLITICAL   ECONOMY. 

POLITICAL  Economy,  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  investi- 
gates the  nature,  sources,  and  proper  uses  of  national  wealth.  The 
name  is  from  the  Greek,  rto?a$,  a  state  ;  and  oixovopia,  housekeeping: 
this  latter  term  being  derived  from  the  words  01x0$,  a  house ;  and  vopos, 
law-.  In  many  respects.  Political  Economy  may  be  said  to  bear  the 
same  relation  to  a  state,  which  Domestic  Economy  does  to  a  single 
family :  for,  although  professedly  relating  to  the  wealth  of  nations,  it 
indirectly  examines  many  points  of  comfort  and  well-being,  which  are 
connected  with  the  acquisition,  and  expenditure  of  wealth.  Its' 
connection  with  legislation  and  government,  and  its  subserviency 
thereto,  will  at  once  be  perceived  from  its  definition  ;  while  the 
merchant,  and  even  the  moralist  may  derive  important  lessons  from 
a  knowledge  of  its  facts  and  principles. 
16  L 


122  NOMOLOGY. 

The  first  regular  system  of  Political  Economy,  appears  to  have 
been  that  adopted  by  Colbert,  under  Louis  XIV.,  and  promulgated  in 
the  French  Tariff  of  1664.  It  has  since  been  called  the  Mercantile 
System  ;  as  it  maintained  that  the  chief  source  of  wealth  is  foreign 
trade ;  the  value  of  which  it  supposed  to  be  measured  by  the 
balance  of  trade,  or  excess  of  exports  over  imports ;  this  balance 
being  usually  made  up  in  specie.  The  doctrine  thus  promulgated  has 
also°been  termed  Colbertism ;  from  the  name  of  its  author.  This 
theory  was  followed  by  the  Agricultural  (or  Physiocratic)  System 
of  Quesnay  ;  who  published,  in  1758,  his  "  Tableau  Economique," 
maintaining  that  the  earth  is  the  only  source  of  wealth ;  and  that  all 
taxes  should  be  levied  on  land,  or  its  produce.  Adam  Smith,  in  his 
celebrated  treatise  on  the  "  Wealth  of  Nations"  published  in  1776, 
maintained  that  all  wealth  consists  of  material  products,  deriving 
their  value  solely  from  the  labor  bestowed  upon  them  ;  while  mental 
labor  and  acquisition  he  overlooked,  as  unproductive.  His  system 
was  introduced  into  France  by  J.  B.  Say  ;  the  first  edition  of  whose 
work,  printed  in  1802,  was  suppressed  by  the  order  of  Bonaparte. 
Say  was  the  first  writer  who  recognised  the  existence  of  mental 
wealth,  consisting  of  acquired  skill,  or  learning ;  but  of  this,  his 
system  made  no  practical  application.  That  such  wealth  really  con- 
stitutes capital,  as  much  so  as  land  or  buildings,  and  like  them,  is 
productive  of  more  wealth,  was  first  proved  and  incorporated  in  this 
science,  we  believe,  by  our  countryman,  Prof.  Vethake. 

In  1817,  Ricardo  published  his  "  Principles  of  Political  Economy 
and  Taxation,"  in  which  he  differed  from  Adam  Smith,  in  main- 
taining that  a  rise  of  wages  occasions  a  fall  of  profits,  and  hence  may 
take  place  without  causing  a  rise  in  prices  ;  as  also,  that  prices  of 
products  do  not  depend  upon  rent ;  and  that  as  population  increases, 
profits  decrease,  because  inferior  land  must  then  be  cultivated.  Rev. 
T.  R.  Malthus  has  written  exclusively  on  Population  ;  the  increase 
of  which  he  considers  as  limited  by  the  means  of  subsistence,  refer- 
ring particularly  to  food.  Prof.  Vethake,  in  his  recent,  able  treatise 
on  this  science,  has  shown,  we  think  conclusively,  that  this  increase 
is  limited,  not  by  the  means  of  subsistence  only,  but  by  the  means 
of  support,  or  the  amount  of  necessaries  and  luxuries  actually  pos- 
sessed, in  comparison  with  the  amount  desired.  We  proceed  to  treat 
of  Political  Economy  under  the  heads  of  Production,  Distribution, 
Exchanges,  and  Consumption,  of  Wealth. 

§  1.  The  Production  of  Wealth,  is  generally  the  result  of  labor  ; 
that  is  of  effort  or  exertion,  physical  or  mental,  directed  to  this 
object.  Wealth  or  property,  is  that  which  can  be  appropriated  by 
an  individual  or  society,  and  made  to  have  an  exchangeable  value. 
Wealth  always  possesses  utility,  technically  speaking ;  but  there  are 
objects  which  possess  utility,  without  constituting  wealth  ;  as  air  and 
light.  The  term  utility,  it  will  be  seen,  is  here  applied  to  many 
things,  which  being  in  demand  among  men,  have  an  exchangeable 
value;  although  they  may,  like  ardent  spirits,  be  really  injurious  to 
the  best  interests  of  society.  This  principle  is  distinctly  recognised 
by  the  political  economist ;  who  terms  such  articles  useful,  only  be- 
cause they  will  command  useful  articles  in  exchange.  Bv  national 


POLITICAL    ECONOMY.  123 

wealth,  is  meant  the  whole  wealth  of  a  nation,  whether  in  the  hands 
of  individuals  or  of  the  government ;  and  hence  a  general  increase 
of  private  wealth  is  an  increase  of  national. 

The  objects,  or  purposes,  of  labor,  are  either  agricultural*  to 
obtain  the  raw  materials  or  produce  ;  or  manufacturing,  to  prepare 
these  materials  for  use ;  or  commercial,  to  transport  them  to  the 
places  where  they  are  wanted.  Thus,  the  farmer,  miner  and  fisher- 
man ;  the  manufacturer  and  mechanic ;  and  the  merchant  and  navi- 
gator reciprocally  aid  each  other.  Capital,  is  wealth  saved,  and 
applied  to  produce  more  wealth,  hence  said  to  be  reproductive. 
Fixed  capital,  is  that  which  is  comparatively  durable  ;  as  houses, 
mills  and  the  like ;  while  circulating  capital,  is  relatively  transient 
or  perishable,  as  wages,  provisions,  and  materials.  Writers  have 
seen  fit  to  distinguish  between  capital,  which  is  the  produce  of  labor, 
and  what  may  be  termed  rental,  which  is  the  produce  of  nature, 
simply  appropriated  by  individuals ;  as  land  or  mill  seats.  Thus 
labor  produces  wages;  capital  produces  interest;  and  rental  pro- 
duces true  rent,  meaning  that  which  is  received  for  the  use  of  land, 
independently  of  its  improvements.  The  excess  of  produce  over 
the  wages,  interest,  and  true  rent,  is  the  reward  of  the  skill,  which 
is  intellectual  capital,  and  of  the  mental  labor  of  the  producer. 

The  production  of  wealth  is  generally  increased  by  the  subdivision 
of  labor  ;  assigning  to  each  individual  that  work  which  from  skill  or 
habit  he  can  best  perform,  and  to  each  region  or  country  its  most  avail- 
able produce.  The  amount  of  production  is  also  increased  by  means 
of  inventions  and  improvements  in  the  arts ;  which  the  subdivision 
of  labor  tends  greatly  to  multiply.  Monopolies  or  exclusive  privi- 
leges, should  be  granted  only  as  a  reward  for  such  improvements ; 
as  in  the  case  of  patents,  and  copyrights,  which  serve  as  stimulants 
to  mental  labor  and  ingenuity.  Regulating  and  prohibitory  duties, 
or  Tariffs,  tend  to  restrain  commercial  enterprise,  and  to  elevate  the 
prices  of  the  protected  articles.  Hence  they  are  justifiable  only  on  a 
limited  scale,  and  for  some  great  national  object.  In  general,  the 
production  of  wealth  will  be  the  greatest,  where  each  person  is  left 
free  to  choose  any  lawful  pursuit ;  and  permitted  to  enjoy  the  full 
fruit  of  his  labors. 

§  2.  The  Distribution  of  Wealth,  is  necessarily  regulated  by  the 
relations  of  the  demand  and  supply  of  commodities  ;  which  are  always 
tending  to  a  standard  or  medium,  for  each  article  and  place.  This 
principle  alone  decides  how  much  the  rentalist,  who  rented  the  land, 
the  capitalist,  who  loaned  the  requisite  money,  and  the  laborer,  who 
aided  in  their  application,  shall  respectively  receive  from  the  pro- 
ducer. Capital  and  rental,  being  absolutely  necessary,  for  many 
productions,  in  order  to  render  labor  available,  become  marketable 
objects,  which  are  to  be  returned  good,  and  with  a  price  paid  for  their 
use.  And  as  the  relative  quantities  of  labor,  capital,  and  rental,  in 
any  country,  or  in  the  world,  can  vary  but  slowly,  their  real  value  is 
comparatively  constant;  though  their  nominal  value  fluctuates  with 
that  of  money.  Rent  is  said  to  have  no  influence  upon  the  price  of 
commodities  ;  it  being  the  effect  of  a  rise  of  prices,  but  not  the  cause. 
The  natural  price  of  raw  produce,  is  the  cost  of  its  production  from 


124  NOMOLOGY. 

land  which  pays  no  rent.  As  the  demand  increases,  and  new  land 
is  cultivated,  the  increased  cost  of  produce  therefrom,  causes  a  rise 
of  the  rent  on  lands  previously  cultivated.  Capital  loaned  to  indi- 
viduals, sometimes  commands  a  high  rate  of  interest,  including  a 
premium  paid  for  the  risk  of  its  loss.  It  is  generally  first  applied  to 
produce  such  objects  as  are  in  permanent  demand ;  and  more  cau- 
tiously to  objects  of  fluctuating  value ;  especially  if  in  such  cases  it 
would  be  transferred  with  difficulty. 

As  countries  advance  in  wealth  and  technical  skill,  the  value  of  rent 
generally  increases ;  while  that  of  interest  and  wages  comparatively 
declines.  Wages  must  vary,  not  only  with  the  amount  of  labor,  and 
the  demand  for  it,  but  with  its  nature,  as  being  more  or  less  produc- 
tive, pleasant,  or  honorable.  It  is  clear  that  the  physician,  who  cures 
the  farmer's  illness ;  the  clergyman,  who  labors  for  his  eternal  wel- 
fare ;  the  lawyer,  who  pleads  his  cause ;  the  judge,  who  sustains  his 
rights ;  and  the  soldier,  who  defends  them  ;  should  all  share  in  his 
earnings,  as  well  as  his  landlord  and  merchant ;  each  in  proportion 
to  his  services,  as  custom  and  agreement  may  decide  :  nor  should  the 
government  interfere,  unless  appealed  to  by  some  aggrieved  party. 
Usury  laws,  or  those  restricting  the  rate  of  interest,  are  of  doubtful 
policy,  and,  we  think,  should  apply  only  in  cases  where  no  special 
agreement  was  made  between  the  parties.  No  government  has  a 
right  to  take,  by  taxation  or  otherwise,  any  more  for  itself,  than  is 
necessary  for  its  adequate  support,  and  for  its  legitimate  objects. 
Among  these,  we  would  include  such  public  improvements  as  cannot 
be  effected  by  individual  efforts ;  or  by  corporations  duly  restricted 
in  their  powers  and  profits,  and  under  reasonable  legislative  control. 

§  3.  Exchanges  of  Wealth,  including  its  transportation  to  places 
where  it  is  wanted,  may  increase  its  actual  value,  though  not  its  quan- 
tity. The  exchangeable  value  of  any  commodity  depends  not  only 
on  its  intrinsic  value,  including  durability,  but  on  the  supply  and  de- 
mand for  it,  in  comparison  with  other  articles.  The  natural  price, 
or  real  value,  is  the  actual  cost  of  producing  and  transporting  it ;  but 
the  market  price,  or  nominal  value,  depends  also  upon  the  relative 
value  of  money.  When  the  relative  value  of  money  varies,  the  mar- 
ket prices  of  all  other  articles,  so  far  as  they  are  affected  thereby,  rise 
or  fall  alike,  unless  it  be  that  articles  of  luxury  fluctuate  the  most. 

Money,  is  that  commodity  which  is  most  frequently  exchanged  for 
every  other ;  that  is,  the  medium  of  exchanges.  Gold  and  silver, 
from  their  durability,  rarity,  and  convenience,  have  become  the  stand- 
ard money  of  the  world.  They  are  coined,  to  save  the  necessity  of 
frequently  weighing  and  assaying  them ;  the  government  stamp  at- 
testing their  quantity  and  purity  ;  and  hence  slightly  increasing  their 
value.  Bank  notes  derive  their  value  from  their  convertibility  into 
coin ;  and  hence  they  are  at  par,  only  so  long  as  they  are  payable  in 
specie,  on  demand,  at  the  counter  of  the  bank  which  owes  them  ; 
otherwise  they  are  depreciated,  however  solvent  the  bank  may  eventu- 
ally be  found.  The  value  of  money  fluctuates  with  its  quantity. 
Were  half  the  money  in  the  world  to  be  annihilated,  the  remainder 
would  be  nearly  doubled  in  value  ;  and  the  nominal  prices  of  all  other 
commodities  would  rise  in  nearly  the  same  proportion.  It  will  be 


POLITICAL    ECONOMY.  125 

readily  seen  that  all  fluctuations  in  the  value  of  money  are  injurious 
either  to  debtors  or  creditors. 

Banks  are  of  three  kinds  ;  though  in  our  own  country  the  three 
are  generally  united.  Banks  of  deposits,  receive  money  for  safe 
keeping,  and  repay  it  to  the  order  of  the  creditor ;  receiving  compen- 
sation therefor,  by  the  use  of  the  money.  Banks  of  discqunt,  lend 
money,  on  security  ;  but  discount  the  notes  which  they  receive ;  that 
is  deduct  so  much  from  the  money  which  they  lend,  as  will  be  equi- 
valent to  interest  thereon.  Banks  of  circulation,  issue  notes  of  their 
own,  usually  payable  on  demand  ;  and  these  bank  notes  circulate  as 
money,  on  governmental  authority.  But  the  more  abundant  they  be- 
come, the  less  is  their  real  value ;  and  when  a  sudden  demand  for 
specie  arises,  the  banks  greatly  diminishing  their  discounts  and  circu- 
lation, greatly  increase  the  fluctuations  in  the  quantity  and  value  of 
money.  We  think  that  banks  are  useful,  under  proper  restrictions, 
when  their  number  and  circulation  are  sufficiently  limited  :  and  that, 
even  when  they  are  too  numerous,  their  number  should  not  be  dimi- 
nished too  rapidly  or  suddenly,  lest  injurious  fluctuations  should 
ensue.  It  is  an  important  question  whether  stockholders,  and  espe- 
cially directors,  should  not  be  placed  under  heavier  liabilities ;  to 
guard  against  abuses  and  failure  of  these  institutions. 

§  4.  Consumption  of  Wealth,  is  said  to  be  productive,  or  unpro- 
ductive, according  as  it  generates  more  wealth,  or  not.  Strictly 
speaking,  the  former  is  not  a  consumption  of  wealth,  but  only  of 
certain  commodities,  for  the  sake  of  producing  others,  or  a  greater 
quantity  of  the  same  :  and  wealth  in  general  is  the  surplus  of  pro- 
duction over  consumption.  The  distinction  between  necessary  and 
luxurious  consumption,  is  quite  indefinite  and  arbitrary ;  as  what 
some  individuals  might  deem  necessary,  to  themselves,  others,  of 
different  habits,  might  deem  luxurious.  Though  it  is  desirable  that 
the  private  consumption  of  wealth  should  be  less  than  the  production, 
yet  this  is  a  point  in  which  the  government  has  no  right  to  interfere, 
unless  public  prosperity  and  virtue  are  at  stake.  Sumptuary  laws, 
regulating  private  expenditure,  are  not  only  odious,  but  they  dis- 
courage production. 

A  portion  of  the  national  wealth  is  necessarily  consumed  by  the 
government,  in  accomplishing  its  important  objects  ;  and  this  portion 
it  derives  by  some  mode  of  taxation.  A.  poll  tax,  or  tax  on  persons, 
if  it  be  general,  exacts  as  much  from  the  poor  as  from  the  rich  ;  though 
the  latter  need  protection  for  their  property,  as  well  as  their  persons, 
and  should  therefore  pay  more  in  proportion  to  their  numbers.  A 
land  tax,  or  tax  on  lands,  might  have  been  just  originally  ;  as  it 
would  in  time  be  felt  alike  by  all  men,  in  the  general  rise  of  prices ; 
but  its  present  introduction,  would  at  first  burthen  the  landholders 
unjustly,  unless  the  change  were  very  gradual.  An  excise,  or  internal 
tax  on  commodities,  is  difficult  to  collect ;  and  a  tax  on  exports  is  felt 
severely  by  merchants,  who  wait  a  long  time  before  receiving  returns 
therefrom.  A  general  tax  on  both  persons  and  property  would  pro- 
bably be  the  most  just ;  but  a  tax  on  imports,  under  the  name  of 
duties  or  customs,  is  the  most  convenient  to  collect,  and  hence  re- 
sorted to  by  most  nations. 

L2 


126  NOMOLOGY. 

A  tax  for  the  support  of  religion,  we  believe  to  be  unnecessary ; 
as  the  voluntary  contributions  of  piety  and  philanthropy  are  its  meet 
support :  but  a  tax  for  the  support  of  the  disabled  poor,  is  dictated  by 
humanity  itself;  though  to  discourage  pauperism,  those  who  are  able 
to  work  should  be  supplied  with  work  and  kept  employed.  A  tax 
in  behalf  of  elementary  education,  is,  we  think,  of  fundamental  im- 
portance ;  as  tending  to  promote  good  order ;  to  prevent  poverty, 
vice,  and  crime ;  and  to  increase  the  amount  of  human  happiness,  by 
raising  the  scale  of  intellectual  refinement  and  enjoyment.  This  is 
the  best,  and,  perhaps,  the  only  remedy  that  can  be  recommended, 
to  prevent  the  excessive  increase  of  population,  which  takes  place 
chiefly  among  the  poorer  and  less  enlightened  classes  of  society. 


IV.  DEPARTMENT: 

THEOLOGY. 


IN  the  Department  of  Theology,  we  include  the  study  of  all  Reli- 
gions, whether  of  heathen  or  Christian  nations.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Greek,  ©eoj,  God ;  and  Jioyo?,  a  discourse ;  as  it 
comprehends  the  study  of  the  Deity,  his  laws  and  revelations,  and 
our  duty  towards  him ;  all  of  which  is  sometimes  designated  as  the 
study  of  Divinity.  It  may  be  properly  subdivided  into  the  branches 
of  Paganism,  Mohamedanism,  Judaism  and  Christianity  :  to  each 
of  which,  the  term  Theology  has  been  applied,  by  believers  therein. 
We  place  this  department  last,  in  the  province  of  Psychonomy ;  be- 
cause we  regard  it  as  the  highest  and  noblest  of  human  studies.  But 
it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  a  theoretical  knowledge  even  of  The- 
ology, may,  like  the  sunbeam  on  the  mountain  glacier,  only  dazzle  to 
blind ;  while,  unless  the  heart  is  warmed  with  vital  piety,  the  cold- 
ness and  barrenness  of  eternal  death  may  reign  within. 

The  term  Religion,  is  from  the  Latin  religio,  a  sacred  obligation ; 
and  it  is  nearly  synonymous  with  piety,  signifying  love  to  God,  obedi- 
ence to  his  laws,  and  submission  to  his  will.  By  Natural  Religion, 
is  meant  that  knowledge  and  veneration  of  the  Deity,  which  was 
attainable  by  the  heathen  nations,  or  by  human  reason,  unassisted  by 
revelation.  The  fact  that  every  nation,  however  barbarous,  has  some 
object  of  worship,  shows  that  piety  is  natural  to  man,  although  it 
is  so  often  corrupted  by  debasing  passions ;  and  that  some  religion 
is  necessary  to  satisfy  our  better  nature.  The  necessity  of  a  First 
Cause,  to  create  and  govern  the  world ;  the  existence  of  moral  good 
and  evil ;  and  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and  punishments  ;  these 
are  perhaps  the  chief  truths  which  were  discoverable  by  human 
reason ;  and  which  have  accordingly  been  more  or  less  known  to' 
heathen  nations. 

Revealed  Religion,  comprehends,  besides  the  doctrines  of  Natural 
Religion,  many  truths  which  were  beyond  the  reach  of  human  rea- 
son, though  not  contradictory  thereto  ;  and  for  a  knowledge  of  which 
we  are  indebted  directly  to  divine  Revelation.  The  unity  and 
spirituality  of  the  Deity,  may  have  been  discoverable  by  the  light  of 
reason ;  though  more  probably  made  known  by  traditions,  handed 
down  from  the  early  patriarchs,  to  the  migrating  families  of  their 
descendants.  But  the  peculiar  doctrines  of  the  Gospel ;  such  as  the 
fall  and  condemnation  of  mankind ;  the  incarnation,  and  atonement 
of  our  Saviour ;  and  the  mission  of  the  Holy  Spirit ;  in  short,  the 
whole  gospel  scheme  of  salvation ;  these  are  truths  which  revelation 
alone  could  unfold,  to  cheer  the  saddening  human  heart.  While, 
therefore,  we  deplore  the  weakness  of  our  nature,  as  manifested  by 

127 


128  THEOLOGY. 

our  own  personal  errors,  we  may  rejoice  in  the  goodness  and  mercy 
of  our  Creator  ;  both  in  providing  a  way  for  our  salvation,  and  in 
revealing  that  way  to  our  knowledge,  so  clearly,  that  all  who  truly 
seek  it  may  find  it,  and  attain  to  light  and  life  eternal. 

The  Revelation  of  which  we  speak,  and  the  only  one  which  we 
recognize  to  be  such,  is  the  Bible,  comprising  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments.  True  it  is  that  human  reason  has  been  exercised  in 
proving  the  truth  of  this  Revelation,  and  ascertaining  its  meaning: 
but  this  detracts  nothing  from  the  excellence  or  importance  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures.  It  has  been  beautifully  said,  that  "  reason  is 
the  compass  by  which  we  steer  our  course ;  and  revelation  is  the 
polar  star,  by  which  we  correct  its  variations."  The  value  of  reve- 
lation appears  from  this,  that  by  its  aid,  the  youth  of  the  present 
day,  may  know  more  of  religion  and  morality,  than  the  wisest  of  the 
heathen  philosophers ;  although  many  of  them  employed  a  long  life 
in  studying  the  mysteries  of  their  origin  and  their  destiny.  In  illustra- 
tion of  this  point,  we  may  here  add  that  Socrates,  the  worthiest  of 
them  all,  deemed  it  necessary  "  that  an  instructor  should  be  sent 
from  heaven,  with  special  authority  to  reveal  and  enforce  the  duty 
of  man." 

Engrossed  as  we  are  by  the  cares,  the  pursuits,  and  the  pleasures 
of  this  life,  who  can  realize  the  wondrous  realities  that  await  us  in  a 
future  state  of  being!  Or  who  can  prepare  for  that  state,  as  he 
would  wish  to  have  done,  when  the  lamp  of  life  shall  flicker  in  its 
socket,  the  world  recede  like  a  dreamy  shadow,  and  the  soul  wing 
its  flight  to  eternity !  Shall  we  rise,  upborne  on  angels'  wings,  to 
the  mansions  of  a  Saviour's  love,  there  to  serve  Him  who  shed  his 
precious  blood  to  save  us,  and  enjoy  His  blissful  presence  forever  ? 
Or  will  our  own  conscious  guilt,  in  sinning  against  such  mercy,  and 
neglecting  so  great  salvation,  drag  us  down,  self-condemned,  to  the 
gulf  of  eternal  perdition,  of  darkness  and  despair  ?  It  is  well  to 
think  of  these  things,  and  well  to  choose  our  course ;  lest,  drifting 
aimless  on  life's  uncertain  sea,  the  storm  overtake  us,  and  bury  our 
frail  bark  beneath  the  unfathomable  waters.  How  inexpressibly 
awful,  and  affecting,  is  that  saddest  of  all  shipwrecks,  the  shipwreck 
of  the  soul ! 

There  are  many  questions  relating  to  the  Divine  government,  and 
to  the  different  orders  of  being,  which  the  Bible  leaves,  and  doubt- 
less wisely  leaves,  enveloped  in  mystery.  Such  are  the  origin  of 
physical  and  moral  evil ;  the  relation  of  man's  free  will  to  God's 
foreknowledge  ;  the  nature  of  the  soul,  and  of  spiritual  existence ; 
the  particular  duties  and  enjoyments  of  angelic  beings  ;  the  inhabit- 
ants, if  such  there  are,  of  the  starry  worlds  around  us ;  and  other 
similar  themes,  which  will  readily  occur  to  the  reflecting  mind.  In 
reference  to  these  subjects,  we  can  only  offer  the  suggestion,  that  the 
world  which  we  inhabit,  and  the  races  which  inhabit  it,  constitute 
but  an  infinitely  small  portion  of  the  works  and  creatures  of  Provi- 
dence ;  and  that  our  apostacy  may  serve  as  a  warning  to  other  orders 
of  being,  by  which  they  are  kept  from  rebellion  and  from  woe.  It 
must  have  been  so  permitted,  by  the  Creator,  or  it  could  not  so  have 
been;  but  the  Divine  purposes  therein,  it  were  impious  for  us  to 


PAGANISM.  129 

impugn,  as  it  is  superfluous  for  us  to  know.  Suffice  it,  that  the 
Bible  can  impart  all  the  knowledge  which  is  necessary  for  our  salva- 
tion ;  and  more  than  we  are  capable  of  acquiring  in  our  present 
probationary  state.  Its  excellence,  however,  can  only  be  realized  by 
comparing  it  with  the  systems  of  false  religion,  which  have  enslaved 
or  still  enslave  a  large  portion  of  our  race. 

We  proceed,  therefore,  to  treat  first  of  Paganism  and  Mohame- 
danism ;  and,  after  these,  of  Judaism,  considering  it  as  introductory 
to  Christianity ;  which  last  we  shall  then  be  prepared  to  examine 
from  a  higher  point  of  view. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGANISM. 

IN  the  branch  of  Paganism,  we  include  all  the  fabulous  and  poly- 
theistic systems  of  Religion  which  have  prevailed  in  pagan  or 
heathen  nations  ;  whether  they  worship  the  heavenly  bodies,  or  men, 
beasts,  or  idols.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  paganus,  a 
peasant  or  villager;  and  was  first  applied  in  the  time  of  Constantino 
the  Great ;  because,  when  he  forbade  the  heathen  worship  in  the  cities 
of  the  Roman  empire,  those  who  still  adhered  to  it,  retired  to  the  vil- 
lages and  fields  to  practise  it.  Paganism  comprehends  the  greater 
part  of  Mythology,  properly  so  called,  that  is,  the  study  of  the  fables 
of  ancient  times  ;  the  name  Mythology  being  derived  from  the  Greek 
pvQos,  a  fable.  Some  of  these  fables  were  purely  historical,  philoso- 
phical or  allegorical ;  but  the  greater  part,  even  of  these,  were  more 
or  less  closely  connected  with  systems  of  religion. 

The  term  Mythology,  was  first  applied  to  the  Greek  and  Roman 
systems  of  fables,  or  Classic  Mythology ;  but  it  has  since  been  ex- 
tended to  those  of  heathen  nations  generally.  The  Romans  borrowed 
their  system  from  the  Greeks  ;  and  it  is  now  well  ascertained  that  the 
Greeks  derived  theirs  from  the  Egyptians  and  Phoenicians.  All  these' 
systems,  as  also  those  of  the  Persians,  Hindoos,  Boodhists,  Scandi- 
navians, and  American  Indians,  alike  bear  traces  of  the  Scripture  His- 
tory, and  the  ancient  religion  of  the  patriarchs  ;  from  which,  doubtless, 
they  have  all  been  derived,  with  various  degrees  of  corruption.  This, 
we  think,  has  been  conclusively  shown  by  various  writers,  particu- 
larly Bryant  and  Faber;  the  former  of  whom  traces  the  ancient  My- 
thology back  to  the  Deluge,  and  the  deification  of  Noah  and  his  three 
sons,  under  the  names  of  Chronos  or  Saturn  and  his  offspring:  while 
the  latter,  moreover,  detects  in  it  various  traditions  concerning  Adam, 
and  the  antediluvian  ages. 

Faber  supposes  the  first  stage  of  idolatry  to  have  been  the  worship 
of  some  representative  of  the  Supreme  Being,  in  his  stead ;  as  the  sun, 
the  elements,  or  some  favored  mortal.  From  this,  the  transition  would 
be  easy  to  the  worship  of  idols  and  beasts,  considered  as  personifica- 
tions of  some  divine  principle,  and  as  sources  of  good  or  evil  to  man- 
kind. The  human  passions  even,  and  moral  virtues  were  ranked  as 
17 


130  THEOLOGY. 

deities ;  and  temples  erected  for  their  worship.  In  process  of  time, 
heroes,  and  benefactors,  or  even  destroyers  of  mankind,  their  deeds 
being  magnified  by  the  dim  light  of  tradition,  came  to  be  deified,  as 
gods,  or  demigods,  and  objects  of  adoration.  The  doctrine  of  Poly- 
theism, or  the  belief  of  many  gods,  being  thus  disseminated,  their 
number  increased  surprizingly  ;  the  gods  of  one  nation  being  adopted 
by  another,  and  frequently  their  history  and  attributes  mingled  in 
interminable  confusion.  Hence,  Mythology  is  a  labyrinth,  now 
dilapidated  by  the  hand  of  time,  and  which  probably  can  never  be 
perfectly  explored. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Paganism,  under  the  heads  of  Egyptian, 
Aramasan,  Classic,  Hindoo,  Scandinavian,  and  Ind-American  Mytho- 
logy. 

§  1.  The  Egyptian  Mythology,  is  partly  illustrated  by  ancient 
classic  writers,  and  partly  by  the  recent  discoveries  concerning  Hiero- 
glyphics; to  which  we  have  already  alluded,  (p.  49).  The  ancient 
Egyptians  believed  the  world  to  have  been  hatched  from  an  immense 
egg  of  matter,  by  the  animating  and  genial  power  of  the  demiurgos, 
or  Supreme  Deity.  They  divided  the  world  into  three  zones  ;  the 
first  being  the  earth ;  the  second  the  air,  in  which  the  souls  of  the 
dead  were  subjected  to  transient  probation  or  punishment,  before 
entering  the  third  zone,  that  of  eternal  rest.  They  believed  in  the 
transmigration  of  souls ;  and  this  probably  led  to  their  worship  of 
various  animals,  as  incarnations  of  men  or  gods.  The  regions  of  the 
dead  they  called  JLmenti;  and  Elisout  was  the  name  of  a  cemetery, 
beyond  the  lake  Acherusia  (or  Acharejish) ;  whence  came  the  Grecian 
fable  of  the  Elysian  Fields  ;  for  Elisout,  in  Coptic,  signifies  rest ;  and 
Charon,  a  ferryman. 

The  earliest  gods  of  Egypt,  appear  to  have  been  Chnoub,  Neith, 
and  Phtha ;  different  personifications  of  the  Supreme  Being.  Chnoub, 
Chnouph,  or  Cneph,  (Noub,  Nouf,  Nouv,  or  Nef),  was  the  personi- 
fication of  goodness  ;  and  the  emblem  of  paternity  ;  represented  by  a 
ram's  head  or  horns.  He  was  regarded  as  the  demiurgos  or  creator, 
and  afterwards  confounded  with  Amoun,  and  Jupiter.  Neith,  cor- 
responding nearly  to  Minerva,  was  the  personification  of  wisdom ; 
and  was  once  represented  by  a  vulture,  as  the  emblem  of  maternity ; 
which  symbol  was  afterwards  applied  to  Isis.  Phtha  or  Phta,  cor- 
responding nearly  to  Vulcan,  was  regarded  by  some  as  the  first  crea- 
tor, but  by  others  as  the  son  of  Chnoub.  He  was  rather  a  personifi- 
cation of  solar  light  and  heat;  being  represented  by  the  sun,  or  by  a 
hawk,  or  having  a  hawk's  head  on  a  human  body.  Sate,  correspond- 
ing nearly  to  Juno,  was  styled  daughter  of  Phtha,  and  queen  of  the 
three  regions ;  and  was  represented  by  the  sacred  pshent,  or  head 
dress  with  two  horns.  Sine,  answering  to  Themis,  was  represented 
as  wearing  a  feather  on  her  head,  or  symbolically  by  a  serpent ;  her 
province  being  to  lead  souls  to  judgment. 

In  later  times,  the  sun  was  worshipped  under  the  names  of  Phre 
or  Re,  (or  Ri),  corresponding  to  Apollo;  and  still  later,  as  Osiris, 
corresponding  to  Pluto,  the  ruler  of  the  infernal  regions,  or  the  sun 
after  its  setting,  hi  like  manner,  the  moon  was  worshipped,  first 
under  the  name  of  loh ;  and  afterwards  as  Isis,  the  wife  of  Osiris, 


PAGANISM.  131 

corresponding  to  Proserpina,  the  wife  of  Pluto.  *  Osiris  has  been 
considered  by  some  writers  as  representing  the  river  Nile  ;  an  honor 
which  belongs  rather  to  Serapis ;  while  Isis  they  have  regarded  as 
the  earth,  corresponding  to  Ceres  :  and  the  marriage  of  Osiris  and 
Isis,  they  supposed  to  typify  the  inundations  of  the  Nile,  by  which 
Egypt  was  fertilized.  The  evil  deity  of  the  Egyptians  was  Typhon, 
the  brother  of  Osiris,  who  murdered  him,  for  the  sake  of  his  king- 
dom ;  and  this  fable  is  supposed  to  typify  the  South  Wind,  drying 
up  the  Nile.  Nephthys  was  the  twin  sister  of  Typhon,  and  became 
his  wife. 

Typhon  was  slain  by  Horus,  (or  Arueri),  the  son  of  Osiris  and 
Isis,  and  one  of  the  infernal  judges.  Isis,  in  seeking  her  husband's 
mangled  remains,  was  aided  by  Anubis  ;  who  was  a  son  of  Osiris 
and  Nephthys,  and  another  of  the  infernal  judges,  usually  represented 
with  a  dog's  head.  Jlpis,  represented  by  a  bull,  was  the  third  judge ; 
and  the  Egyptians  worshipped  two  other  sacred  bulls,  Mnevis,  and 
Onuphis.  Pooh  they  worshipped  as  ruler  of  the  regions  of  the  air ; 
and  Thoth  as  his  assistant,  who  drove  unworthy  souls  back  to  de- 
graded bodies  ;  the  Mercurius  Psychopompus,  as  well  as  Trismegis- 
tus,  of  the  Romans.  As  Horus,  though  the  son  of  Osiris  and  Isis 
also  represented  the  sun ;  so  Bubastis,  although  their  daughter,  also 
typified  the  moon,  corresponding  to  Luna,  or  rather  to  Lucina. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Aramaean  Mythology,  we  comprehend 
that  of  the  Chaldeans,  Assyrians,  Persians,  Syrians,  Phoenicians 
and  Canaanites;  the  name  being  derived  from  Aram,  from  whom 
the  Chaldeans  and  Syrians  were  descended.  Their  Mythology  was 
doubtless  as  ancient  as  the  Egyptian  ;  similarly  introduced ;  and, 
though  less  complicated,  it  was  still  extensive.  But  as  little  is  known 
of  it,  and  that  little  is  of  minor  interest,  we  shall  here  speak  of  it  very 
briefly.  Its  origin  is  attributed  to  Cush,  the  eldest  son  of  Ham  ;  but 
it  must  have  soon  spread  among  the  nations ;  and  its  natural  result 
was  the  impious  attempt  to  build  the  tower  of  Babel.  That  tower 
afterwards  became  the  unholy  temple  of  the  idol  god  Bel  or  Baal, 
(or  Paal,  or  Pul),  who  is  regarded  as  a  deification  of  Belus,  and  a 
personification  of  the  sun.  The  other  chief  deity  of  the  Babylonians 
was  the  infamous  Mylitta,  the  goddess  of  licentiousness.  The 
ancient  Persians  worshipped  several  gods,  particularly  Mithras, 
(Mithros,  or  Mitras),  the  sun,  which  was  afterwards  worshipped  by 
the  Gauls.  They  adored  Oromastes,  or  Oromazus,  as  the  spirit  of 
light,  and  of  goodness  ;  and  Arimanes,  as  the  spirit  of  darkness  and 
evil.  The  sect  of  the  Guebres,  or  Gaurs,  who  were  called  Parsees 
in  India,  and  who  were  worshippers  of  fire,  originated  with  Zoroaster, 
the  author  of  the  Zend-avesta,  about  500  B.  C. 

The  idol  Rlmmon  of  the  Syrians,  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
same  either  as  Bel  or  Mylitta ;  and  among  their  other  gods  were 
Asimah  and  Adad  or  Hadad  ;  Elagabolus  or  Aglibolus  and  Malachbe- 
lus  ;  the  two  latter  of  which  were  introduced  afterwards  into  Rome. 
The  principal  gods  of  the  Phoenicians  were  Adonis  and  Astarte,  or 
the  sun  and  moon ;  the  Adonis  and  Venus  of  the  Classics.  The 
Cabiri  or  Samothracian  gods,  that  is,  Ceres,  Proserpina,  Pluto  and 
Mercury,  and  indeed  most  of  the  Classic  deities  were  borrowed  from 


132  THEOLOGY. 

the  Phoenicians.  They  also  worshipped  Beelzebub,  or  the  fly-god  ; 
Baalpeor  or  Belphegor,  the  stone-god :  and  Moloch,  represented  as 
a  calf,  and  typifying  the  sun  or  fire.  The  Philistines  worshipped 
Dagon,  half  man  and  half  fish  ;  and  Derceto  or  Atergatis,  having  the 
form  attributed  to  mermaids. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Classic  Mythology,  we  include  the  Gfreek 
and  Roman ;  which  are  so  nearly  identical,  that,  for  brevity's  sake, 
they  may  be  treated  as  one  system.  The  Romans  adopted  the  deities 
of  Greece,  merely  changing  their  names,  and  adding  some  fables  of 
their  own  tradition  or  invention.  Accordingly,  we  shall  here  give  the 
Greek  names  first,  and  append  the  Roman  in  parentheses,  to  save 
repetition.  The  Grecian  Mythology  was  based  on  the  Doric  and 
Orphic  hymns,  from  which  Homer  and  Hesiod  borrowed  their  theo- 
gony  and  cosmogony,  or  origin  of  the  gods,  and  the  world.  Orpheus, 
being  a  Thracian,  introduced  the  gods  of  the  Phoenicians ;  and  these 
were  mingled  with  the  Egyptian  deities,  introduced  by  Danaus  and 
Cecrops.  The  gods  of  Greece  were  very  numerous,  and  said  to  in- 
habit the  various  parts  of  the  universe.  They  were  classed  as  the 
major  and  minor  gods ;  and  as  celestial,  terrestrial,  and  infernal.  The 
twelve  greater  deities,  were  Jupiter,  Neptune,  Apollo,  Mercury,  Mars, 
and  Vulcan;  with  Juno,  Ceres,  Vesta,  Minerva,  Diana,  and  Venus. 
These,  the  Romans  termed  consentes  ;  and  they  added  eight  other 
select  deities ;  viz.  Saturn,  Janus,  Pluto,  Bacchus,  and  Sol ;  with 
Rhea,  Luna,  and  Latona.  (See  Plate  IV.) 

Uramis,  (Coelus),  or  heaven,  was  represented  as  the  oldest  of  the 
ods ;  and  Gaia,  (Terra  or  Tellus),  that  is  the  earth,  as  his  wife. 
nheir  children  were  Kronos,  (Saturn),  and  Rhea,  (or  Cybele),  his 
wife ;  with  Janus,  Oceanus,  and  many  others,  including  the  Titans, 
and  the  Cyclops.  Saturn  was  the  god  of  time ;  and  obtained  from 
his  brothers  the  kingdom  of  the  universe,  on  the  condition  of  destroy- 
ing all  his  sons,  at  their  birth  ;  but  Cybele  secreted  Zeus,  (or  Jupi- 
ter) ;  Poseidon,  (or  Neptune) ;  and  Hades,  (or  Pluto) ;  and  their 
sisters  were  Hera,  (Juno) ;  Demeter,  (Ceres) ;  and  Hestia,  (or 
Vesta).  Jupiter,  it  is  said,  dethroned  his  father  Saturn,  and  became 
ruler  of  heaven  and  earth ;  allowing  to  Neptune  the  dominion  of  the 
sea;  and  to  Pluto,  that  of  the  infernal  regions,  or  regions  of  the  dead, 
hence  called  Hades;  including  Tartarus,  or  the  abode  of  the  damned, 
and  Elysium,  or  the  abodes  of  the  blest.  Of  the  sisters,  Juno  is 
said  to  have  become  the  wife  of  Jupiter,  and  queen  of  heaven;  Ceres, 
became  the  goddess  of  corn  and  harvests  ;  and  Vesta  became  the 
goddess  of  fire  and  of  purity. 

The  offspring  of  Jupiter,  it  is  said,  were  Apollo,  (or  Phoebus) ; 
Hermes,  (or  Mercury) ;  Ares,  (or  Mars) ;  Hephaestus,  (or  Vulcan)  ; 
Pallas,  (or  Minerva) ;  and  Artemis,  (or  Diana) ;  besides  Dionysus, 
(or  Bacchus) ;  Hebe,  (or  Juventas) ;  Persephone,  (or  Proserpina) ; 
and  the  Muses,  the  Graces,  the  Infernal  Judges,  and  the  demigods, 
Perseus,  Amphion,  Zethus,  Castor,  and  Pollux.  The  first  six  of  this 
long  list  are  in  the  number  of  the  greater  deities.  Apollo  was  the 
god  of  music  and  poetry ;  Mercury,  the  god  of  eloquence,  and  of 
commerce;  Mars,  the  god  of  war,  Bellona  being  his  wife;  and 
Vulcan  was  the  god  of  fire.  Minerva,  sprung  from  Jupiter's  brain, 


&• 
T 


PLATE    IV.       MYTHOLOGY. 


PLUTO. 


Ensraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


CERES, 


PAGANISM.  133 

was  the  goddess  of  wisdom ;  Diana  was  the  goddess  of  hunting,  and 
of  chastity ;  and  Aphrodite,  (or  Venus),  sprung  from  the  foam  of 
the  sea,  was  the  goddess  of  love  and  beauty. 

Of  the  select  deities,  Saturn,  already  mentioned,  was  the  god  of 
time ;  and  Janus,  his  brother,  presided  over  the  year.  Pluto,  we 
have  already  mentioned  as  the  brother  of  Jupiter;  and  Bacchus,  the 
god  of  wine,  as  Jupiter's  son.  Sol,  is  but  another  name,  or  form, 
of  Apollo,  or  the  sun ;  as  Luna  is  of  Diana,  or  the  moon.  Rhea  or 
Cybele,  has  been  mentioned  as  the  wife  of  Saturn,  who  reigned  with 
him  in  the  golden  age ;  and  Latona,  the  mother  of  Apollo  and  Diana, 
is  reckoned  by  some  as  one  of  the  select  deities,  though  others  men- 
tion Genius  in  her  stead. 

Hebe  was  the  goddess  of  youth,  and  originally  Jupiter's  cup- 
bearer; and  Proserpina,  who  was  carried  away  by  Pluto,  became 
the  queen  of  Hades.  Of  the  Muses,  Clio,  Calliope,  Erato,  Thalia, 
Melpomene,  Terpsichore,  Euterpe,  Polyhymnia,  and  Urania,  who 
collectively  presided  over  the  liberal  arts  ;  of  the  Graces,  Aglaia, 
Thalia,  and  Euphrosyne ;  of  the  Infernal  Judges,  Minos,  Rhada- 
manthos,  and  jflEacus ;  of  the  Gorgons,  Medusa,  Stheno,  and  Eury- 
ale  ;  the  Furies,  Alecto,  Tisiphone,  and  Megaera  ;  the  Fates,  Clotho, 
Lachesis,  and  Atropos  ;  of  the  Rural  Deities,  Pan,  Silenns,  the 
Fauns,  and  Satyrs,  Flora,  Pomona,  the  Naiads,  Limnads,  Oreads, 
and  Dryads ;  of  the  Marine  Deities,  Nereus,  Proteus,  Triton,  and 
the  Nereids  and  Sirens ;  of  the  Winds,  ^Eolus,  Boreas,  Eurus, 
Notus,  and  Zephyrus  ;  and  of  various  other  deities,  demigods,  and 
heroes,  we  have  no  farther  room  here  to  speak.  The  Naiads,  we 
can  barely  remark,  were  nymphs  of  the  rivers,  brooks,  and  foun- 
tains ;  the  Limnads,  of  lakes,  and  pools ;  the  Oreads  were  nymphs 
of  the  mountains ;  and  the  Dryads  were  nymphs  inhabiting  forests 
and  trees. 

§  4.  The  Hindoo  Mythology,  is  a  kind  of  Pantheism,  regarding 
the  Universe  as  God,  or  rather  as  the  animate  body  of  which  God 
is  the  soul.  The  doctrine  of  transmigration  probably  originated  in 
India,  and  is  the  continual  key  to  its  complicated  system  of  deities 
and  incarnations.  The  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos,  are  the  four 
Vedas  or  Vedus,  containing  prayers  and  precepts ;  six  jQngas, 
which  are  commentaries  on  the  Vedas  ;  four  Upavedas,  relating  to 
sciences  and  arts ;  and  lastly  the  Upangas,  consisting  of  the  Puranas, 
the  Derma-Shastras,  and  the  Dersanas,  partly  mythical  and  partly 
philosophical.  To  the  Derma-Shastras  belong  the  ordinances  of 
Menou,  containing  a  code  of  laws  and  customs,  with  a  poetical  ac- 
count of  the  gods  and  of  the  creation.  All  these  sacred  books 
collectively  are  called  the  Shastra  or  Shasters.  The  original  God, 
called  Brahm,  or  Brahmatma,  according  to  Menou,  first  created  the 
waters  ;  from  which  sprang  a  golden  egg,  blazing  like  a  thousand 
suns  ;  and  from  this  egg  was  born  Brahma,  self-existing,  floating  on 
a  lotus  leaf.  Others  say  that  Brahma  sprang  from  Narayana,  or 
the  spirit  moving  on  the  waters.  Brahma  is  generally  regarded  as 
the  creator  of  the  visible  world,  and  another  of  the  Vedas ;  but  as 
now  in  a  state  of  retirement  or  rest.  His  wife  Seraswatee,  Saras- 
wati,  or  Brahmini,  is  regarded  as  the  patroness  of  learning. 

M 


134  THEOLOGY. 

The  three  principal  gods  of  the  Hindoos,  are  Brahma  the  creator, 
Vishnu  the  preserver,  and  Siva  the  destroyer ;  though  the  two  latter 
may  be  regarded  as  incarnations  of  the  former.  Of  Brahma,  we  may 
add  to  what  is  said  above,  that  he  is  the  parent  of  the  Rishis  or  Menus, 
seven  or  ten  in  number,  including  Adimi  or  Swayambhuva,  and 
others ;  probably  corresponding  to  Adam  and  the  patriarchs  :  and 
the  Brahmins  (or  Bramins)  claim  to  have  proceeded  from  Brahma's 
mouth.  Vishnu,  (or  Veeshnoo),  the  preserver,  is  represented  with 
several  heads,  and  regarded  as  omnipotent  and  omniscient.  He  is 
said  to  have  passed  through  nine  avatars,  or  incarnations,  to  save  or 
benefit  the  world  ;  and  the  tenth  is  yet  to  come.  As  the  Matsyava- 
tara,  or  fish  avatar,  half  man  and  half  fish,  he  preserved  the  ark,  and 
rescued  the  Vedas  from  a  demon ;  and  as  the  Kurmavatara,  or  tor- 
toise avatar,  he  sustained  the  world  when  shaken  by  demons,  and 
churned  the  sea,  to  enrich  mankind.  In  the  boar,  and  lion  avatars,  he 
rescued  the  earth  from  daityas  or  wicked  demigods  ;  and  as  the 
dwarf  avatar  he  humbled  the  impious  Mahabeli.  His  last  four 
avatars  were  in  human  shape ;  as  Rama  Parasu  ;  as  Rama  Chandra 
(or  Ramatshandra);  as  Krishna,  (Creeshna)  or  Juggernaut;  and  as 
Boodhu,  (or  Budha),  the  founder  of  a  new  religion.  Laksmi, 
Lakshmi,  Sita,  or  Sree,  the  goddess  of  fortune  and  plenty,  was  the 
wife  of  Vishnu. 

Siva,  (Shiva,  or  Shivu),  the  destroyer,  called  also  Mahadeo, 
Mahadeva,  Iswara,  and  Rudra,  is  a  personification  of  time,  or  of  fire; 
and  Parvati,  (or  Parvadi),  called  also  Durga,  Doorga,  Devi  Kali,  or 
Bhavani,  the  goddess  of  marriage,  and  punisher  of  evil  doers,  was  his 
wife.  Their  sons,  were  Ganesa,  (or  Guneshu),  the  god  of  policy 
and  cunning;  and  Kartikya,  (or  Kartikeya),  the  god  of  war.  Indra 
was  regarded  as  lord  of  the  elements,  and  Mndri  as  his  wife  ;  Pa- 
vana  or  Vayu,  as  god  of  the  winds;  Jlgni,  (or  Aghni),  as  the  god 
of  fire  ;  Prithivi,  as  goddess  of  the  earth ;  Varuna,  as  ruler  of  the 
ocean  ;  Surya  or  Sooryu,  of  the  sun  ;  Chandra,  of  the  moon  ;  and 
Yama  or  Beli,  as  ruler  of  all  the  dead.  Nareda  was  the  god  of 
music ;  Cuvera  or  Cubera,  of  riches  ;  and  Nirit,  of  purification. 
The  Suras  or  Soors  are  good  angels  ;  the  Jlsuras,  or  Asoors,  evil 
ones  ;  of  whom  Mahasoor  is  chief.  The  jZpsaras  are  beautiful  maids 
of  heaven ;  the  Dewtas  or  Devitas,  are  genii ;  some  good,  as  the 
Ginarers,  Ganduwers,  or  Gandharvas ;  some  evil,  as  the  Danava 
or  devils. 

The  Swerga  or  Swega-Surgs,  is  the  paradise  of  Indra,  on  the  top 
of  Mount  Meru  ;  and  Padalon,  or  Patala,  is  the  infernal  region ;  of 
which  Nirurdi  is  king,  and  Padurbati,  judge.  The  Hindoos 
believe Hhat  three  great  periods  called  Calpas  have  elapsed;  and  the 
present  one  they  call  Kali-Yug ;  at  the  end  of  which,  Vishnu,  as  the 
tenth  or  horse  avatar,  will  destroy  the  world  ;  and  all  spirits  will  be 
reabsorbed  into  Brahm,  the  Eternal.  The  principal  Hindoo  sects,  are 
the  Vaishnavas,  or  Voisnuvus,  who  worship  Vishnu,  chiefly  on  the 
eastern  coast ;  the  Saivas,  or  Soivus,  who  worship  Siva,  chiefly  on  the 
western  coast ;  the  Sactas,  or  Shaktus,  who  worship  the  Sacti  or 
goddesses,  particularly  Doorga ;  the  Sourus  who  worship  Surya  or 
the  sun,  and  the  Ganuputyus  who  worship  Ganesa.  Their  wor- 


PAGANISM.  135 

ship  consists  of  visits  to  the  Pagodas  ;  and  of  ablutions,  sacrifices, 
and  tortures ;  with  cruel  and  horrid  ceremonies,  such  as  immolation 
under  the  car  of  Juggernaut. 

Boodhism,  or  Budhuism,  comprehends  the  worship  of  Budhu,  in 
Hindoostan,  and  the  countries  east  and  north  of  it.  Budhu,  we 
have  already  mentioned,  as  the  ninth  avatar,  or  incarnation  of  Vish- 
nu; whose  era  was  about  544  B.  C.  He  came,  it  is  stated  in  the 
Jatas,  as  an  ascetic  philosopher,  to  reform  a  corrupted  religion.  The 
Boodhists  say  that  four  deities  have  already  appeared,  and  Budhu  is 
the  fifth;  and  that  he  is  yet  to  reach  a  higher  state  of  perfection. 
Some  of  the  sect,  as  in  Ceylon,  worship  other  Hindoo  gods,  as  sub- 
ordinate to  Budhu ;  but  most  of  the  Boodhists  regard  him  as  the 
only  god  now  claiming  their  worship.  A  sect  called  Jainas,  have  a 
god  Reshaba,  who  they  say  became  incarnate  nearly  in  the  same 
manner  as  Budhu.  The  Lamaism  of  Thibet,  is  but  another  form 
of  Budhism ;  the  Delai  Lama,  or  grand  priest,  being  considered  as 
an  incarnation  of  Budhu,  and  worshipped  also  in  Tartary.  His  idol 
is  called  Muha-Moonee,  in  Thibet ;  Godumu  or  Gotumu,  in  Ava ; 
Shummunu,  in  Siam  ;  and  Fo,  in  China 

The  Chinese,  as  taught  by  Confucius,  or  Kung-foo-tse,  about  551 
B.  C.,  worshipped  the  elements,  as  agents  of  the  Supreme  Deity. 
About  the  same  time  Lao-Kung,  (or  Laou-Kiung),  founded  the  sect 
of  the  Tao-Tzee,  (or  Faose),  who  lived  luxuriously ;  worshipped 
their  own  ancestors  ;  and  pretended  by  means  of  a  certain  drink  to 
become  immortal.  Boodhism  was  introduced  into  China,  about 
A.  D.  65.  The  idol  Fo,  (Foe  or  Fuh),  is  the  same  deity  as  Budhu  ; 
and  his  priests  are  called  by  the  Chinese,  Ho- Chan g  ;  by  the  Siam- 
ese, Talapoins  ;  and  by  the  Japanese,  Bonzes.  Some  of  the  Chi- 
nese worship  other  gods ;  as  Lui-Shin,  the  thunderer ;  and  Hoi- 
Vang,  the  god  of  the  sea. 

§  5.  Under  the  head  of  Scandinavian  Mythology,  we  include 
that  of  the  Normans  and  Saxons,  forming  an  extensive  and  romantic 
system.  It  was  introduced  from  Asia,  not  long  before  the  Christian 
Era ;  systematized  by  the  scalds  or  bards,  in  their  sacred  poems, 
which  are  included  in  the  Edda ;  but  supplanted  by  Christianity, 
before  the  end  of  the  tenth  century.  It  traces  the  origin  of  things  to 
a  world  of  mist  and  snow,  in  the  north,  called  Niffleheim,  and  a 
world  of  light  and  fire  in  the  south,  called  Mispelheim  or  Muspel- 
heim  ;  the  heat  of  which,  melting  the  frost,  produced  the  giant  Ymir 
and  the  cow  Jiudumbla  or  (Edumla,  on  whose  milk  the  giant  fed. 
From  Ymir  sprang  the  evil  race  of  ice-giants  ;  but  from  the  cow  pro- 
ceeded Bure,  the  father  of  Bore  or  Boer,  who  married  Belsta,  and 
had  three  sons,  Oden  or  Woden,  Vile  or  Wile,  and  Ve. 

These  brothers  slew  the  giant  Ymir,  and  out  of  his  body  created 
the  world  ;  after  which,  they  formed  the  first  man  and  woman,  Jlsker, 
and  Emla.  Then  appeared  Nott  or  night,  riding  on  her  horse 
Hrimfaxi,  or  blackmane;  and  her  son  Dagur  or  day,  on  his  horse 
Skinfaxi,  or  shiningmane.  Odin,  the  chief  deity,  was  supposed  to 
dwell,  with  Frigga  his  wife,  in  the  palace  Valhalla,  or  war-hall,  in 
the  city  Asgard,  the  metropolis  of  heaven,  approached  only  by  the 
bridge  Bifrost,  or  the  rainbow.  There,  heroes  slain  in  battle,  were 


136  THEOLOGY. 

feasted,  and  attended  by  the  beautiful  maidens,  the  Valkyrias.  Thor, 
or  Thunre,  was  the  mighty  god  of  thunder ;  Uller,  his  son,  was  the 
god  of  skating  and  duelling ;  Balder,  was  the  god  of  justice  and  good- 
ness ;  Forsette,  his  son,  the  god  of  concord ;  Niord,  was  god  of  the 
sea  and  navigation  ;  Frey,  his  son,  was  the  god  of  sunshine  and  rain ; 
Tyr  or  Tuisco,  the  god  of  battles  ;  Brage  or  Braga,  the  god  of  wis- 
dom and  poetry  ;  ffoder,  was  the  blind  god;  Vidar,  the  powerful  god 
of  silence  ;  Vali,  the  god  of  archery ;  and  Heimdall,  was  the  sentinel 
of  heaven.  The  worship  of  Seator  or  Saturn  was  introduced  by  the 
Saxons,  and  was  of  Roman  origin. 

Other  goddesses,  besides  Frigga,  were  Saga  or  Laga,  the  myste- 
rious ;  Syra  or  Eica,  the  goddess  of  medicine ;  Gesione,  of  chastity; 
Snotra,  of  modesty ;  and  Tylla  or  Jylla,  of  secrecy.  Frey  a,  daugh- 
ter of  Niord  and  wife  of  Hoder,  was  the  goddess  of  love  ;  Siona,  or 
Soona,  of  first  love  ;  Wara,  of  marriage  ;  Vara,  of  truth ;  Lobna,  of 
reconciliation ;  Lyna,  of  preservation ;  Wora  or  Vora,  of  wisdom ; 
and  Synia,  of  law  and  justice.  Iduna,  wife  of  Brage,  kept  the 
mystic  apples  of  youth.  The  Fairies,  were  mostly  good  spirits,  the 
offspring  of  the  gods;  and  the  three  Nornas,  Urda,  Varanda  or 
Verdandi,  and  Skulda,  were  the  mighty  spirits  of  the  past,  pre- 
sent, and  future. 

Loke,  one  of  the  ice-giants,  was  usually  an  evil  spirit,  though 
sometimes  reckoned  with  the  gods,  rfngerbode  was  his  wife,  and 
their  offspring  were  the  serpent  Midgard,  the  wolf  Fenris,  and  Hela, 
the  dread  goddess  of  death.  Siguna  or  Signa  was  his  second  wife, 
and  Vali  and  Nari,  their  sons.  The  Dwarfs,  were  produced  from 
the  corpse  of  Ymir ;  and  the  Genii  were  good  or  evil,  according  as 
they  sprang  from  the  gods,  or  the  giants.  The  Edda  teaches  that  the 
twilight  of  the  gods  is  yet  to  come,  when  Surtur  the  black  will 
destroy  Valhalla  and  Niffleheim,  with  most  of  the  gods ;  after  which 
the  great  ALFADER  will  create  a  new  heaven,  Gimle  ;  and  a  new  hell, 
Nastrond,  where  even  warriors,  if  vicious,  will  be  doomed  to  punish- 
ment. 

The  Celtic  tribes,  in  Wales  and  Brittany,  worshipped  several  gods, 
corresponding  nearly  to  those  of  the  Romans.  The  Druids  were 
their  priests,  and  had  great  influence  in  the  direction  of  their  affairs. 
They  believed  in  transmigration,  and  worshipped  in  gloomy  groves, 
or  under  the  oak,  their  sacred  tree. 

§  5.  Of  Ind-American  Mythology,  we  have  room  for  but  a  few 
words.  The  Mexicans  believed  in  one  Supreme  Deity,  Tcotl  or 
Ipalnemoani  ;  but  they  worshipped  several  gods  or  idols  ;  as  Tlaloc, 
god  of  the  waters ;  Quetzalcohuatl,  god  of  the  winds  ;  Hidtzulupuctli, 
Vitzilipuztli,  or  Mexitli,  the  god  of  war;  Nahuatzin,  or  the  sun; 
and  Tezcatlipoca,  or  Telpuctli,  the  youngest  of  the  gods,  who  re- 
stored the  earth  after  the  flood.  The  Peruvians  also  worshipped  the 
sun ;  in  whose  temple  were  Virgins  of  the  Sun,  like  the  Roman 
Vestals.  They  called  the  first  man  Manco-Capac,  and  his  wife 
Mama  Oella,  or  Ocolla.  The  Northern  Indians  generally  worship 
but  one  God,  and  have  no  idols;  believing  in  a  future  life  of  war  and 
hunting,  in  the  land  of  the  great  Spirit. 


MOHAMEDANISM.  137 

CHAPTER  II. 

MOHAMEDANISM. 

IN  the  branch  of  Mohamedanism,  we  shall  treat  briefly  of  the  spu- 
rious religion  established  by  Mohamed,  or  Mahomet,  the  self-styled 
prophet  of  the  Arabians.  His  name  is  often  written  Mahomet,  and 
his  religion  styled  Mahomet anism  ;  but  the  former  orthography  now 
generally  prevails,  as  the  most  correct.  This  religion  is  also  called 
Islamism ;  the  world  Islam  signifying  devotion  or  piety;  and  its 
followers  style  themselves  Moslems,  ot  Mussulmans,  that  is,  the  de- 
voted or  obedient.  This  religion,  which  superseded  the  Sabianism 
or  star  worship,  as  well  as  the  idol  worship,  of  the  ancient  Arabians, 
is  but  a  corrupt  mixture  of  Judaism  and  Christianity,  with  doctrines 
more  indulgent  to  the  human  passions  :  and  its  rapid  diffusion  is  due 
in  part  to  this  feature  ;  but  still  more  to  the  force  and  violence  with 
which  it  was  propagated.  We  shall  first  speak  of  its  History ;  next, 
of  its  Doctrines ;  and,  finally,  of  its  Practice ;  referring,  therein,  to 
the  different  Sects,  into  which  its  followers  are  divided. 

§  1 .  The  most  important  part  of  the  History  of  Mohamedanism, 
is  that  of  its  founder.  Mohamed,  (or  Mahomet),  was  born  at  Mecca, 
in  Arabia,  about  A.  D.  569  ;  and  belonged  to  the  tribe  of  Koreish,  or 
the  Koraishites  ;  his  ancestors  having  been  the  guardians  of  the  idol 
temple,  called  the  Kaaba.  He  is  said  to  have  twice  visited  Syria,  as 
a  merchant ;  and  probably  learned,  from  the  Nestorian  monks,  some 
of  the  doctrines  of  Christianity.  His  marriage  with  the  rich  widow 
Khadijah,  (or  Kadijah),  placed  him  in  easy  circumstances,  and  en- 
abled him  to  indulge  in  almsgiving  and  speculative  retirement. 

In  609,  Mohamed  first  announced  to  his  wife  that  God  had  sent 
the  angel  Gabriel,  to  commission  him  as  a  prophet,  to  restore  the  true 
religion,  and  overthrow  the  prevailing  idolatry.  His  first  converts 
were  his  wife  Khadijah,  and  her  cousin  Wardkah,  who  was  a 
Christian  and  Hebrew  scholar;  to  whom  were  soon  added  Zeid, 
Moharned's  servant ;  and  Mi,  who  was  Mohamed's  cousin,  and 
who  styled  himself  the  first  of  believers.  Mohamed  soon  began  to 
announce  the  pretended  revelations  which  compose  the  Koran;  in 
composing  which  he  was  probably  assisted  by  Warakah  ;  by  Sergius, 
a  Nestorian  monk ;  and  by  Salon  or  Salem,  a  Persian  Jew.  After  the 
conversion  of  Mu-beker  and  six  others,  Mohamed,  in  612,  announced 
his  mission  to  his  relatives,  at  a  special  banquet ;  when  Mi  declared 
himself  the  champion  of  the  new  faith.  But  the  converts,  being  per- 
secuted by  the  Koreishites,  dispersed  ;  and  July  16,  622,  Mohamed 
himself,  after  the  death  of  Abu-Taleb  his  protector,  and  Khadijah 
his  wife,  was  obliged  to  fly  to  Medina,  where  he  was  triumphantly 
received  by  converts  who  had  previously  been  nominal  Christians. 
This  event,  called  the  Hegira,  or  Flight,  is  the  Mohamedan  Era. 

Mohamed  now  assumed  the  sacerdotal  and  regal  dignity ;  married 
three  wives,  of  distinguished  family,  one  of  whom  was  a  daughter  of 
Abu-beker  ;  and  after  this,  it  was,  that  he  proclaimed  his  authority,  by 
18  M  2 


138  THEOLOGY. 

a  new  revelation,  to  propagate  his  religion  by  the  sword.  He  stimu- 
lated his  followers,  by  the  doctrine  of  predestination,  by  the  hope  of 
booty  and  revelry,  and  by  the  promise  of  a  paradise  of  delights  to  all 
who  should  fall  in  battle.  His  first  success  in  arms,  was  the  capture 
of  a  rich  caravan,  in  the  valley  of  Beder  ;  but  at  Mount  Ohud,  in  625, 
Mohamed  was  defeated,  and  wounded,  and  pursued  into  Medina,  by 
Abu-Sophian.  In  628,  he  made  a  truce  with  the  Koreishites,  and 
the  next  year  he  sent  embassies  to  summon  the  neighboring  princes 
to  receive  his  religion.  In  630,  his  army,  inspired  by  the  valor  of 
Khaled,  (or  Caled),  defeated  that  of  the  Byzantine  emperor  Heraclius, 
near  Muta,  to  the  east  of  Jerusalem  ;  and  Mohamed  entered  Mecca 
in  triumph ;  proclaiming  it  the  holy  city,  and  its  kaaba,  (caaba),  or 
temple,  the  sanctuary  of  Moharriedanism.  In  631,  called  the  year 
of  embassies,  several  of  the  Arabian  chiefs  announced  to  Mohamed 
their  conversion  to  his  religion.  In  632,  he  made  his  last  pompous 
pilgrimage  to  Mecca ;  and  he  died,  probably  of  slow  poison,  at 
Medina,  in  the  same  year.  His  religion  spread  rapidly  over  Egypt, 
Persia,  Turkey,  and  Barbary ;  westward  into  Spain ;  and  eastward 
into  Hindoostan ;  as  will  be  farther  illustrated  in  the  department  of 
Chronography. 

§  2.  The  Doctrines  of  the  Mohamedans,  are  embodied  in  the 
Koran  :  for  although  they  admit  our  Scriptures,  or  at  least  the  Penta- 
teuch, Psalms,  and  Gospels,  to  have  been  divinely  inspired,  they 
maintain  that  the  copies  which  we  now  possess  are  corrupted,  and 
unworthy  of  trust.  They  believe  that  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses, 
and  Jesus  Christ,  were  the  five  great  prophets  who  preceded  Mohamed, 
the  sixth  and  last.  The  Koran,  improperly  called  the  Alcoran,  is 
fabled  to  have  been  delivered  to  Mohamed,  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  in 
successive  small  portions,  at  various  intervals,  during  a  period  vof 
twenty-three  years.  JH-koran,  in  Arabic,  signifies  The  Reading ; 
and  it  is  also  called  al  Kitah,  the  book  ;  al  Moshaf,  the  volume  ;  al 
Dhikr,  the  recollection ;  and  al  Forkan,  because  it  is  divided  into 
one  hundred  and  fourteen  chapters.  The  parts  were  collected  into  a 
volume  by  Abu-beker,  the  father-in-law,  and  successor  of  Mohamed ; 
but  the  numerous  manuscripts,  it  is  said,  differed  so  much,  that  Oth- 
man,  the  third  caliph,  burnt  them  all,  after  compiling  the  whole  anew. 

The  Mohamedans  believe  that  there  is  but  one  Go d,  who  created 
all  things,  and  predestined  all  events ;  Mohamed  being  his  prophet. 
They  believe  in  Jlngels,  of  whom  Gabriel,  and  Michael;  and  Asrace, 
the  angel  of  death;  and  Israfil,  who  will  sound  the  trump  of  judg- 
ment ;  are  the  chief.  They  also  believe  in  Devils,  of  whom  Eblis 
is  the  chief;  and  in  Genii,  the  connecting  link  between  men  and 
angels.  They  believe  also  in  a  Heaven  and  Hell;  each  consisting 
of  seven  divisions  ;  and  that  Mohamed  ascended  through  the  seven 
heavens,  to  the  throne  of  God,  in  a  single  night ;  this  ascent  being 
called  the  Mesra,  or  night  journey.  In  the  first  heaven,  made  of 
silver,  he  found  Adam  ;  in  the  second,  of  gold,  he  found  Noah  ;  in  the 
third,  of  precious  stones,  Abraham  ;  in  the  fourth,  of  emerald,  Joseph ; 
in  the  fifth,  of  diamond,  Moses;  in  the  sixth,  of  carbuncle,  John  the 
Baptist ;  and  in  the  seventh,  composed  of  divine  light,  he  found  Jesus 
Christ.  Above  this  is,  they  believe,  the  Mohamedan  Paradise,  called 


MOHAMEDANISM.  139 

al  Jannat,  or  the  garden,  abounding  in  waters,  sunshine,  fruits,  flow- 
ers, and  perfumes,  where  the  beautiful  Houris  will  be  the  companions 
of  the  faithful. 

They  say  that  the  first  hell,  Gehenna,  will  be  for  wicked  Mussul- 
mans ;  the  second,  Ladha,  for  the  Jews  ;  the  third,  Hotama,  for  the 
Christians;  the  fourth,  Sair,  for  the  Sabians;  the  fifth,  Sakir,  for 
the  Magians ;  the  sixth,  al  Jahim,  for  idolaters;  and  the  seventh, 
Hawiyat,  the  lowest  and  most  dreadful,  for  hypocrites.  Finally  they 
believe  in  a  general  Resurrection,  and  final  Judgment;  to  be  pre- 
ceded by  seventeen  wonderful  signs ;  though  the  time  is  known  to 
God  alone.  Then,  redress  will  be  had  for  all  injuries  received ;  and 
they  alone,  whose  good  deeds  overbalance  their  evil  ones,  will  be 
saved.  The  just  will  pass  safely  over  the  narrow  bridge,  Al  Sirat, 
while  the  wicked,  and  heretics,  will  fall  therefrom  into  the  dismal 
regions  beneath. 

§  3.  The  Practice  of  Mohamedanism,  consists  in  ablution,  prayer, 
almsgiving,  fasting,  and  making  pilgrimages  to  Mecca,  the  holy  city. 
Mohamedans  are  required  to  pray  Jive  times  in  the  day,  turning 
towards  Mecca,  which  is  called  their  kebla,  signifying  the  point 
towards  which  they  should  turn  when  praying.  Those  who  are  near 
the  Mosques,  or  houses  of  worship,  are  summoned  to  this  duty  by 
the  voice  of  the  Muezzin,  or  crier.  Frequent  purifications,  or 
ablutions,  are  also  required,  as  a  preparation  for  prayer ;  and  these 
united  duties  are  the  key  to  Paradise.  Fasting,  Mohamed  called  the 
gate  of  religion ;  the  lowest  degree  of  it  being  restraint  of  the 
animal  appetites  ;  the  next,  restraint  from  worldly  pursuits  ;  and  the 
highest  degree  of  it,  being  entire  devotion  to  the  Deity.  Almsgiving, 
was  enjoined  by  Mohamed,  as  laying  up  a  store  of  good  works, 
against  the  day  of  judgment.  But  especially,  an  annual  pilgrimage 
to  Mecca,  is  required  of  all  who  can  perform  it ;  without  which,  they 
might  as  well  be  Jews  or  Christians.  The  Mohamedans  are  pro- 
hibited from  drinking  wine  ;  and  their  moral  code,  in  many  points, 
conforms  to  the  Mosaic  Law ;  but  they  are  allowed  four  wives ;  and 
many  other  things  are  permitted,  which  are  contrary  to  reason  and 
the  Scriptures. 

There  are  several  different  Sects,  among  the  Mohamedans,  of 
which  little  can  here  be  said.  The  Turks,  and  some  others,  believe 
in  the  Sunna,  or  second  book  of  life;  and  hence  are  called  Sunnites  ; 
or  sometimes  the  sect  of  Omar.  The  Mufti,  in  Turkey,  is  the  chief, 
or  primate  of  their  religion;  whom  even  the  Sultan  advances  to  meet. 
Most  of  the  Persians,  however,  reject  the  Sunna,  and  hence  are  called 
by  the  Turks,  Shiites,  (Sheeahs,)  or  heretics.  They  believe  that  Jill 
is  the  vicar  of  God,  and  true  successor  of  Mohamed;  therein  denying 
the  authority  of  the  first  three  Caliphs.  The  Motazalites,  and  other 
sects,  deny  that  Paradise  is  yet  created,  and  say  that  it  will  be  different 
from  that  one  from  which  Adam  and  Eve  were  expelled. 


140  THEOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  III. 

JUDAISM. 

IN  the  branch  of  Judaism,  we  shall  treat  briefly  of  the  Religion  of 
the  Jews,  both  ancient  and  modern.  Their  religion,  compared  with 
the  systems  of  Paganism,  is  as  peculiar,  as  their  history  is  remarkable : 
and  their  preservation,  even  to  this  day,  as  a  distinct,  though  scattered 
people,  is  among  the  most  wonderful  events  which  the  world  has 
yet  witnessed.  But  a  still  higher  importance  attaches  to  the  Jewish 
religion,  considered  as  typical  of  the  Christian  dispensation,  and  pre- 
paratory thereto:  its  priesthood  and  sacrifices,  foreshadowing  the 
Saviour,  whom  the  prophets  foretold,  and  the  nation  so  anxiously 
expected  ;  though  they  received  him  not,  when  he  came.  We  shall 
first  treat  briefly  of  Jewish  History,  as  introductory  to  this  religion ; 
next  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures;  then  of  the  Doctrines  and  Ceremo- 
nies of  the  Jews  ;  and  lastly  of  their  different  Sects  and  the  Rab- 
binical Writings. 

§  1.  The  History  of  the  Jews,  is  chiefly  contained  in  the  Jewish 
Scriptures;  and  continued  in  the  writings  of  Josephus,  and  other 
later  historians.  The  Jews  are  so  named  from  Judah,  the  fourth  son 
of  Jacob;  but  they  were  called  Hebrews,  from  Eber,  their  ancestor, 
until  after  the  Babylonian  Captivity  ;  when  this  name  was  first  applied 
to  them.  They  are  descendants  of  Jacob,  the  son  of  Isaac,  and 
grandson  of  Abraham  ;  who  was  descended,  through  Eber,  from 
Shem,  the  eldest  son  of  Noah.  Abraham,  while  dwelling  in  Ur,  in 
Chaldea,  was  called  of  God  to  sojourn  in  Canaan,  which  land  was 
promised  to  him  and  his  posterity.  Accordingly  he  removed  to  Haran, 
or  Charran,  and  thence  to  Canaan,  1921,  B.  C.  ;*  and  although  he 
visited  Egypt,  on  account  of  a  famine,  he  returned  and  died  in  Canaan, 
1821  B.  C.t  Two  of  Abraham's  sons  are  particularly  referred  to,  in  the 
Scriptures  ;  Ishmael,  from  whom  sprang  the  Arabians ;  and  Isaac,  the 
child  of  promise;  whose  sons  were  Esau,  father  of  the  Edomites, 
and  Jacob,  also  named  Israel,  the  last  of  the  elder  patriarchs,  so  called 
from  Greek  words,  signifying  heads  of  families.  From  the  twelve 
sons  of  Jacob,  viz.:  Reuben,  Simeon,  Levi,  Judah;  Dan,  Naphtali ; 
Gad,  Asher;  Issachar,  Zebulon ;  Joseph,  and  Benjamin;  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel,  including  the  whole  Jewish  nation,  are  descended. 

The  sale  of  Joseph,  by  his  envious  brethren,  and  his  providential 
elevation  to  be  prime  minister  of  Egypt,  led  to  the  migration  of  Jacob 
and  his  other  sons  into  that  land,  to  escape  the  famine  in  Canaan, 
1706  B.  C.J  In  the  midst  of  a  corrupt  idolatry,  they  preserved  the 
patriarchal  religion  in  its  purity;  and  their  descendants  resided  in 
Egypt,  in  the  land  of  Goshen,  till  the  measure  of  their  oppression  by 
the  Egyptian  kings  was  filled;  when  Moses  was  raised  up  to  deliver 
them,  and  to  lead  them  back  to  Canaan,  the  land  of  promise.  They 
left  Egypt  in  the  year  1491,  B.  C.§;  and  received  the  Decalogue, 
or  Ten  Commandments,  at  Mount  Sinai,  in  the  same  year.  Forty 

*  2078  B.  C.,  according  to  Hales.  *  1 863  B.  C.,  according  to  Hales, 

f  1976  B.  C.,  according  to  Hales.  §  1648  B.  C.}  according  to  Hales. 


JUDAISM.  141 

years  they  were  detained  in  the  wilderness,  in  order  that  a  new  and 
more  pious  generation  might  enter  Canaan  ;  and,  during  this  period, 
it  was,  that  Moses  wrote  most  of  the  Pentateuch,  and  established,  by 
divine  command,  their  ceremonial  and  civil  laws.  Moses  died,  before 
they  entered  the  promised  land;  but  its  conquest  and  division  among 
the  tribes  were  effected  by  Joshua,  1446,  B.  C.  ;*  when  the  Jewish 
religion  and  polity  may  be  said  to  have  been  completely  established. 
The  farther  pursuit  of  this  topic  must  be  deferred,  until  we  come  to 
the  department  of  Chronography. 

§  2.  The  Jewish  Scriptures,  or  sacred  writings,  are  called  by  us 
the  Old  Testament ;  in  contradistinction  from  the  New  Testament,  of 
which  we  are  to  speak  in  treating  of  Christianity.  The  first  five 
books  of  the  Old  Testament,  written  chiefly  by  Moses,  and  sometimes 
called  the  Pentateuch,  are  the  oldest  writings  known  to  exist :  with 
the  exception,  perhaps,  of  some  of  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics;  and 
to  them  alone  we  are  indebted  for  the  earliest  history  of  our  race. 
These  books  were  deposited,  by  the  Jews,  in  the  holy  tabernacle, 
near  the  ark ;  and  with  them  were  placed  the  other  sacred  books,  as 
fast  as  they  were  written,  till  the  first  temple  was  completed ;  when 
they  were  all  removed  by  Solomon  to  that  sacred  edifice,  1004  B.  C.t 
Numerous  copies  were  made,  with  great  care  ;  and  after  the  return  of 
a  part  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonian  Captivity,  and  the  rebuilding  of 
the  temple,  Ezra  the  scribe,  assisted  by  the  Great  Synagogue,  collated 
and  arranged  the  sacred  canon,  458  B.  C.  To  the  books  thus  col- 
lated, Simon  the  Just,  about  295  B.  C.,  added  those  of  Chronicles 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Esther  and  Malachi ;  which  made  the  Old  Testa- 
ment complete.  It  was  translated  into  the  Greek  language,  it  is  said, 
by  order  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus,  284  B.  C. ;  and  this  version,  from 
its  having  been  made  by  about  seventy  translators,  is  known  as  the 
Septuagint.  Of  other  translations  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak ; 
but  remark  that  most  of  them  have  been  made  by  Christians,  and  in 
connection  with  the  New  Testament. 

Ezra  divided  the  Jewish  Scriptures  into  1.  The  Law,  comprising 
the  Pentateuch  ;  2.  The  Prophets,  including  the  prophetical  and  his- 
torical books ;  and  3.  The  Cetubim,  or  poetical  books,  viz.  the  Psalms, 
Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  and  Canticles,  or  the  Song  of  Solomon. 
But  modern  biblical  critics  divide  the  Old  Testament  into  the  Penta- 
teuch, or  five  books  of  Moses ;  the  Historical  Books,  from  Joshua 
to  Esther,  inclusive ;  the  Hagiographa  or  poetical  books,  including 
the  Cetubim  of  Ezra,  together  with  the  book  of  Job ;  and  the  Pro- 
phetical Books,  including  those  of  the  four  greater  prophets,  Isaiah, 
Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Daniel,  with  the  Lamentations  ;  and  those 
of  the  twelve  lesser  prophets,  whose  writings  follow  the  preceding. 
To  insure  the  accuracy  of  these  Scriptures,  the  Jewish  Rabins  have 
prepared,  chiefly  since  the  Christian  Era,  a  work  called  the  Mdsora, 
in  which  they  state  the  number  of  chapters,  verses,  words,  and  letters, 
in  each  of  the  sacred  books ;  fixing  the  pronunciation  by  peculiar 
points  ;  and  where  different  readings  had  crept  in,  they  introduced 
marginal  notes,  called  Keri,  and  Chetib,  from  Hebrew  words  signi- 
fying read,  and  write,  affixed  to  the  supposed  corrections. 

*  1602  B.  C.,  according  to  Hales.          f  1020  B.  C.,  according  to  Hales. 


142  THEOLOGY. 

§  3.  The  Doctrines  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Jews,  are  founded  on 
their  Scriptures,  but  especially  on  the  books  of  Exodus,  Leviticus, 
and  Numbers  ;  and  that  of  Deuteronomy,  which  repeats  or  sums  up 
the  Divine  Law,  as  given  by  Moses,  with  frequent  exhortations  and 
admonitions.  This  Law  is  regarded  by  Christians  as  consisting  of 
three  distinct  parts:  the  Moral  Law,  enjoining  moral  duties,  which 
are  binding  on  all  men,  in  all  ages  ;  the  Political  Law,  relating  to 
the  civil  affairs  of  the  Jews ;  and  the  Ceremonial  Law,  regulating 
their  ceremonies  and  forms  of  worship ;  the  two  latter  divisions 
being  intended  for  the  Jews  alone.  The  Decalogue,  or  Ten  Com- 
mandments, (Exodus  xx.  3 — 17,)  containing  the  essence  of  the 
Moral  Law,  we  need  not  here  repeat.  The  first  table,  including  the 
first  four  Commandments,  relates  to  our  immediate  duties  to  God ; 
the  second  table,  to  our  duties,  divinely  required,  towards  our  fellow- 
men.  The  Political  Laws  of  the  Jews  also  required  that  idolatry, 
blasphemy,  sabbath-breaking,  and  all  palpable  injustice  or  immorality, 
should  be  punished  by  the  magistrates,  priests,  or  people  at  large  ; 
and  their  Criminal  Law  was  strictly  retributive,  demanding  "  an  eye 
for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth." 

The  Jewish  Ceremonial  Law,  seems  to  have  been  designed  to 
impress  their  minds  continually  with  the  great  truths  of  religion  ;  to 
separate  them  from  the  surrounding  nations,  and  thus  to  guard  them 
against  idolatry.  For  this  reason,  perhaps,  their  national  worship 
was  confined  to  one  place,  and  their  select  priesthood  rendered 
hereditary.  They  were  required  to  construct  a  Tabernacle,  or  large 
tent,  of  boards  and  curtains  richly  ornamented ;  and  this  was  divided 
into  two  apartments,  the  holy,  and  the  most  holy  place,  and  sur- 
rounded by  an  enclosed  area  or  court ;  it  being  designed  as  a 
sanctuary,  for  the  Lord  to  dwell  in,  until  the  building  of  the  temple 
in  Jerusalem,  which  contained  a  similar  arrangement.  In  the  most 
holy  place,  or  within  the  veil,  was  the  ark  of  the  covenant,  a 
beautiful  chest,  containing  the  two  tables  of  stone  inscribed  with 
the  decalogue :  and  the  golden  covering  of  the  ark,  with  golden 
cherubs  at  the  ends,  was  called  the  mercy-seat  or  propitiatory ; 
above  which  was  seen  the  Shechinah,  or  visible  glory,  symbolical 
of  the  divine  presence.  In  the  holy  place,  were  the  golden  altar  of 
incense,  on  which  incense  was  daily  burned  ;  the  golden  candlestick, 
with  a  central  lamp,  and  three  others  on  each  side,  kept  always 
burning ;  and  the  table  of  show-bread,  on  which  bread  was  always 
kept,  but  renewed  every  Sabbath,  and  eaten  by  the  priests.  In  the 
court,  in  front  of  the  tabernacle,  was  the  large  brazen  altar  of 
burnt  offerings,  with  horns  rising  from  the  corners;  and  the  brazen 
laver,  for  the  use  of  the  priests,  in  washing  themselves  and  the 
sacrifices,  stood  near  the  door  of  the  tabernacle. 

The  priesthood  was  restricted  to  Aaron  and  his  sons,  under  pe- 
nalty of  death  to  any  others  who  should  assume  it ;  ajid  the  Levites, 
divinely  selected,  from  the  tribe  of  Levi,  were  the  priest's  assistants. 
The  priests  wore  a  linen  underdress,  coat,  girdle,  and  bonnet ;  but 
the  garments  of  the  high-priest  were,  besides  the  underdress  and 
embroidered  coat,  a  blue  robe,  hung  around  with  golden  bells ;  an 
ephod,  or  outer  short  coat,  without  sleeves,  and  with  a  curious  girdle, 


JUDAISM.  143 

both  being  wrought  with  gold ;  a  mitre,  or  cap,  with  a  gulden  plate, 
inscribed  with  HOLINESS  TO  THE  LORD;  and  the  breastplate  of  judg- 
ment, bearing  the  Urim  and  Thummim,  (or  lights  and  perfections), 
and  set  with  twelve  gems,  inscribed  with  the  names  of  the  twelve 
tribes  of  Israel.  The  priests  were  originally  consecrated  by  anoint- 
ing with  oil,  and  sprinkling  with  blood ;  a  burnt  offering  and  a  sin 
offering  being  burnt  at  the  same  time ;  and  a  heave  and  a  wave 
offering  eaten,  by  the  priests ;  so  called,  because  they  were  first 
heaved  up,  or  waved  in  the  air. 

A  bullock  was  sacrificed  every  day  by  the  high-priest,  as  a  sin 
offering,  for  atonement ;  and  two  lambs  were  offered  daily,  as  a 
meat  offering,  with  wine  for  a  drink  offering,  from  the  people  to  the 
Lord.  Various  offerings  were  required  or  made  by  individuals,  at 
various  times ;  as  burnt  offerings  of  choice  animals ;  meat  offer- 
ings, partly  burnt  and  partly  eaten  by  the  priests  ;  peace  offerings, 
partly  burnt,  and  partly  eaten,  in  which  the  person  offering  them 
participated  ;  and  sin  or  trespass  offerings,  made  to  expiate  uninten- 
tional offences.  The  high-priest  alone  could  enter  the  most  holy 
place,  or  holy  of  holies ;  and  this  only  on  one  day  in  the  year, 
the  day  of  atonement,  the  tenth  day  of  the  seventh  month ;  with 
self-purifications  and  offerings;  and  a  ram  and  two  goats  for  the 
people :  the  ram  for  their  burnt  offering ;  one  goat  for  their  sin 
offering ;  and  the  other  to  be  let  loose,  as  a  scape-goat,  to  bear  away 
their  sins. 

The  annual  Passover  of  the  Jews,  when  they  ate  the  paschal  lamb, 
and  sprinkled  their  door  posts  with  its  blood,  in  commemoration  of 
their  first  born  sons  being  preserved  thereby  in  Egypt,  was  kept  on 
the  fourteenth  day  of  the  first  month,  corresponding  to  our  Easter. 
Hence  also,  the  first  born  males,  both  of  man  and  beast,  were  sanc- 
tified to  the  Lord ;  and  offerings  were  directed  to  be  made  by  parents, 
for  the  redemption  of  their  first  born  sons.  The  feast  of  Unleavened 
bread,  commemorating  their  hasty  departure  from  Egypt,  commenced 
the  day  after  the  passover,  and  continued  one  week ;  on  the  first  and 
seventh  days  of  which,  there  were  holy  convocations  of  the  people ; 
and  on  the  second  day  was  offered  a  sheaf  of  the  first  fruits  of  the 
barley  harvest.  There  were  holy  convocations,  also,  at  the  feast 
of  Pentecost,  or  of  harvest,  50  days  after  the  passover,  to  offer  the 
first  fruits  of  the  wheat  harvest ;  and  at  the  feast  of  Trumpets,  on 
the  first  day  of  the  seventh  month,  the  beginning  of  the  civil  year, 
announced  by  the  blowing  of  trumpets,  This  last,  was  followed  by 
the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  fifteen  days  after  it,  completing  the  feast  of 
ingathering ;  on  the  first  and  eighth  days  of  which  were  also  holy 
convocations.  The  Jews  were  moreover  required  to  observe  every 
seventh  year,  as  a  Sabbatical  year,  when  there  was  no  harvest; 
and  every  fiftieth  year  was  proclaimed  by  trumpets  as  a  Jubilee; 
when  they  rested  two  years  in  succession,  living  on  their  previous 
stores :  when  servants  were  set  free,  and  lands  on  lease,  returned  to 
their  proper  owners.  Of  the  laws  concerning  clean  and  unclean 
animals,  for  food  or  sacrifice ;  concerning  leprosy,  and  other  un- 
cleanness  ;  purifications  and  circumcision,  we  have  no  room  here  to 
speak. 


144  THEOLOGY. 

§  4.  The  principal  Sects  among  the  later  Jews,  were  the  Pharisees, 
who  attached  great  importance  to  the  ceremonies  of  religion,  neglect- 
ing its  weightier  matters ;  and  the  Sadducees,  who  were  generally 
incredulous,  denying  the  resurrection,  and  the  immortality  of  the 
soul.  The  Scribes,  mentioned  in  the  gospels,  were  professed  doc- 
tors of  the  law,  which  they  expounded  to  the  people.  The  Essenes, 
were  a  small  and  ancient  sect,  noted  for  their  austerity.  The  Kara- 
ites, (or  Caraites),  are  a  modern  sect,  chiefly  in  the  east,  who  attach 
no  authority  to  the  Talmud  ;  while  the  Rabbinists,  chiefly  in  Europe, 
regard  it  as  nearly  of  equal  weight  with  their  Scriptures. 

The  Talmud  consists  of  two  parts,  the  Mishna,  (or  Mischna), 
explaining  their  laws  and  customs  ;  and  the  Gemara,  which  is  a 
commentary  on  the  Mishna.  The  Mishna  was  collected  by  the 
Rabbi  Jehudah,  or  Juda  Hakkadosh,  A.  D.  200 ;  and  is  attributed 
by  the  Jews  to  Moses,  as  its  principal  author.  The  Mishna  with  a 
Gemara,  compiled  by  Rabbi  Eliezer,  about  the  sixth  century,  forms 
the  Jerusalem  Talmud ;  and  with  another  Gemara,  compiled  by 
Chaldean  Jews,  it  forms  the  Babylonian  Talmud,  most  frequently 
referred  to.  The  Targums,  are  Jewish  paraphrases  of  their  Scrip- 
tures, written  in  the  Chaldee  tongue.  That  of  Jonathan  BenUzziel, 
on  the  Prophets,  was  made  about  30  B.  C. ;  and  that  of  Onkelos,  on 
the  Law,  was  made  at  the  time,  nearly,  of  the  Christian  Era.  The 
Targum  of  Jerusalem,  is  on  the  Pentateuch ;  and  that  of  Joseph  the 
Blind,  is  on  the  Hagiographa.  The  Cabala,  (or  Cabbala),  embracing 
the  cabalistic  writings  of  the  Jews,  consists  of  mystical  interpretations 
of  the  Scriptures,  and  metaphysical  speculations,  handed  down  by  tra- 
dition, and  regarded  by  them  as  the  sublimest  of  sciences.  The 
modern  Jewish  creed,  drawn  up  by  the  Rabbi  Maimonides,  in  the 
eleventh  century,  contains  nothing  very  peculiar,  and  need  not  here 
be  repeated. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CHRISTIANITY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Christianity,  we  include  the  whole  study  of  the 
Christian  Religion;  its  Origin  and  History  ;  its  Scriptures  and 
Evidences ;  and  the  History  and  Doctrines  of  the  different  Sects 
which  profess  to  adopt  it.  The  name  is  derived  from  that  of  its 
divine  author  and  founder :  the  word  CHRIST,  from  the  Greek,  ^pt^oj, 
like  the  Hebrew  word  MESSIAH,  signifying  one  who  has  been  anointed ; 
as  were  the  Jewish  prophets,  priests,  and  kings ;  whose  functions  were 
all  united  in  the  incarnate  Son  of  God.  We  regard  the  pure  Jewish 
religion  as  a  part  of  the  Christian ;  which  properly  embraces  the 
whole  Scheme  of  Salvation,  shadowed  forth  by  the  sacrifices,  foretold 
by  the  prophets,  and  realized  by  the  advent  and  ministry  of  Jesus 
Christ,  our  Lord  and  Saviour.  To  this  scheme  alone  we  apply  what 
has  already  been  said,  of  the  incomparable  importance  of  practical 
religion,  (p.  127.)  The  term  Theology,  is  frequently  restricted  to 


CHRISTIANITY.  145 

Christian  Theology,  or  the  study  of  Christianity ;  otherwise  called 
the  study  of  Divinity.  Various  subdivisions  of  this  study  have  been 
proposed  ;  but  we  proceed  here  to  treat  of  it  in  three  parts,  under  the 
titles  of  Ecclesiastical  History;  Biblical  Divinity;  and  Sectarian 
Polity. 

PART  I. 

Ecclesiastical  History. 

Under  the  head  of  Ecclesiastical  History,  we  shall  here  treat  of 
the  origin  and  early  progress  of  Christianity ;  considered,  so  far  as  it 
may  be,  independently  of  the  particular  sects,  into  which  the  Christian 
world  is  now  divided.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  sxx^Gia, 
church;  this  name  properly  signifying  the  whole  body  of  Christians 
of  all  ages  and  nations ;  though  it  is  also  applied  to  any  particular 
Christian  sect,  or  society.  The  present  topic  presupposes  a  general 
knowledge  of  Civil  History  and  Archaoology,  both  ancient  and 
modern;  with  which  it  is  so  closely  connected,  that  the  study  of 
each,  throws  light  upon  that  of  the  other.  After  thus  glancing  over 
the  early  History  of  Christianity,  we  shall  be  the  better  prepared 
to  appreciate  the  evidences  on  which  it  rests.  The  later  Eccle- 
siastical History,  referring  chiefly  to  the  various  Christian  sects 
which  have  arisen  in  modern  times,  will  be  reserved  for  the  third 
part  of  the  present  chapter,  that  entitled  Sectarian  Polity. 

§  1.  Our  Saviour  was  born,  four  years  before  the  Christian  Era,  as 
generally  received,  (or  4  B.  C.),  in  Bethlehem  of  Judea,  which  was 
then  under  the  Roman  power.  At  twelve  years  of  age,  (A.  D.  8),  he 
disputed  with  the  Jewish  Doctors,  in  the  temple ;  and  at  the  age  of 
nearly  thirty-one,  (A.  D.  27),  he  was  baptized  by  John  the  Baptist; 
soon  after  which  he  chose  the  twelve  apostles,  and  commenced  his 
public  ministry.  Three  and  a  half  years  after  this,  A.  D.  31,  he  was 
crucified,  rose  again  from  the  dead,  and  reascended  into  heaven,  in 
the  presence  of  many. disciples.  The  first  Christian  Church,  was 
formed,  immediately  after  this  event,  at  Jerusalem ;  and  James  the 
Less,  or  the  Just,  who  was  the  son  of  Alpheus,  (that  is  Cleophas), 
and  who  was  called  the  brother,  though  really  the  cousin  of  our  Lord, 
was  placed  over  it,  as  its  presbyter  or  bishop.  He  was  the  writer  of 
the  epistle  which  bears  his  name.  He  suffered  martyrdom,  A.  D.  62; 
when  his  brother  Simeon  succeeded  him.  The  second  church  appears 
to  have  been  formed  at  Jlntioch,  in  Syria,  by  those  who  fled  thither 
after  Stephen's  martyrdom ;  and  there,  about  A.  D.  40,  the  disciples 
were  first  called  Christians.  On  the  approach  of  Titus,  to  besiege 
Jerusalem,  the  Christians,  with  Peter  and  John,  warned  by  our  Sa- 
viour's prophecy,  withdrew  in  safety,  A.  D.  70,  to  Pella,  beyond  the 
river  Jordan. 

Of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  Simon  Peter  preached  the  gospel  in 
Asia  Minor,  and,  according  to  Eusebius,  at  Rome  also ;  where  he 
was  crucified,  A.  D.  67.  He  was  regarded  as  the  first  bishop  of 
Rome  ;  Linus  being  his  successor.  Andrew,  his  brother,  is  said  to 
have  preached  in  Greece,  and  been  crucified  at  Patras  in  Achaia, 
A.  D.  83.  James,  called  the  Greater,  the  son  of  Zebedee,  was  put 
19  N 


146  THEOLOGY. 

to  death  by  Herod,  at  Jerusalem,  A.  D.  44 ;  and  John,  his  brother, 
the  Evangelist  and  Divine,  preached  in  Asia  Minor,  until  he  was 
banished  to  Patmos;  but  returned,  and  died  at  Ephesus,  A.  D.  100. 
Philip  of  Bethsaida,  died  at  Hierapolis,  in  Phrygia ;  and  Bartholomew, 
it  is  said,  after  preaching  in  Arabia,  Armenia,  and  India,  died  in 
Persia.  Thomas,  called  Didymus,  preached,  it  is  stated,  in  Parthia, 
and  probably  died  in  India ;  and  Matthew,  called  Levi,  the  publican 
or  tax-gatherer,  and  the  Evangelist,  is  said  to  have  preached  and 
suffered  martyrdom  in  Persia.  Of  James  the  Less,  we  have  already 
spoken,  in  the  preceding  paragraph ;  and  Lebbeus,  his  brother,  sur- 
named  Thaddeus,  called  also  Judas  or  Jude,  preached  and  died,  it  is 
said,  in  Syria ;  after  writing  the  epistle  which  bears  his  name.  Simon 
the  Canaanite,  (or  Canaite),  called  Zelotes,  preached  and  probably 
died  in  Africa ;  and  Judas  Iscariot,  the  betrayer,  committed  suicide, 
A.  D.  31. 

Paul,  originally  named  Saul,  and  likewise  called  an  apostle, 
preached  the  gospel  in  all  the  civilized  world  of  that  age;  then  suffered 
martyrdom  at  Rome,  A.  D.  67.  Mark,  the  Evangelist,  preached,  at 
Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  and,  it  is  said,  died  there,  A.  D.  62.  He  is 
regarded  as  the  first  bishop  of  Alexandria  ;  Annianus  being  his  suc- 
cessor. Luke,  the  remaining  Evangelist,  probably  the  same  person 
as  Lucius  of  Gyrene,  was  long  the  companion  of  Paul,  but  died  in 
Achaia.  Timothy,  is  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom  at  Ephesus, 
some  years  after  the  death  of  Paul ;  and  Titus,  it  is  believed,  died  in 
Crete,  at  an  advanced  age.  Thus,  we  perceive  that  the  labors  of  the 
apostles  and  evangelists,  were  the  means  of  introducing  Christianity, 
throughout  the  then  civilized  world,  within  the  first  century  after  the 
Christian  era.  The  Gauls  also  received  the  gospel,  either  from  the 
apostles  themselves,  or  from  their  immediate  successors ;  and  it  was 
preached,  during  the  second  century,  to  the  Spaniards,  Germans,  and 
Britons.  To  Eusebius  we  are  indebted  for  much  information  con- 
cerning the  early  churches,  and  their  bishops,  down  to  the  Council  of 
Nice ;  but  the  mention  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  must  here  be  post- 
poned to  the  head  of  Patristic  Theology. 

§  2.  Historians  enumerate  ten  Persecutions,  which  the  Church 
underwent,  before  Christianity  became  the  established  religion  of  the 
Roman  Empire.  They  were,  1.  Under  the  emperor  Nero,  A.  D.  64, 
who  after  setting  fire  to  Rome,  charged  the  same  upon  the  Christians ; 
2.  Under  Domitian,  A.  D.  95,  who  suspected  the  Christians  of  aim- 
ing at  a  new  monarchy;  3.  Under  Trajan,  A.  D.  100-105,  in  be- 
half of  the  Pagan  religion ;  4.  Under  Aurelius  Antoninus,  about  177, 
most  violently  waged  in  Gaul  (or  France) ;  5.  Under  Septimius  Se- 
verus,  192-202 ;  6.  Under  Maximinius,  235  ;  7.  Under  Decius, 
249-50,  which  was  general  and  extremely  violent ;  8.  Under  Va- 
lerian, in  257  ;  9.  Under  Aurelian,  in  274;  and  10.  Under  Diocle- 
sian,  A.  D.  303.  Of  the  heresies  of  the  Gnostics,  Ebionites,  Nico- 
laitans,  and  numerous  other  sects  of  the  early  times,  we  have  no  room 
here  to  speak. 

Christianity  was  first  completely  tolerated  by  the  emperor  Con- 
stantine,  A.  D.  313;  and  thenceforward  became  the  favored  religion 
of  the  Roman  Empire.  No  sooner  was  the  Church  thus  freed  from 


CHRISTIANITY.  147 

pagan  persecution,  than  it  was  agitated  by  the  doctrines  of  Jlrius  of 
Alexandria ;  who  maintained  that  Christ  was  a  created  being,  entirely 
distinct  from  the  Father,  who  alone  was  truly  God.  On  this  account, 
Constantine  assembled  the  General  Council  of  Nice,  which  met  in 
325  at  Nice,  (east  of  Constantinople),  and  almost  unanimously  de- 
clared that  Christ,  the  Son,  was  coeternal  and  consubstantial  with  the 
Father,  and  with  Him  and  the  Holy  Ghost  to  be  worshipped  as  the 
one  and  only  true  God.  To  enforce  this  doctrine,  the  creed  was 
adopted,  which,  in  a  modified  form,  is  still  used  as  the  Nicene  Creed. 
Arius  was  banished,  but  afterwards  recalled  ;  and  notwithstanding 
this  decision,  JJrianism  afterwards  prevailed  for  some  time  in  the 
East. 

To  oppose  the  heresies  of  Jlriits,  Sabellius,  and  others,  a  second 
General  Council  was  held  at  Constantinople,  A.  D.  381.  The  sect 
of  the  Pelagians  next  arose,  founded  by  Pelagitis,  a  Welch  monk, 
who  went  to  Rome,  and  in  410  to  Africa;  maintaining  that  Adam's 
descendants  are  not  affected  by  his  sin,  and  that  salvation  may  be 
merited  by  our  own  good  works.  His  tenets  were  refuted  by  Au- 
gustin,  bishop  of  Hippo,  and  condemned  by  the  General  Council  of 
Ephesus,  in  431.  At  this  Council,  Nestorius  was  also  condemned, 
for  refusing  to  call  Mary  the  mother  of  God,  and  for  maintaining  the 
existence  not  only  of  two  natures,  but  also  of  two  persons  in  Jesus 
Christ.  From  him  are  named  the  Nestorian  or  Syrian  Christians, 
in  the  East,  called  also  Christians  of  St.  Thomas.  There  were  other 
Councils  held  in  the  East,  at  Chalcedon,  in  451 ;  at  Constantinople,  in 
553  ;  at  Constantinople,  in  680  ;  at  Nice,  in  787  ;  and  at  Constanti- 
nople, in  869 ;  making  in  all  eight  (Ecumenical  or  general  councils, 
called  by  the  Byzantine  or  Greek  emperors. 

§  3.  The  bishops  of  Jerusalem,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  Constanti- 
nople and  Rome,  had  at  an  early  period  taken  precedence  over  the 
others  ;  and  they  received,  about  A.  D.  400,  the  title  of  patriarchs  ; 
which  the  Eastern  metropolitan  bishops  still  retain.  The  name  of 
pope,  (or  papas),  from  the  Greek,  rfarfTtaj,  father,  was  common,  in 
the  third  century,  to  all  the  bishops  ;  and  is  still  given  to  the  Greek 
priests  in  Russia.  Though  applied  to  the  bishop  of  Rome,  it  was 
not  monopolized  by  him,  till  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.,  in  1073. 
The  bishop  or  pope  of  Rome,  at  length  claimed,  as  the  successor  of 
St.  Peter,  the  primacy  over  all  the  others ;  which  was  confirmed  by 
the  provincial  synod  at  Sardica,  in  344 ;  as  also  by  the  Council  of 
Constantinople,  in  381,  which  made  the  bishop  of  Constantinople 
second  in  rank ;  and  again,  by  the  western  emperor  Valentinian  III., 
in  445.  The  General  Council  of  Chalcedon,  in  451,  conceded  to  the 
Roman  bishop  a  precedence  in  rank,  but  refused  to  admit  that  he  was 
vested  with  any  superior  authority.  At  length,  disagreements  arose, 
which  led  Pope  Felix  II.,  A.  D.  484,  to  excommunicate  the  patriarchs 
of  Constantinople  and  Alexandria;  and  thus  the  Eastern  or  Greek 
Church  was  separated  from  the  Western  or  Roman :  though  both 
assumed  the  title  of  Catholic  or  universal.  They  were  afterwards 
united,  at  intervals,  till  the  downfall  of  the  Byzantine  empire ;  but 
never  in  a  cordial,  intimate  manner. 

The  farther  progress  of  the  Roman  papal  power,  we  must  reserve, 


148  THEOLOGY. 

to  sketch  in  the  department  of  Chronography.  The  monastic  system, 
under  which  monks  and  nuns  secluded  themselves,  for  professed  lives 
of  devotion,  was  introduced  into  the  Church  by  Antony,  in  Egypt, 
about  305  ;  and  extended  by  Pachomius,  his  disciple.  It  soon  spread 
through  all  the  Christian  world ;  and,  in  connection  with  papal  celi- 
bacy, has  been  a  fertile  source  of  crime  and  degradation.  The  wor- 
ship of  images,  commenced  in  the  sixth  century,  in  the  East;  and, 
though  condemned  at  Constantinople  in  754,  it  afterwards  prevailed, 
both  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  churches.  Meanwhile,  the  gospel  was 
further  preached,  in  France  by  St.  Denis  or  Dionysius,  about  A.  D. 
290 ;  in  Ireland,  by  St.  Patrick,  who  died  there  about  493 ;  in  Eng- 
land by  St.  Jlugus'tin,*  the  monk,  who  died  about  608  ;  in  Germany, 
by  St.  Boniface,  or  Winfrid,  who  died  in  755  ;  in  Denmark,  by 
Jlnsgarius,  'who  died  in  865;  in  Sweden,  by  Sigfrid ;  in  Prussia, 
by  Adalbert  of  Prague  ;  and  in  Northern  Sclavonia,  by  Otho,  in 
1124.  The  Roman  church  was  also  extended  into  Spain  in  586  ;  and 
into  Poland,  about  964.  Russia  was  united  to  the  Greek  church,  in  988. 
Of  modern  Missions,  and  their  vast  importance,  we  have  no  room 
here  to  speak  ;  and  the  history  of  the  Reformation,  we  must  defer  to 
the  third  part  of  the  present  branch  ;  that  on  Sectarian  Polity. 

PART  II. 
Biblical  Divinity. 

UNDER  the  head  of  Biblical  Divinity,  we  include  the  immediate 
study  of  the  Bible,  and  of  those  works  which  are  most  serviceable 
in  defending  and  explaining  it.  These  studies  we  regard  as  pre- 
eminently important,  in  the  whole  wide  range  of  human  knowledge  ; 
and  hence  we  recognize  the  necessity,  that  men  duly  qualified,  by 
talents,  learning,  and  piety,  should  be  relieved  from  secular  pursuits, 
and  devoted  to  the  especial  investigation,  and  illustration  of  the 
numerous  topics  herein  comprehended.  Among  the  works  which 
are  deemed  most  valuable,  as  aiding  to  defend  and  explain  the  Scrip- 
tures, we  may  mention  the  writings  of  the  early  Fathers,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  more  recent  treatises  on  Natural  Theology,  and  the 
Evidences  of  Christianity.  These  studies,  together  with  Biblical 
Criticism,  and  Hermeneutics,  will  form  the  subjects  of  the  present 
division  of  Christianity. 

§  1.  Biblical  Criticism,  comprehends  an  investigation  of  the 
origin,  and  continued  preservation  of  the  sacred  books  ;  and  of  their 
exact  signification  or  interpretation.  These  sacred  books,  collectively, 
we  call  the  Bible  ;  from  the  Greek,  j3c/3?u>?,  a  book ;  it  being  so  called 
by  way  of  eminence.  The  Bible  is  generally  recognized,  by  all 
Christian  sects,  as  a  Revelation  from  the  Deity,  and  therefore  of 
Divine  authority.  It  consists  of  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament ; 
the  former  of  which  foretels,  and  the  latter  fully  describes  the  Advent 
or  coming  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  to  provide  the  means  of 
salvation  for  fallen  and  sinful  man.  With  this  great  object,  it  treats 
of  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of  mankind  ;  the  apostacy,  or  fall, 

*  Augustin  was  not  the  first  propagator  of  Christianity  in  England :  and  there  is 
some  ground  for  the  opinion,  that  St.  Paul  himself  preached  there  and  in  Germany. 


CHRISTIANITY.  149 

and  its  consequences  ;  the  deluge,  and  repopulation  of  the  world ; 
the  Jewish  nation,  God's  chosen  people ;  their  laws  and  their  pro- 
phets ;  their  disobedience,  and  their  punishment:  and  especially,  the 
life  and  doctrines  of  our  Saviour,  and  of  his  inspired  apostles  ; — the 
whole  concluding  with  a  Revelation  of  events,  then,  or  yet  to  come. 

Of  the  Old  Testament,  we  have  already  spoken,  as  far  as  we  had 
room,  in  treating  of  Judaism.  The  New  Testament  was  written 
originally  in  Greek ;  excepting  perhaps  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew, 
which  some  suppose  to  have  been  first  written  in  Hebrew,  about  A.  D. 
38.  This  Gospel  was  the  earliest  portion  of  the  New  Testament; 
all  the  books  of  which  were  written  as  early  as  A.  D.  100  ;  and  a 
complete  catalogue  of  which  was  given  by  Origen,  about  the  year 
200 ;  the  same  which  we  now  recognize.  They  were  then  classed 
in  two  divisions,  the  Evangelicon,  and  the  Apostolicon:  but  a  more 
convenient  subdivision  of  them,  is  into,  1.  The  four  Gospels;  2.  The 
Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  3.  The  twenty-one  Epistles;  and  4.  The  Reve- 
lation of  St.  John  the  Divine.  The  Bible  was  first  divided  into 
chapters  by  Cardinal  Hugo  de  Sancto  Caro,  about  A.  D.  1240  ;  and 
into  verses,  by  Rabbi  Mordecai  Nathan,  about  1445.  The  Alex- 
andrian manuscript  of  the  New  Testament,  now  in  the  British 
Museum,  is  believed  to  have  been  written  in  the  fourth  century.  The 
Bible  was  first  printed  in  Hebrew,  in  1488 ;  and  the  New  Testament 
was  first  printed  in  Greek,  in  1514. 

Biblical  Hermeneutics,  so  named  from  the  Greek  Ippqvew,  I  inter- 
pret, is  the  study  of  the  exact  interpretation,  or  meaning  of  the 
Bible.  It  may  be  considered  as  grammatical,  when  it  relates  to  the 
discovery  of  the  true  signification,  by  means  of  the  grammatical  con- 
struction, or  by  the  context,  comparing  the  same  words  as  used  in 
different  places ;  and  it  is  termed  historical,  when  the  meaning  is 
ascertained  from  historical  data,  such  as  a  reference  to  the  circum- 
stances, objects,  and  information  of  the  writer.  Indeed,  a  general 
knowledge  of  ancient  science  and  art,  may  be  extensively  servicea- 
ble in  this  important  study  ;  including  an  acquaintance  with  those  lan- 
guages which  have  the  closest  affinity  to  the  Greek  and  the  Hebrew. 
The  same  principles  of  interpretation  which  are  applicable  to  other 
ancient,  or  even  to  modern  writings,  are,  for  the  most  part,  applicable 
also  to  the  Scriptures.  The  subject  of  Biblical  Exegetics,  or  the 
practical  exposition  of  the  Scriptures,  is  also  connected  with  Bibli- 
cal Divinity  ;  but  as  it  is  differently  treated  by  different  denomina- 
tions, we  may  be  excused  from  enlarging  upon  it,  in  the  present 
work. 

§  2.  Patristic  Theology,  comprehends  the  study  of  the  writings  of 
the  early  Christian  Fathers  ;  those  who  succeeded  the  apostolic  age. 
Their  writings  are  valuable,  as  the  earliest  commentaries  on  the  New 
Testament ;  and  as  furnishing  abundant  evidence  of  its  divine  author- 
ity. We  have  room  here  to  mention  only  a  few  of  the  most  promi- 
nent among  them  ;  remarking  that,  while  their  writings  belong  to 
Biblical  Divinity,  an  account  of  their  lives  belongs  also  to  the  division 
of  Ecclesiastical  History,  (p.  146).  Clemens  Romanus,  bishop  of 
Rome,  wrote  two  epistles  to  the  Corinthians,  and  died  probably 
A.  D.  100.  Ignatius,  bishop  of  Antioch,  was  martyred  at  Rome, 

N2 


150  THEOLOGY. 

A.  D.  107 ;  and  Justin  Martyr,  of  Grecian  birth,  was  put  to  death 
in  Egypt,  164.  Polycarp,  bishop  of  Smyrna,  a  disciple  of  St.  John, 
and  author  of  an  epistle  to  the  Philippians,  suffered  martyrdom,  167; 
and  Irenseus,  a  disciple  of  Polycarp,  and  bishop  of  Lyons,  in  France, 
was  martyred,  in  202.  Tertullian,  of  Carthage,  author  of  an 
Apology  for  (that  is  a  defence  of)  the  Christian  Religion,  flourished 
about  the  year  200 ;  and  Clemens  Mexandrinus,  (Clement  of  Alex- 
andria), flourished  about  206.  Origen,  a  Greek,  author  of  the 
Hexapla,  or  Bible  in  six  versions,  died  at  Tyre,  in  254  ;  and  Cy- 
prian, of  Carthage,  was  martyred  in  258.  Gregory,  surnamed 
Thaumaturgus,  a  pupil  of  Origen,  and  bishop  of  Neocresarea,  died 
about  270 ;  and  Lactantius,  author  of  Institutiones  Divinae,  died 
in  325. 

Eusebius  PampMlus,  (of  Pamphilia),  bishop  of  Cassarea,  who 
attended  the  Council  of  Nice,  and  wrote  an  Ecclesiastical  History, 
died  about  340.  Athanasius,  the  Trinitarian  opponent  and  succes- 
sor of  Arius,  (p.  147),  died  in  373  ;  Ambrose,  bishop  of  Milan,  died 
in  397 ;  and  Chrysostom,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  died  in  407. 
Jerome,  (Hieronymus),  who  translated  the  Vulgate  or  Latin  Bible, 
died  at  Bethlehem,  in  Palestine,  in  420 ;  and  Tkeodoret,  of  Greece, 
who  continued  the  Ecclesiastical  History,  by  Eusebius,  down  to 
429,  died  soon  after  that  date.  Arius,  founder  of  the  Arian  sect, 
died  in  336 ;  and  Pelagius,  founder  of  the  Pelagians,  died  at  Jeru- 
salem, A.  D.  420.  Among  the  leading  doctrines  of  Christianity, 
taught  by  the  Fathers,  and  adopted  by  modern  Evangelical  Chris- 
tians, we  may  mention,  the  fall  of  man  from  a  state  of  primeval 
innocence ;  the  vicarious  atonement  of  our  Saviour,  by  taking  our 
nature  upon  him  and  suffering  in  our  stead ;  the  necessity  of  repent- 
ance, and  of  faith  in  him,  evidenced  by  a  pure  and  pious  life ;  and 
the  sanctifying  influence  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  granted  to  all  who  seek 
it;  as  the  only  means  of  salvation.  The  two  Sacraments;  Bap- 
tism in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost ;  and  the 
Eucharist,  or  Lord's  Supper,  in  which  bread  and  wine  are  received 
as  symbols  of  the  Saviour,  are  also  common  to  nearly  all  Christian 
denominations. 

§  3.  Apologetic  Theology,  so  called  from  the  Greek  artoxoyta,  a 
plea  or  reply,  includes  the  defence  of  the  whole  Christian  scheme  of 
Religion ;  with  the  proofs  of  its  divine  origin,  and  incomparable 
excellence.  This  subject  may  be  subdivided  into  Natural  Theology, 
and  Evidences  of  Christianity.  The  province  of  Natural  Theology, 
is  to  prove,  from  the  works  of  nature,  that  there  is  a  God,  all-wise 
and  powerful,  the  creator  and  preserver  of  the  universe ;  a  God  of 
justice  and  goodness,  the  rewarder  of  well-doing,  and  the  punisher 
of  iniquity.  This  may  be  proved  from  the  marks  of  design  and 
contrivance  visible  in  the  material  world ;  as  is  amply  shown  by  Dr. 
Paley  in  his  excellent  work  on  this  division  of  Theology ;  and  espe- 
cially by  the  analogy  between  temporal  and  spiritual  things,  or  the 
"  Analogy  of  Religion,  natural  and  revealed,  to  the  constitution  and 
course  of  Nature,"  so  admirably  developed  by  the  learned  and  pious 
Bishop  Butler. 

The  Evidences  of  Christianity,  comprehend   the  various   facts 


CHRISTIANITY.  151 

and  arguments  which  prove  the  authenticity,  credibility,  and  divine 
authority  of  the  Holy  Scriptures.  They  constitute  a  subject  of  the 
highest  interest;  and  one  which  has  been  fully  treated,  by  the  ablest 
writers,  in  reply  to  the  cavils  of  infidelity.  These  evidences  may  be 
arranged  as  either  external  or  internal ;  and  the  former,  as  either  col- 
lateral or  direct.  Among  the  collateral  evidences,  we  may  adduce, 
the  imperfect  state  of  man ;  and  the  necessity  of  some  religion,  to 
guide  him  in  his  search  after  truth  and  happiness ;  and  to  satisfy  his 
moral  faculties  and  nobler  aspirations.  The  view  which  we  have 
already  taken  of  other  religions,  will  show  that  this  one,  alone,  is  at 
the  same  time  rational,  pure,  and  adapted  to  the  highest  wants,  and 
greatest  improvement  of  both  our  sentient  and  our  intellectual  nature. 
It  is  farther  so  proved,  by  the  fact  that  those  nations,  whose  religion 
is  the  purest  Christianity,  are  the  most  enlightened  and  happy  ;  and 
that  other  nations  approach  this  state,  in  proportion  as  their  religion 
approaches  to  that  of  the  Gospel. 

The  direct  external  proofs  of  Christianity,  include  the  historical 
proofs  of  the  authenticity  of  the  New  Testament.  We  know  that  its 
books  were  received  by  the  early  Church,  as  genuine  and  authorita- 
tive ;  from  the  testimony  of  the  Christian  Fathers,  already  mentioned ; 
and  from  the  great  events  with  which  it  was  connected  ;  including 
the  conversion  of  the  Roman  empire.  We  know  it,  in  short,  by  a 
complete  chain  of  the  highest  evidence,  from  the  apostolic  age  to  the 
present.  The  genuineness  of  these  books  was  admitted,  even  by  the 
early  opposers  of  Christianity:  as  by  Celsus,  in  the  second  century; 
Porphyry,  in  the  third ;  and  the  apostate  Julian,  in  the  fourth ;  nor 
do  Josephus,  and  the  other  Jewish  writers,  deny  either  the  currency 
of  these  works,  or  the  truth  of  their  historical  statements.  These 
statements  are  directly  corroborated  by  the  evidence  of  Tacitus,  the 
Roman  historian ;  and  the  sufferings  of  the  early  Christian  martyrs 
are  mentioned  by  the  younger  Pliny,  by  Suetonius,  Martial,  Juvenal, 
and  other  Heathen  writers.  These  sufferings  are,  in  themselves,  a 
strong  proof  of  the  credibility  of  those  truths  which  thousands  died 
to  substantiate.  Not  only  had  the  apostles,  and  other  Christian  mar- 
tyrs, no  interest  in  sustaining  their  doctrines,  if  false,  but  they  had 
the  strongest  temporal  interest  in  abandoning  them,  even  if  true :  and 
yet  they  persevered.  The  institution  of  the  Christian  Sabbath,  and 
Sacraments,  continuously  kept,  ever  since  the  events  occurred  which 
they  commemorate,  may  also  be  adduced  as  tangible  proof,  relevant 
to  this  subject. 

To  the  Miracles  of  our  Saviour,  recorded  in  these  well  authenti- 
cated books,  we  may  next  appeal,  in  support  of  the  divine  authority 
of  the  New  Testament.  They  were  beyond  the  reach  of  human  art: 
acts  of  godlike  beneficence,  performed  in  the  presence  of  multitudes, 
and  in  plain  day ;  miracles  which  not  even  the  irritated  Jews  could 
either  conceal  or  deny.  They  were  performed  for  a  purpose  worthy 
of  such  acts,  to  evince  the  promised  Saviour;  and  similar  acts  were 
permitted  to  be  performed  by  the  apostles,  so  long  as  was  necessary 
for  this  purpose ;  but  no  longer.  Next  to  the  incarnation,  temptation, 
resurrection,  and  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  we  would  adduce  the 
conversion  and  ministry  of  Saul  of  Tarsus,  the  apostle  Paul,  as  the 


152  THEOLOGY. 

strongest  evidence  of  the  divine  character  of  Christianity.  The 
credibility  of  the  Jewish  Scriptures,  will  probably  at  once  be  admitted ; 
or  at  least,  no  one  will  attribute  them  to  Christian  authors,  though 
they  were  sanctioned  by  our  Saviour's  authority.  From  them,  we 
have  the  miraculous  voice  of  Prophecy,  in  support  of  the  Christian 
religion.  All  the  great  events  of  our  Saviour's  life  and  ministry, 
were  foretold  by  the  Jewish  prophets,  as  plainly  as  possible  without 
defeating  their  accomplishment;  so  plainly,  indeed,  that  the  Jewish 
nation  were  anxiously  expecting  their  Messiah,  at  the  time  of  our 
Saviour's  advent.  Nor  were  the  prophecies  less  remarkable,  which 
were  made  by  our  Saviour;  and  which  have  since  been  fulfilled. 

We  might  dwell  on  the  disinterestedness,  purity,  and  benevolence 
of  our  Lord  and  his  followers  ;  on  the  perseverance  of  his  apostles, 
in  labors  and  sufferings  ;  and  on  the  rapid  spread  of  the  gospel,  by 
peaceful  means,  as  evidences  of  its  divinity ;  but  we  must  pass  on, 
and  glance  at  the  internal  evidences  of  Christianity,  derived  from  its 
surpassing  beauty  and  excellence.  We  repeat,  that  it  is  the  only 
religion  which  can  elevate  and  restore  man  to  his  lost  place  in  the  cre- 
ation ;  or  satisfy  his  longings  after  immortality.  While  it  strengthens 
our  good  propensities,  by  divine  assistance ;  it  represses  and  quells 
those  evil  passions  which  no  other  power  can  subdue.  It  teaches  a 
pure  and  perfect  morality,  where  other  creeds  have  wandered,  and 
science  has  failed.  It  has  suppressed  human  sacrifices,  and  gladiato- 
rial massacres ;  mitigated  the  horrors  of  war ;  raised  the  standard  of 
patriotism  ;  provided  the  means  of  charity  and  instruction  for  the 
poor :  and  especially  it  has  raised  the  female  sex  to  be  the  compa- 
nions, instead  of  the  slaves  of  man.  It  has  established  the  Sabbath 
and  Sanctuary,  to  give  rest  to  the  body,  and  spiritual  food  to  the 
mind ;  and  it  has  comforted  the  afflicted,  consoled  the  bereaved,  and 
cheered  the  departing  spirit,  with  a  celestial  light,  beaming  from  the 
world  beyond  the  grave.  When  sickness  and  trial  come  upon  us, 
when  nature  fails  and  worldly  hopes  forsake  us,  when  death  approach- 
es, as  it  must  approach  to  all,  then  only  can  we  adequately  realize  the 
divine  character  and  infinite  importance  of  the  Christian  Religion. 

PART  III. 

Sectarian  Polity. 

UNDER  the  head  of  Sectarian  Polity,  we  would  comprehend  the  re- 
maining portion  of  Christianity  ;  relating  to  the  different  Christian 
denominations  ;  and  treating  of  their  History,  Doctrines,  and  Modes 
of  worship.  Here,  therefore,  we  would  place  Systematic,  or  Dogma- 
tic Theology  ;  that  is  the  systematic  arrangement  of  the  dogmas  or 
doctrines  of  religion;  of  which  each  sect  has  some  that  are  peculiar; 
as  also  Elenchtic,  improperly  called  Polemic  Theology ;  by  which 
each  sect  attempts  to  defend  its  own  doctrines,  and  to  refute  those 
which  are  contrary  thereto  ;  and  finally  Pastoral  Theology  ;  which 
comprehends  the  care  of  a  church,  and  the  duties  of  a  Christian  minis- 
ter. This  last,  has  been  subdivided  into  Homiletics,  or  preaching ; 
Catechetics,  or  catechising,  that  is,  instructing  the  young  ;  Paranetics, 
or  advising,  admonishing,  and  consoling ;  Prudentials,  or  self-govern- 


CHRISTIANITY.  153 

merit ;  and  Consistorials,  or  church  government,  and  the  ordering  of 
forms  of  worship.  And  here  we  remark,  that  the  disagreement  of 
Christian  sects,  on  minor  points,  instead  of  discrediting,  tends  rather 
to  prove  the  truth  of  those  wherein  they  agree ;  as  those  who  have 
seceded  from  others,  would  naturally  diverge  from  them,  as  widely 
as  their  consciences  would  permit. 

§  1.  The  Greek  Catholic  Church,  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  Pa- 
triarch of  Constantinople,  recognizes  tradition,  as  a  source  of  doctrine, 
besides  the  Scriptures.  It  believes  in  the  seven  Roman  sacraments, 
and  in  trans  instantiation ;  admits  prayers  to  the  saints,  and  allows 
their  pictures,  but  not  their  images,  to  be  worshipped ;  and  sanctions 
the  monastic  system.  It  also  believes  that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds 
from  the  Father  only :  but  most  of  its  other  doctrines  are  those  of 
Evangelical  protestants  ;  and  its  corruptions,  may,  we  think,  be 
traced  to  its  connection  with  the  Roman  Church,  at  periods  subse- 
quent to  their  separation,  A.  D.  484.  (p.  147).  Its  Liturgy,  or  form 
of  worship,  consists  of  the  mass,  or  service  of  prayer ;  together  with 
the  reading  of  passages  of  Scripture,  and  legends  of  the  saints ;  the 
rehearsal  of  the  creed;  the  singing  of  psalms  ;  and  the  performance 
of  various  ceremonies.  The  Russian  Church  coincides  with  the 
Greek,  in  its  doctrines;  but  since  1701,  it  has  acknowledged  the 
Emperor  as  its  head  or  Patriarch.  Of  the  Nestorian  Church,  whose 
tenets  are  mostly  evangelical,  and  whose  patriarch  resides  at  Mosul 
on  the  Tigris,  we  have  no  farther  room  to  speak.  The  Coptic 
Church,  in  Egypt,  agrees,  for  the  most  part,  with  the  preceding;  and 
has  a  patriarch  of  its  own  at  Alexandria. 

The  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  also  assumes  the  title  of 
catholic,  or  universal,  and  at  the  head  of  which  is  the  Pope  of  Rome, 
originally  professed  the  simple  Evangelical  doctrines  of  the  Nicene 
Creed,  which  it  still  retains  ;  but  it,  moreover,  recognizes  the  author- 
ity of  Tradition,  and  of  the  Ecclesiastical  Councils,  as  coordinate 
with  that  of  the  Scriptures  ;  and,  on  this  ground,  it  has  superadded 
from  time  to  time  new  doctrines,  which  the  Scriptures  neither  contain 
nor  allow.  Among  these  doctrines,  sanctioned  by  the  Council  of 
Trent,  1545-63,  and  still  maintained,  are  that  of  Seven  Sacraments, 
viz.  Baptism,  the  Eucharist,  (or  Lord's  Supper),  Confirmation,  Pe- 
nance, Extreme  Unction,  Ordination,  and  Matrimony,  which,  are 
maintained  to  confer  grace  on  those  receiving  them  ;  also  the  doctrine 
of  Transubstantiation,  or  the  actual  conversion  of  the  sacramental 
bread  and  wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of  our  Lord ;  which,  with 
the  accompanying  mass,  or  forms  of  prayer  and  ceremonials,  is 
deemed  a  true  propitiatory  sacrifice  for  both  the  living  and  the  dead ; 
also  the  doctrine  of  Purgatory,  or  a  middle  state  between  Heaven 
and  Hell,  for  those  souls  which,  though  not  accepted  of  God,  are  still 
within  the  reach  of  salvation,  by  the  prayers  of  the  faithful ;  and  espe- 
cially the  doctrine  of  the  Supremacy  of  the  Pope,  as  Christ's  Vicar, 
and  the  Infallibility  of  the  Church,  by  which  some  understand  the 
Pope,  but  others,  solely  the  Council.  By  penance  is  meant  acts  of 
supposed  expiation  for  sins  committed ;  and  by  extreme  unction,  the 
anointing  of  those  dangerously  ill,  with  consecrated  oil. 

The  Veneration  of  images,  and  Worship  of  saints,  or  those  ca- 
20 


154  THEOLOGY. 

lionized  as  such,  is  not  only  tolerated,  but  required  by  the  Roman 
Catholic  or  more  properly  the  Roman  Church.  This  Church  also 
requires  auricular  or  private  confession  of  all  sins,  to  the  priests, 
who  claim  power  to  pardon  the  same  ;  and  it  maintains  that  we  may 
save  ourselves  by  our  own  good  works,  and  have  a  surplus  for  the 
benefit  of  others,  called  works  of  supererogation  ;  on  the  strength  of 
which  it  grants,  or  has  granted  not  only  pardons,  but  indulgences 
to  commit  any  future  sin  with  impunity,  for  a  certain  price.  It  also 
sanctions  the  monastic  system,  and  prohibits  the  marriage  of  priests. 
In  enforcing  conformity  to  these  doctrines  and  requisitions,  the  In- 
quisition, established  in  1204,  by  the  agency  of  Dominic  de  Guzman, 
founder  also  of  the  Dominican  order  of  monks;  and  the  Society  of 
Jesuits,  or  order  of  Jesus,  founded  in  1536,  by  Ignatius  Loyola,  a 
Spanish  soldier  and  devotee,  were  engines  of  tremendous  and  most 
cruel  power. 

After  the  modern  discoveries  in  the  East  Indies,  and  America,  the 
Roman  church  made  great  efforts  to  convert  those  regions  to  its  own 
faith ;  in  India,  by  Francis  Xavier,  the  Jesuit,  who  preached  in  Hin- 
doostan,  Ceylon,  and  Japan,  and  died  in  the  year  1552 ;  in  Mexico,  by 
Zummaraga,  its  first  bishop ;  in  Peru,  by  Hernandez  Lucqiie,  who 
was  associated  with  Pizarro,  in  its  conquest ;  and  in  Brazil,  by  Vieyra, 
and  other  Jesuits.  The  first  Roman  Catholic  establishment  in  the 
United  States  was  in  Maryland,  under  Calvert,  son  of  Lord  Baltimore, 
in  1634. 

§  2.  We  come  next  to  speak  of  the  Reformation ;  by  which  a 
large  portion  of  the  Church  was  restored  to  a  purer  form  of  Chris- 
tianity; although  the  reformers  themselves  afterwards  became  divided, 
on  various  abstract  or  minor  points  of  Christian  doctrine.  The  In- 
quisition was  first  directed  against  the  Waldenses  and  Jllbigenses, 
who  had  long  opposed  the  corruptions  of  the  Roman  Church ;  and 
had  been  condemned  therefor,  by  the  great  Lateran  Council,  at  Rome, 
in  1139.  But  the  pioneer  of  the  Reformation  is  usually  considered 
to  have  been  John  WicMiffe,  of  Yorkshire,  England,  who  died  in 
1387.  He  attacked  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  and  bishops,  and  ex- 
posed their  absurdities  and  impositions.  His  followers  were  called 
Wicldiffit.es,  or  improperly  Lollards  ;  (this  last  being  a  sect  of  Ger- 
man dissenters) ;  but  they  were  few  in  number  and  unsupported  ;  and 
their  doctrines  made  but  feeble  progress.  The  same  was  the  case 
with  the  Hussites  in  Bohemia,  the  followers  of  John  Huss,  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  in  1415.  It  was  reserved  for  Martin  Luther  to 
brave  the  thunders  of  the  Vatican,  (the  papal  palace),  and  to  effect,  on 
a  large  scale,  the  Reform  so  much  needed. 

Luther  was  an  Augustinian  Monk,  and  a  professor  of  Theology  at 
Wittemberg,  when  he  first  ventured  to  preach  against  the  abuse  of 
indulgences,  then  offered  for  sale  there,  by  Tetzel,  a  Dominican  friar 
or  monk,  A.  D.  1517.  This  was  followed  by  long  and  widening 
disputations  ;  and  in  1519,  Luther,  sustained  by  the  elector  Frederick 
of  Saxony,  began  to  deny  the  title  of  the  pope  to  supremacy  or  infal- 
libility. He  was  excommunicated  by  the  pope,  Leo  X.,  in  1520; 
and  outlawed  by  Charles  V.,  by  the  Edict  of  Worms,  in  1521  ;  but 
he  lived  to  translate  the  Bible  into  the  German  language,  and  to  see 


CHRISTIANITY.  155 

the  Reformation  widely  spread,  before  his  death,  in  1546.  Luther 
rejected  the  spurious  sacraments,  retaining  only  baptism  and  the 
eucharist ;  but  he  believed  that  the  body  and  blood  of  our  Saviour  are 
actually  present  in  the  sacramental  bread  and  wine ;  which  doctrine  is 
called  consubstantiation  or  impanation.  He  exploded  the  doctrine 
of  purgatory,  auricular  confession,  monastic  vows,  priestly  celibacy, 
salvation  by  merit,  works  of  supererogation,  indulgences,  prayers  to 
saints,  worship  of  images,  and  also  the  adoration  of  the  host,  or 
image  of  our  Saviour,  held  up  during  the  Roman  mass. 

The  early  Lutherans  believed  in  the  predestination  of  mankind  to 
happiness  or  misery,  according  to  God's  foreknowledge  of  their 
character  ;  but  this,  and  other  doctrines  of  his,  are  more  or  less  modi- 
fied at  the  present  day.  The  term  Protestants,  was  first  applied  to 
those  Lutheran  princes  who  protested  against  the  unfavorable  mea- 
sures of  the  diet  at  Spire,  in  1529  ;  and  it  has  since  been  extended  to 
all  the  seceders  from  the  Roman  Church.  The  Protestant  cause  was 
much  aided  by  the  League  of  Smalcalden,  in  1530,  and  its  harmony 
promoted  by  the  Confession  of  Augsburg,  or  articles  of  faith  drawn 
up  by  Melancthon,  in  the  same  year.  In  Norway,  Sweden,  and 
Denmark,  the  Lutheran  Church  is  Episcopal,  or  presided  over  by 
bishops ;  but  in  Germany  its  affairs  are  directed  by  a  Consistory, 
having  a  president,  and  different  grades  of  Clergy.  The  Lutheran 
church  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  by  the  German  settlers, 
as  early  as  1725. 

Calvinism,  embraces  the  doctrines  of  John  Calvin,  professor  of 
Theology  at  Geneva,  who  died  in  1564.  Its  leading  articles,  as 
adopted  by  the  Genevan  Church,  and  settled  by  the  Synod  of  Dort 
in  1618,  are  called  the  Five  Points  ;  viz.  Total  depravity  ;  Uncon- 
ditional predestination ;  Particular  redemption  ;  Effectual  calling ;  and 
the  Final  perseverance  of  those  who  are  once  converted.  These 
doctrines  of  Calvin  have  been  modified  by  later  theologians  ;  who  are 
hence  called  moderate  Calvinists ;  while  those  who  adopt  them  in 
full,  are  termed  strict  Calvinists.  The'  Huguenots  in  France,  were 
mostly  Calvinists,  tolerated  by  the  Edict  of  Nantes,  in  1598,  but 
expelled  by  its  revocation  in  1685.  Calvinism  still  prevails  in  Swit- 
zerland, Holland,  and  Scotland,  and  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States ;  among  the  Presbyterians,  Congregation- 
alists,  and  Baptists. 

Jlrminianism,  comprehends  the  doctrines  of  James  Arminius,  who 
was  a  professor  of  Theology  at  Leyden.  He  promulgated  his  pecu- 
liar doctrines  in  1591,  and  died  in  1609.  He  maintained,  in  opposi- 
tion to  Calvinism,  that  God's  election,  or  predestination,  is  only 
conditional,  or  the  result  of  his  foreseeing  what  would  be  men's  vo- 
luntary conduct ;  that  atonement  was  made  for  all  men,  and  offered 
to  them,  though  not  by  all  accepted ;  and  he  doubted  whether  con- 
verts may  not  fall  from  a  state  of  grace,  and  die  in  their  sins.  His 
doctrines  were  carried  much  farther  by  his  followers,  the  Remon- 
strants, who  denied  the  doctrine  of  original  sin  ;  and  maintained  that 
true  believers  may  fall  from  grace,  not  only  grossly,  but  finally. 
These,  and  other  doctrines,  contrary  to  the  settled  creed  of  the  Belgic 
Churches,  gave  occasion  for  the  General  Synod  of  Dort,  (or  Dord- 


156  THEOLOGY. 

recht),  which  met  in  1618,  and  condemned  the  peculiar  tenets  of  the 
Arminians  ;  whose  imprudence  led  to  their  cruel  persecution,  till  the 
death  of  Prince  Maurice  in  1625.  Their  doctrines  have  found  most 
favor  among  the  Wesleyan  Methodists. 

§  3.  The  term  Episcopalians,  from  the  Greek  Ertiaxortos,  a  bishop, 
though  applicable  to  all  who  acknowledge  the  office  of  bishops,  is 
usually  confined  to  the  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  in  England 
and  the  United  States ;  called  also  the  English  Church,  or  Church 
of  England.  This  Church  first  abjured  the  papal  authority  under 
Henry  VIII.,  in  1533;  and  again  under  Queen  Elizabeth,  after  the 
Catholic  reign  of  Mary.  The  Episcopalians  recognize  the  office  of 
bishops  as  of  divine  institution  ;  and  of  course  regard  it  as  the  only 
sanctioned  form  of  church  government.  The  Episcopal  Church 
professes  to  conform  to  apostolic  doctrine  and  usage ;  and  traces  its 
line  of  bishops  back  to  the  primitive  ages,  before  the  Roman  usurpa- 
tions and  corruptions  ;  between  which,  and  the  extremes  of  secession 
and  dissension,  it  seeks  to  pursue  the  narrow  path  of  truth.  Its 
Liturgy,  or  Book  of  Common  Prayer,  was  compiled  by  the  early 
Reformers ;  its  materials  being  drawn  from  the  Bible,  or  transmitted 
from  the  primitive  ages  of  the  Christian  church ;  and  its  doctrines 
are  strictly  evangelical,  adopting  neither  the  views  of  Calvin,  nor 
those  of  Arminius  exclusively,  but  conforming  to  the  Bible  alone. 
The  first  settlers  of  the  United  States,  at  Jamestown,  Va.,  with  their 
clergyman,  Mr.  Hunt,  were  Episcopalians. 

The  Presbyterians,  are  Protestants,  who  reject  the  office  of 
bishops ;  and  contend  that  the  words  fruaxortos,  or  bishop,  and  ytpea- 
fivtspos,  or  elder,  signify  one  and  the  same  grade  of  ministers.  Their 
pastors,  accordingly,  are  ordained  by  the  laying  on  of  hands  of  other 
ministers  of  equal  grade ;  and  their  church  government  is  vested  in 
an  assembly  of  delegates  from  the  churches.  The  General  Assem- 
bly, is  recognized  as  having  ecclesiastical  authority  over  all  the 
churches  which  it  represents,  or  which  are  represented  by  it.  The 
Church  of  Geneva,  founded  in  1533,  was  Presbyterian;  and  most 
of  the  Presbyterians  are  Calvinists.  This  form  of  government  was 
introduced  into  Scotland  by  John  Knox,  the  reformer,  after  his  visit 
to  Geneva  in  1555  ;  and  retained  by  the  Covenanters  both  of  1581, 
and  1643.  The  first  Presbyterian  church  in  the  United  States, 
appears  to  have  been  erected  in  Philadelphia,  in  1703  ;  and  the  first 
Presbytery  was  organized  in  the  following  year.  Each  presbytery 
consists  of  several  churches  ;  and  several  Presbyteries,  associated, 
compose  a  synod. 

The  Congre Rationalists,  are  so  called  because  they  believe  each 
church  or  parish  to  be  entirely  independent  of  all  others  ;  its  mem- 
bers having  a  right  to  select  and  ordain  their  own  minister.  They 
admit  however  of  a  fellowship  and  association  of  the  churches,  on 
purely  republican  principles  ;  the  name  Independents,  though  some- 
times given  to  all  this  denomination,  being  properly  applicable  only 
to  those  who  decline  such  association.  Their  tenets  are  generally 
Calvinistic  ;  though  some  Unitarians  claim  the  name  of  Congrega- 
tionalists.  The  first  church  of  this  sect,  founded  in  England  in  1602, 
by  John  Robinson,  was  driven  by  persecution  to  Holland,  and  some 


CHRISTIANITY.  157 

of  its  members  were  the  first  settlers  of  Plymouth,  New  England. 
Another  church  was  formed  in  England,  in  1616,  under  Mr.  Jacobs  ; 
and  the  name  Puritans,  previously  applied  to  various  dissenters, 
was  afterwards  applied  to  this  denomination. 

The  name  Baptists,  is  applied  to  those  Christians  who  require 
that  baptism  should  be  performed  by  immersion,  as  an  essential 
requisite  to  church  communion.  Like  the  ancient  Anabaptists,  they 
object  to  the  baptizing  of  infants.  Their  peculiar  doctrines  have  been 
maintained  by  individuals,  from  the  earliest  ages ;  but  they  first  became 
prominent,  at  the  Reformation,  among  the  Mennonites,  or  followers  of 
Menno,  a  reformer,  who  began  to  preach  in  Germany,  in  1537.  In 
England,  the  sect  of  General  Baptists  arose  as  early  as  1611,  under 
Mr.  Smith ;  but  the  Particular  or  Calvinistic  Baptists  appear  to 
have  separated  from  the  Independents,  in  1638,  under  their  leader, 
Mr.  Jesse.  The  first  Baptist  Church  in  the  United  States  was 
founded  by  Roger  Williams,  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  in  1639; 
and  the  Baptists  are  now  the  most  numerous  denomination  in  the 
United  States. 

The  Methodists,  are  the  followers  of  Mr.  John  Wesley,  who 
first  organized  a  class  of  this  sect  in  1739,  aided  by  Mr.  Whitefield. 
Their  doctrines  are  mostly  those  of  the  Church  of  England  ;  but 
leaning  rather  to  Arminianism ;  though  Mr.  Whitefield  favored  the 
doctrines  of  Calvin.  They  acknowledge  the  authority  of  bishops, 
and  style  themselves  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  name 
Methodist  was  first  applied  to  Mr.  Charles  Wesley,  from  the  sedate- 
ness  and  regularity  of  his  life ;  and  the  Methodists  aspire  to  moral 
perfection  or  freedom  from  sin.  The  first  Methodist  class  in  the 
United  States,  was  formed  in  the  city  of  New  York,  by  Mr.  Philip 
Embury,  in  1766;  and  the  Methodists  now  rank  second  in  numbers, 
among  the  religious  denominations  of  our  country. 

The  Unitarians,  in  opposition  to  the  Trinitarians,  maintain  that 
Christ  was  a  created  being,  dependent  on  the  Father ;  that  the  Holy 
Ghost  is  not  a  distinct  person  or  essence  ;  and  that  the  Father  alone 
is  truly  and  properly  God.  The  Socinians,  or  followers  of  Laelius 
Socinus,  who  died  in  1562,  and  of  Faustus  Socinus,  his  nephew, 
who  died  in  1604,  maintain  farther  that  Christ  was  a  mere  man, 
who  had  no  existence  before  he  appeared  on  earth ;  and  they 
acknowledge  him  only  as  a  moral  teacher,  though  divinely  ap- 
pointed. Many  of  the  Unitarians  are  also  Socinians.  They  all 
reject  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  atonement  for  the  sins  of  men ; 
making  our  own  good  works  the  sole  ground  of  divine  acceptance  ; 
and  many  of  them  believe  that  all  men  will  be  saved.  These  prin- 
ciples date  back  to  the  time  of  Arius  and  Pelagins ;  but  the  Unita- 
rians first  appeared  as  a  modern  sect,  in  Poland,  about  1565;  in 
England,  under  Mr.  Biddle,  as  early  as  1660 ;  and  in  the  United 
States,  under  Dr.  Mayhew,  as  early  as  1756.  The  Universalists 
generally  believe  in  the  Trinity;  but  maintain  that  all  mankind 
will  be  saved,  however  sinful  their  lives  may  have  been.  Those 
who  believe  that  the  wicked  will  be  punished  for  a  certain  time, 
before  they  are  beatified,  are  called  Restorationists  ;  and  their  doc- 
trine has  been  attributed  to  Origen,  one  of  the  Christian  Fathers. 

0 


158  THEOLOGY. 

The  first  professedly  Universalist  Church  in  the  United  States,  was 
organized  at  Gloucester,  Mass.,  under  Mr.  Murray,  in  1779. 

The  Moravians,  or  United  Brethren,  are  a  branch  of  the  persecuted 
Waldenses ;  but  their  present  organization  was  effected  by  Count 
Zinzendorf  in  1727,  when  they  had  settled  the  village  of  Hernhut  on 
his  estate  in  the  east  of  Saxony.  Hence  they  are  sometimes  called 
Hernhuters.  They  are  a  small  but  devoted  and  evangelical  denomi- 
nation. The  Swedenborgians,  or  New  Jerusalem  Church,  are 
followers  of  Emanuel  Swedenborg,  a  Swedish  baron,  who  died  in 
1772.  He  professed  to  have  received  a  new  revelation,  of  the  true 
meaning  of  the  Scriptures,  which  he  interpreted  in  a  mystical  sense ; 
and  he  held  to  a  spiritual  communion  with  angels  and  departed 
friends,  as  a  source  of  consolation  and  improvement.  The  Quakers, 
or  Friends,  are  the  associates  and  followers  of  George  Fox,  who  first 
began  to  preach  their  doctrines,  about  1648.  They  believe  in  the 
Trinity,  but  reject  the  Sacraments,  and  allow  any  of  their  members 
to  preach,  who  think  themselves  moved  by  the  Holy  Spirit.  The 
Hicksites,  who  have  seceded  from  the  Orthodox  Quakers,  incline  to 
the  doctrines  of  the  Socinians.  The  first  society  of  Quakers  in  the 
United  States  was  founded  by  William  Penn.  The  sect  called 
Christians,  or  the  Christian  Connexion,  originated  about  the  year 
1800,  among  seceders  from  various  other  denominations  ;  their  lead- 
ing tenet  being  entire  freedom  of  opinion  in  all  religious  matters. 
They  have  no  established  creed  :  but  profess  to  make  the  Bible  their 
sole  guide ;  leaving  every  individual  to  interpret  it  according  to  his 
own  judgment. 


SECOND  PROVINCE; 

ETHNOLOGY. 


IN  the  province  of  Ethnology,  we  include  the  study  of  Nations, 
geographically  and  historically ;  having  regard  to  their  location  and 
strength;  their  institutions  and  customs;  their  origin  and  history; 
their  distinguished  men  ;  and  their  imaginative  literature  ;  these  last 
topics  being  very  closely  connected  with  the  preceding.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  Greek,  tOvos,  a  nation  ;  and  xoyoj,  a  discourse. 
In  this  province,  we  comprehend  the  departments  of  Geography, 
including  Statistics,  and  Voyages  and  Travels ;  Chronography,  or 
Civil  History  and  Antiquities ;  Biography,  relating  to  the  lives  of 
Eminent  men :  and  Callography,  or  the  study  of  Poetry,  Romance, 
and  similar  miscellaneous  literature.  The  reasons  for  placing  these 
departments  in  this  order,  and  in  this  province,  we  have  already 
briefly  explained,  [p.  34]. 


159 


V.  DEPARTMENT: 

GEOGRAPHY. 


IN  the  department  of  Geography,  we  would  comprise  a  general 
description  of  the  earth ;  and  especially  of  the  nations  by  which  it  is 
inhabited  ;  in  reference  to  their  position  and  extent;  their  productions 
and  resources ;  their  institutions  and  improvements  ;  their  manners 
and  customs  ;  and  including  the  subjects  of  Statistics,  and  Voyages 
and  Travels.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek,  7^,  the  earth  ;  and  ypa<j>«, 
I  describe;  or  ypa^,  a  description:  and  it  is  a  term  which  admits  of 
indefinite  extension ;  since  in  describing  a  nation,  allusion  must  be 
made  to  its  language,  laws,  and  religion,  arts  and  literature ;  and  in 
treating  of  the  earth  and  its  productions,  we  might  include  the  whole 
range  of  the  physical  sciences.  The  propriety,  however,  of  restricting 
the  term  to  a  single  department  of  human  knowledge,  as  above  defined, 
instead  of  extending  it  to  comprehend  the  whole,  will,  we  think,  be 
self-evident :  and  for  this  department,  we  have  adopted  the  present 
name,  in  compliance  with  popular  usage,  and  to  avoid  the  necessity 
of  coining  another ;  even  though  one  more  definite  might  be  found. 

Geography  is  properly  subdivided  into  Mathematical,  which 
describes  the  form,  imaginary  circles,  and  different  modes  of  repre- 
senting the  earth ;  Physical,  which  relates  to  its  structure,  and  ele- 
mental changes,  and  to  its  natural  productions ;  Topographical,  which 
relates  to  places,  and  their  situation,  as  shown  by  maps  and  gazet- 
teers ;  Statistical,  which  relates  to  the  extent,  strength,  and  resources 
of  nations  ;  Civil,  which  relates  to  nations,  in  regard  to  their  man- 
ners and  customs,  forms  of  religion  and  government,  and  progress  in 
improvements ;  and  Historical,  or  Progressive  Geography,  which 
treats  of  discovery  and  colonization ;  and  changes  of  names  or  of 
boundaries,  of  places  and  states.  Strictly  speaking,  Mathematical, 
and  Physical  Geography,  belong  to  the  studies  of  Natural  Philosophy, 
and  Natural  History ;  but  as  some  knowledge  of  them  is  necessary 
for  the  understanding  of  the  other  divisions,  we  shall  here  treat  briefly 
of  them,  as  an  Introduction  to  the  main  subject ;  presupposing  the 
slight  mathematical  knowledge  required  for  their  comprehension. 

The  propriety  of  considering  Statistics  as  subordinate  to,  and  a 
part  of,  Geography,  will,  we  think,  be  sufficiently  evident ;  though 
some  German  writers  have  so  enlarged  ils  boundaries,  as  to  leave 
little  to  Geography  besides  the  name.  Statistics  first  received  its 
name  and  systematic  form,  from  Prof.  Achenwall,  at  Gottingen,  in 
1749 ;  and  the  term  has  been  but  recently  introduced  into  English 
works.  It  relates  especially  to  the  strength  and  resources  of  nations : 
and  collects  from  Geography,  all  the  data  which  bear  upon  this  point. 
The  classification  of  Voyages  and  Travels,  as  a  part  of  Geography, 
nnd  as  the  sources  from  which  systematic  works  on  this  department, 
160 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  161 

have  been  chiefly  compiled,  we  think  all  general  scholars  must  ap- 
prove. We  might,  in  this  course,  treat  separately,  the  subjects  of 
Ancient  Geography,  Modern  Geography,  Statistics,  and  Voyages  and 
Travels  ;  but  we  prefer,  for  the  sake  of  unity,  the  Ethnographical 
method,  of  comprehending  every  thing  which  relates  to  one  country 
or  division  of  the  world,  under  one  head. 

The  General  History  of  Geography,  is  itself  a  subject  of  much 
interest.  The  earliest  Geographical  records  which  have  been  pre- 
served, are  the  Pentateuch,  and  other  Hebrew  Scriptures.  They 
contain  much  information  concerning  Judea,  and  the  neighboring 
regions ;  and  the  division  of  Canaan  among  the  tribes  of  Israel.  Next 
to  these,  are  the  poems  of  Homer  and  Hesiod  ;  and  the  historical 
books  of  Herodotus,  compiled  in  part  from  his  own  travels.  The 
world,  as  known  in  his  time,  445  B.  C.,  comprehended  only  the 
regions  bordering  on  the  Mediterranean,  Black,  Caspian,  and  Red 
Seas;  extending  to  Ethiopia  in  the  south,  and  to  India  in  the  east. 
The  Phoenicians,  from  Tyre  and  Sidon,  had  explored  the  whole 
Mediterranean,  as  early  as  1000  B.C.;  and  we  have  still  an  account 
of  the  Periplus  or  voyage  of  Hanno,  the  Carthaginian,  as  far  south 
as  Guinea,  about  500  B.  C. ;  and  of  that  of  Pytheas  of  Marseilles,, 
who  ventured  by  sea,  300  B.  C.,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  Britain, 
and  thence  to  Ultima  Thule,  which  was  probably  the  southern  ex- 
tremity of  Norway.*  More  will  be  said  of  Voyages  and  Travels, 
in  treating  of  the  Grand  Divisions  of  the  earth. 

The  earliest  regular  Geographies,  now  extant,  are  those  of  Strabof 
who  wrote  in  Greek,  and  died  A.  D.  25;  and  of  Pomponius  Mela, 
who  wrote  in  Latin,  about  A.  D.  50.  They  both  describe  the  world 
as  then  known,  including  Britain,  and  Germany.  Much  Geographi- 
cal information  is  also  found  in  the  writings  of  Aristotle,  and  in  the 
Natural  History  of  the  elder  Pliny ;  but  the  best  ancient  Geography 
was  that  of  Ptolemy,  (Ptolemaeus),  who  died  A.  D.  150.  It  is  in 
eight  books,  forming  part  of  his  Great  System,  (MeyOKy  Swr'attj), 
called  by  the  Arabians,  the  Almagest ;  and  it  is  the  first  work  in 
which  places  were  defined  by  their  latitude  and  longitude,  as  proposed 
by  Hipparchus,  who  died  125  B.  C.  The  best  Arabian  Geographies 
are  those  of  Edrisi,  and  Abulfeda ;  and  the  first  modern  European 
geographer,  was  Guido  of  Ravenna,  who  flourished  about  A.  D.  1500- 
The  first  General  Map,  which  we  can  mention,  was  that  of  Eratos- 
thenes, 270  B.  C.;  and  the  best  ancient  Atlas,  was  that  of  rfgatho- 
dxmon,  prepared  for  the  great  work  of  Ptolemy.  The  famous 
Peutinger  Table,  was  a  map  of  the  military  roads  of  the  Visigoths, 
compiled  as  early  as  A.  D.  1190.  The  invention  of  the  Terrestrial 
Globe,  is  attributed  to  Anaximander,  about  580  B.  C.;  and  the  first 
modern  one  is  said  to  have  been  constructed  by  Martin  Behaim, 
(Behem,  Behin,  or  Boehme),  of  Nuremberg,  as  early  as  1492. 

A  few  words  on  Mathematical  Geography,  are  all  which  we  have 
room  here  to  offer.  The  earth  is  a  large  globe,  or  rather  an  oblate 
spheroid ;  revolving  on  an  imaginary  axis,  which  passes  through  its 
centre,  and  terminates  at  the  north  and  south  poles.  That  great  cir- 
cle on  the  earth's  surface,  which  runs  east  and  west,  at  an  equal 

*  The  Thule  of  Agricola,  was  one  of  the  Shetland  Islands. 
21  o2 


162  GEOGRAPHY. 

distance  from  both  the  poles,  is  called  the  equator.  The  earth's 
polar  diameter  is  7899  miles ;  its  equatorial  diameter  7925  miles  ; 
and  its  mean  circumference  24,856  miles.  Its  mean  distance  from 
the  sun  is  about  95,000,000  miles  ;  and  it  revolves  around  the  sun 
in  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  and  48  seconds  ;  that  is,  from  the 
vernal  equinox  to  this  same  point  again.  The  tropics,  are  two 
small  circles,  each  23°  28'  from  the  equator ;  that  of  Cancer  being 
on  the  north,  and  that  of  Capricorn  on  the  south.  The  polar  cir- 
cles, are  two  other  imaginary  circles,  at  the  same  distance,  or  23° 
28'  from  the  poles;  the  Arctic  lying  around  the  north,  and  the 
Antarctic  around  the  south  pole.  The  distance  of  these  circles 
from  the  poles,  and  from  the  equator,  is  determined  by  the  inclina- 
tion of  the  earth's  axis  to  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  that  is,  the  path  which 
it  describes  annually  around  the  sun. 

These  and  other  small  circles,  running  due  east  and  west,  each  one 
of  them  being  everywhere  equidistant  from  the  equator,  are  called 
parallels  of  latitude  ;  .while  great  circles  passing  through  the  poles, 
and  crossing  the  equator  at  right  angles,  are  called  meridians.  Lati- 
tude, is  distance  measured  north  or  south  from  the  equator;  and 
longitude,  is  distance  east  or  west,  from  some  selected  first  meridian  ; 
both  being  measured  in  degrees  and  minutes.  The  ancients  sup- 
posed the  earth  to  have  a  greater  extent  eastward  and  westward,  than 
to  the  north  and  south.  Hence,  distance  eastward  or  westward,  they 
called  longitude,  or  length ;  while  distance  towards  the  north  or 
south,  they  termed  latitude  or  breadth.*  The  ecliptic,  is  a  great 
circle,  fixed  in  the  heavens,  but  movable  on  the  earth's  surface  ; 
and  always  crossing  the  equator  at  an  angle  of  23°  28' ;  it  being  the 
intersection  of  the  plane  of  the  earth's  orbit  with  the  earth's  surface ; 
or  with  the  celestial  sphere,  supposed  to  be  at  an  infinite  distance 
from  the  earth,  on  every  side.  A  map,  is  a  representation  of  either 
the  whole,  or  a  part,  of  the  earth's  surface  on  a  plane ;  and  a  chart, 
is  either  a  nautical  map,  or  a  map  on  a  cylindrical  projection,  which 
represents  the  meridians  as  parallel  straight  lines,  and  thus  magnifies 
the  parts  towards  the  poles.  The  data  for  maps  are  obtained  from 
Surveying  and  Practical  Astronomy;  but  the  principles  of  their  con- 
struction, belong  to  Descriptive  Geometry. 

On  Physical  Geography,  we  must  here  be  extremely  brief;  but 
more  will  be  said  on  this  subject,  in  the  province  of  Physiconomy. 
The  earth  rotates,  or  turns  on  its  axis,  once  in  24  hours ;  thereby 
causing  the  alternation  of  day  and  night :  and  it  revolves  around  the 
sun  once  in  a  year,  which  period  of  time  it  measures  by  this  motion. 
Its  annual  path  or  orbit,  is  a  plane  curve,  nearly  circular,  but  slightly 
elliptical ;  and  its  axis  is  oblique  to  its  orbit,  but  continues  nearly 
parallel  to  itself;  always  pointing  towards  the  north  star  in  the  hea- 
vens, and  thus  causing  the  obliquity  of  the  equator  to  the  ecliptic. 
Hence,  in  our  summer,  the  north  pole  inclines  towards  the  sun, 
causing  long  and  warm  days ;  although  the  earth  is  then  farthest 
from  the  sun ;  but  in  our  winter  the  case  is  the  reverse.  Thus,  the 

*  This  idea  is  illustrated  by  Ptolemy's  Map  of  the  World,  (Plate  V.),  the  copy 
of  which  here  inserted  is  taken  from  the  one  in  Cernotis' translation  of  Ptole- 
my's Geography,  published  at  Venice,  in  1598. 


PLATE    V.       GEOGRAPHY. 


Engraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  163 

obliquity  of  the  earth's  axis  causes  the  changes  of  the  seasons,  and 
the  inequality  of  the  days  and  nights.  At  the  equator,  the  days 
and  nights  are  of  equal  length  throughout  the  year ;  but  in  all  other 
parts  of  the  earth  there  is  an  inequality,  which  continually  increases 
as  we  approach  the  poles.  In  latitude.  41°  21'  the  longest  day  is  15 
hours;  in  latitude  58°  25',  it  is  18  hours;  at  the  polar  circles  it  is 
24  hours  ;  and  at  each  pole  the  sun  continues  above  the  horizon  six 
months  at  a  time,  appearing  to  describe  a  horizontal  circle,  every 
day,  and  never  rising  higher  than  23°  28'. 

The  inequality  of  the  sun's  heat,  in  different  parts  of  the  earth, 
causes  the  difference  of  Climates ;  as  approximately  indicated  by 
the  different  zones.  The  torrid  zone  lies  between  the  tropics  ;  the 
temperate  zones  extend  from  the  tropics  to  the  polar  circles,  being 
designated  as  the  northern  and  southern  ;  and  the  frigid  zones  extend 
from  the  polar  circles  to  the  poles.  The  climate  of  the  Torrid  zone 
is  generally  hot ;  that  of  the  Temperate  zones,  warm  or  variable ; 
and  that  of  the  Frigid  zones,  intensely  cold.  Mountainous  regions 
are  always  colder  than  low  ones  ;  and  even  at  the  equator,  at  the 
height  of  three  miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  there  is  perpetual 
snow.  The  animal  and  vegetable  productions  of  the  earth,  vary 
with  the  climate  ;  having  reference,  of  course,  to  the  altitude  of  each 
locality.  The  smaller  and  more  hardy  animals  and  plants  are  gene- 
rally found  in  the  colder  regions  ;  and  the  larger  animals  and  plants, 
including  the  more  venomous  and  poisonous,  are  found  chiefly  in  the 
torrid  zone.  Of  these,  however,  and  of  the  mineral  productions,  and 
internal  structure  of  the  earth,  we  must  defer  further  notice,  to  the 
department  of  Idiophysics. 

The  tides  in  the  ocean,  are  chiefly  caused  by  the  moon's  attrac- 
tion, as  it  revolves  around  the  earth;  but  partly  by  the  attraction  of 
the  sun.  Similar  tides  doubtless  exist  in  the  atmosphere,  or  vestment 
of  air,  which  surrounds  the  earth,  extending  to  the  height  of  40  or  45 
miles  on  every  side.  The  tides  follow  the  moon's  apparent  diurnal 
motion  from  east  to  west ;  and  are  generally  highest  at  any  place, 
about  two  hours  after  the  moon  has  crossed  the  meridian ;  there  being 
a  high  tide  directly  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth  at  the  same  time : 
but,  by  the  obstructions  which  the  land  presents,  they  are  subjected 
to  great  irregularities.  When  the  tide  is  rising  at  any  place,  it  is 
said  to  be  flood-tide ;  but  when  it  is  falling,  it  is  called  ebb-tide ; 
there  being  two  flood  tides,  and  two  ebbs  in  about  25  hours ;  and 
the  extremes  of  flood  and  ebb  being  called  high  and  low  water.  The 
highest  tide  in  the  world,  is  at  Cumberland  Head,  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy,  where  the  greatest  difference  between  high  and  low  water,  at 
spring  tides,  when  the  attractions  of  the  sun  and  moon  are  united, 
is  71  feet. 

The  air,  when  heated,  expands  and  rises  ;  while  colder  air  rushes 
in  below,  to  supply  its  place  ;  thus  producing  winds,  or  currents  of 
air.  The  trade-winds  extend  about  30°  on  each  side  of  the  equator, 
and  blow  towards  it,  because  it  is  in  the  warmest  region  ;  but  they  also 
incline  westward,  and,  along  the  equator,  blow  almost  directly  from 
the  east,  because  they  come  from  those  parts  of  the  earth  that  are  not 
moving  eastward  so  fast  as  the  equator  is,  by  the  earth's  diurnal 


164  GEOGRAPHY. 

rotation.  The  monsoons,  between  the  Himmaleh  Mountains  and 
Mountains  of  the  Moon,  blow  from  the  north-east  in  summer,  and 
from  the  south-west  in  winter ;  always  from  the  colder  to  the  warmer 
region.  The  hurricanes  of  the  West  Indies,  and  the  typhoons  of 
the  East  Indies,  are  also  produced  chiefly  by  the  action  of  heat ;  and 
the  simoom  or  samiel  of  the  eastern  deserts,  owes  its  deleterious 
effects  to  its  hotness,  and  dryness,  and  the  sand  which  it  bears  along. 
When  this  blast  is  felt  in  Italy,  it  is  called  the  sirocco ;  but  on  the 
western  coast  of  Africa,  it  is  named  harmattan.  The  farther  causes 
of  clouds,  rains,  and  storms,  must  be  reserved  for  the  study  of  Me- 
teorology; and  the  action  of  the  elements  upon  the  land",  will  be 
alluded  to  in  the  branch  of  Geology. 

To  Physical  Geography  belongs  a  description  of  the  different  races 
of  men  ;  of  which  there  are  five  principal :  the  European,  or  white  ; 
the  Asiatic,  or  yellow  ;  the  American,  or  red  ;  the  Malay,  or  brown  ; 
and  the  African,  or  black ;  all  of  which  are  here  arranged  according 
to  their  degree  of  civilization.  By  the  degree  of  civilization,  is 
meant  the  progress  of  any  race  or  people  in  arts  and  refinement.  Of 
these  degrees,  we  may  reckon  five;  the  enlightened,  civilized,  half 
civilized,  barbarous,  and  savage  ;  of  which  we  have  no  room  here  to 
speak  farther.  The  European  or  Caucasian  race  is  characterised  by 
a  lighter  complexion  ;  a  more  oval  face  ;  and  generally  by  a  greater 
degree  of  intelligence  and  refinement,  than  the  other  races  possess. 
The  Asiatic  or  Tartar  race,  has  a  more  yellow  complexion  ;  a  face 
nearly  square,  with  dark  and  straight  hair,  full  cheeks,  and  small 
eyes ;  and  this  race  ranks  second  in  intellectual  power  and  improve- 
ment. The  Malay  race,  much  resembles  the  Asiatic  ;  but  has  a 
brown  or  tawny  complexion  ;  and  is  generally  inferior  to  the  Asiatic 
race,  in  the  mental  scale.  The  American  or  Indian  race,  is  charac- 
terised by  a  copper-colored  complexion;  straight,  black  hair;  low 
forehead,  and  very  prominent  cheek  bones ;  and  this  race  is  gene- 
rally found  in  a  half  civilized  or  barbarous  state.  The  African,  or 
Negro  race,  is  distinguished  by  a  black  or  dark  complexion,  short 
curly  hair,  receding  forehead,  and  prominent  cheeks  ;  and  it  holds 
the  lowest  place  in  the  scale  of  improvement. 

We  shall  close  this  introduction  with  a  glance  over  General  Topo- 
graphical Geography,  or  the  natural  features  of  the  earth.  More 
than  two-thirds  of  the  earth's  surface  is  covered  with  water ;  the 
largest  bodies  of  which  are  called  oceans  ;  five  in  number.  The 
Arctic  Ocean  surrounds  the  north  pole  ;  and  the  Austral  or  Antarctic 
Ocean,  surrounds  the  south  pole  ;  this  name  being  usually  applied  to 
that  portion  of  the  continuous  waters,  which  lies  beyond  the  50th 
degree  of  south  latitude.  The  Pacific  Ocean  is  about  11,000  miles 
wide  ;  and  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  Oceans  are  each  about  3000 
miles  wide,  at  their  widest  part.  A  sea  is  a  large  body  of  water, 
next  in  size  to  an  ocean ;  and  a  gulf  or  bay,  is  usually  a  smaller 
body  of  water,  also  partly  enclosed  by  land  :  but  the  terms  sea,  gulf, 
and  bay,  have  been  applied  in  many  cases  without  discrimination. 
A  strait,  is  a  narrow  passage,  and  a  channel,  a  wider  passage  of 
water,  between  two  larger  portions  :  and  a  shallow  passage  is  called 
*  sound.  A  harbor,  is  a  small  bay,  where  ships  are  sheltered  by 


ASIATIC.  165 

.  ^  .  ,_^ 

surrounding  land  ;  and  a  road,  is  an  outer  harbor,  or  place  of  anchor- 
age. A  lake,  is  a  body  of  water  quite  surrounded  by  land,  and 
usually  fresh  ;  salt  lakes  being  mostly  called  seas.  A  river,  is  a  large 
stream  of  water,  formed  by  the  union  of  smaller  streams  or  brooks, 
and  flowing  from  the  higher  lands  into  some  ocean,  sea,  or  lake. 

The  land  consists  principally  of  two  Continents  or  vast  regions, 
not  completely  divided  by  water.  The  Eastern  Continent  comprises 
three  grand  divisions,  Asia,  Europe,  and  Africa ;  and  the  Western 
Continent  or  America,  comprises  two,  North  and  South  America. 
If  to  these  we  add  Oceanica,  a  name  applied  by  Malte-Brun  to  the 
islands  south  and  east  of  Asia,  we  shall  have  six  grand  divisions  of 
the  land  ;  each  including  the  adjacent  islands.  An  island,  is  a  smaller 
body  of  land,  surrounded  by  water.  Islands  may  be  regarded  as 
mountains  or  highlands,  projecting  above  water ;  as  lakes  are  val- 
leys or  lowlands,  overflowed.  A  mountain,  is  a  lofty  portion  of 
land,  forming  either  an  insulated  peak,  or  a  continuous  range,  or 
chain.  A  volcano,  is  a  mountain  which,  either  continually  or  at 
intervals,  emits  fire,  smoke,  and  lava ;  serving  as  a  chimney  to  the 
subterranean  fires.  Its  conical  aperture,  is  called  a  crater.  Of  more 
than  200  known  volcanoes,  about  one-half  are  found  in  America. 

A  basin  or  valley,  is  an  extent  of  country  bounded  by  mountains 
or  highlands,  and  watered  by  a  single  river,  with  its  branches.  A 
plain,  is  a  level  region;  whether  low,  as  the  prairies,  savannas,  or 
pampas  of  America  ;  or  elevated,  as  the  steppes  of  Asia.  A  desert, 
is  a  region  which,  whether  sandy,  dry,  or  cold,  is  destitute  of  vege- 
tation. An  isthmus,  is  a  narrow  neck  of  land,  connecting  two  larger 
portions.  A  peninsula,  is  a  portion  of  land  almost  surrounded  by 
water,  but  connected  with  some  larger  portion  ;  as  Africa,  and  South 
America.  A  cape,  is  a  point  of  land  projecting  into  the  sea  ;  and  a 
high  precipitous  cape  is  called  a  promontory.  The  land  is  subdi- 
vided by  mankind  into  countries,  occupied  by  different  nations  ; 
these,  again,  into  states,  provinces,  cantons,  or  departments ;  and 
these  are  often  subdivided  into  smaller  portions,  under  various  names  ; 
containing  cities,  towns,  and  villages  ;  the  fruits  of  civilization.  Of 
edifices,  roads,  canals,  and  other  works  of  art  we  shall  speak  farther 
in  the  province  of  Technology. 

We  proceed  to  treat  more  particularly  of  Geography,  under  the  six 
Grand  Divisions,  of  Asia  ;  Europe  ;  Africa  ;  North  America  ;  South 
America ;  and  Oceanica. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ASIATIC    GEOGRAPHY. 


ASIA,  the  largest  grand  division  of  the  earth,  was  the  cradle  of 
mankind,  and  the  seat  of  some  of  the  earliest  empires  mentioned  in 
history.  Central  Asia  became  known  to  the  Greeks,  by  the  expedi- 
tions of  Alexander;  and  Thibet  and  Hindoostan  were  known  to  the 
Romans  ;  the  latter  by  means  of  the  navigation  from  the  Red  Sea  to 


166 


GEOGRAPHY. 


India,  which  commenced  nearly  at  the  Christian  Era.  China  be- 
came slightly  known  to  the  Romans,  at  a  later  period ;  and  to  the 
Arabians,  as  early  as  A.  D.  850.  Western  Asia  became  better  known 
to  Europe  by  means  of  the  Crusades  ;  and  Eastern  Asia,  by  the 
Travels  of  Marco  Polo,  (or  Paulo),  the  Venetian,  1271-97;  of 
Schildberger,  a  German  soldier,  in  1396  and  after;  and  of  Mande- 
ville,  an  Englishman,  1327-66,  whose  statements,  however,  are 
doubtful.  The  discovery  of  the  southern  passage  to  India  by  Vasco 
De  Gama,  in  1498,  led  to  a  farther  knowledge  of  the  East,  and  the 
establishment  of  Portuguese  settlements  in  Hindoostan.  Sequeira 
sailed  to  Chin-India  in  1510;  China  was  first  visited  by  sea,  by 
Andrade,  in  1517;  and  Japan  was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in 
1542.  The  English,  under  Willoughby,  in  1544 ;  and  the  Dutch 
navigators,  in  1596,  attempted  a  passage  through  the  Arctic  Ocean  to 
India;  but  both  failed.  The  Cossack  Deshnew,  is  said  to  have 
sailed  from  the  north,  through  Behring's  Straits,  in  1648  ;  but  this 
passage  was  named  from  the  Russian  Capt.  Behring,  (or  Beering), 
who  visited  it  in  1726.  Of  later  Asiatic  voyages  and  travels,  we  have 
no  room  here  to  speak ;  but  some  of  them  will  be  referred  to,  in  the 
Bibliographical  Catalogue,  appended  to  this  work. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  the  extent  in  square  miles,  and  number 
of  inhabitants  of  the  different  countries  of  Asia,  as  nearly  as  we  can 
ascertain. 


Countries.          Sq.  Miles.      Inhabitants 
Asiatic  Turkey..    460,000.    11,000,000 


Arabia 1,000,000. 

Persia 480,000. 


9,000,000 
10,000,000 


East  Persia 470,000 .    1 1 ,000,000 

Hindoostan 1,200,000 . 130,000,000 

Chin-India 850,000 .    30,000,000 

China* 1,500,000 . 250,000,000 


Countries.           Sq  Miles.  Inhabitants. 

Corea 80.000.  6,000,000 

Thibet 450,000.  10,000,000 

Chinese  Tartary  3,000,000.  16,000,000 


Indpt.  Tartary  . .    700,000. 
Asiatic  Russia.  .5,300,000. 


7,000,000 
10,000,000 


Japanf 280,000.   20,000,000 

TOTAL 15,770,000 . 520,000,000 


We  proceed  to  treat  of  the  different  countries  in  Asia,  in  the  order 
above  named. 

§  1.  The  south-western  portion  of  Asia,  extending  to  Hindoostan, 
was  probably  the  first  inhabited  portion  of  the  earth.  Its  productions 
are  wheat,  rice,  figs,  olives,  and  grapes ;  oil,  wine,  and  silk.  The 
travelling  is  generally  performed  in  caravans,  on  camels,  especially 
over  the  deserts,  though  the  finest  horses  are  found  in  Arabia.  In  all 
this  region  the  Mohamedan  religion  still  prevails ;  and  females  are 
held  in  a  state  of  seclusion,  almost  amounting  to  slavery.  Asiatic 
Turkey/,  in  the  extreme  west  of  Asia,  comprehends  the  ancient  Asia 
Minor,  in  the  west ;  Armenia,  in  the  north-east ;  Mesopotamia,  be- 
tween the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris  ;  Assyria,  east  of  the  Tigris ; 
and  Babylonia  and  Chaldea,  around  the  mouths  of  the  Euphrates  ; 
the  latter  being  farthest  south ;  though  these  names  are  sometimes 
confounded.  The  ancient  city  of  Babylon  was  on  the  Euphrates,  at 
some  distance  from  its  mouth;  and  Nineveh  or  Ninus  was  far  up  the 

*  The  population  of  China  is  variously  stated,  at  from  150  to  350  millions  of  in- 
habitants. We  think  a  medium  statement  the  safest. 

f  The  other  Islands  lying  near  Asia,  on  the  south  and  east,  are  included  in 
Oceanica. 


ASIATIC.  167 

Tigris.  Mount  Ararat,  on  which  the  ark  rested  after  the  flood,  is 
supposed  to  be  in  Armenia.  Asia  Minor,  between  the  Mediterra- 
nean and  the  Pontus  Euxinus,  now  called  the  Black  Sea,  contained 
the  states  of  Pontus,  in  the  north-east ;  Paphlagonia,  and  Bithynia 
in  the  north ;  Mysia,  Lydia  and  Curia  in  the  west ;  Lycia,  Pam- 
phylia  and  Cilicia  in  the  south;  Cappadocia  in  the  east;  and 
Phrygia  and  Galatia  in  the  interior.  The  ancient  city  of  Troy,  or 
Ilium,  was  in  Mysia;  and  the  cities  of  the  seven  churches,  were 
in  or  near  the  western  part  of  Asia  Minor.  Smyrna,  is  still  the 
largest  city  in  Asiatic  Turkey  ;  Erzerum,  the  next;  and  Bagdad,  on 
the  Tigris,  was  long  the  capital  of  the  Caliphs.  The  region  between 
the  Caucasus  Mountains  and  the  Black  Sea,  inhabited  by  the  tribe  of 
Kurds,  (or  Curds),  is  sometimes  called  Kurdistan.  The  islands  of 
Cyprus,  and  Rhodes,  (Rhodus),  south  of  Asia  Minor,  retain  their  an- 
cient names  ;  and  still  belong  to  the  Turkish  Empire,  of  which  more 
will  be  said  in  treating  of  Europe. 

Syria,  lies  along  the  east  end  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea,  which 
portion,  with  the  adjacent  region,  is  often  called  the  Levant.  Syria 
now  comprehends  the  ancient  Phoenicia,  or  land  of  the  cities  Tyre 
and  Sidon ;  and  south  of  it,  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land,  extending 
to  Arabia  Petraea  in  the  south-west.  It  contains  the  ancient  Palmyra, 
or  Tadmor,  in  the  east;  Balbec,  (Baalbec),  or  Heliopolis,  toward  the 
west;  Damascus,  south-south-east  of  Balbec;  and  Antioch  in  the 
north-west.  Palestine,  the  ancient  Canaan,  comprehended  Persea, 
and  farther  north  Batansea,  both  east  of  the  river  Jordan  :  Galilee 
in  the  north-west ;  Samaria  south  of  it,  and  Judsea  in  the  south- 
west, between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Lake  Asphaltites,  or  Dead 
Sea.  Jerusalem  or  Hierosolyma,  the  capital  of  Palestine,  was  in 
the  northern  part  of  Judasa ;  and  Samaria,  was  in  the  northern  part 
of  the  province  to  which  it  gave  name.  The  Twelve  Tribes  of  Is- 
rael, and  their  location  in  Palestine,  we  have  no  room  here  to  men- 
tion, (p.  161).  Damascus,  is  still  the  largest  city  in  Syria,  but  Aleppo, 
not  far  from  ancient  Antioch,  is  the  capital.  Syria  belongs  at  present 
to  the  Turkish  Empire ;  having  been  recently  recovered  from  the 
Pacha  of  Egypt,  by  the  aid  of  other  European  Powers.  Bagdad 
constitutes  a  distinct  sultanry :  but  is  tributary  to  Turkey. 

Arabia,  like  Syria,  retains  its  ancient  name,  and  extent ;  reaching 
from  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  north-west,  to  the  Erythrseum  Mare, 
or  Sea  of  Arabia,  in  the  south-east;  and  from  the  Sinus  Jlrabicus,  or 
Red  Sea,  in  the  south-west,  to  the  Sinus  Persicus,  or  Persian  Gulf. 
It  is  usually  divided  into  Arabia  Petrsea,  or  the  stony,  including  the 
ancient  land  of  Edom,  or  Iclumea,  in  the  north-west;  Arabia  Felix, 
or  the  happy,  in  the  south  ;  and  Arabia  Deserta,  or  the  desert,  ex- 
tending from  the  centre  towards  the  east  and  north.  In  the  first  of 
these  divisions  are  the  mountains  Sinai,  and  Horeb,  near  the  Red 
Sea.  The  chief  cities  of  Arabia,  are  Mecca,  the  capital,  in  the  west ; 
Medina,  north  of  it ;  Sana  and  Mocha,  in  the  south ;  and  Muscat, 
which  has  its  own  sultan,  in  the  east.  Arabia  is  the  land  of  the 
ancient  Ishmaelites  ;  and  the  cradle  of  the  Mohamedan  religion.  It 
is  jjoverned  by  independent  chiefs ;  but  much  of  the  western  coast  is 
subject  to  the  Pacha  of  Egypt. 


168  GEOGRAPHY. 

Persia,  lies  east  of  Turkey,  between  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  Mare 
Caspium,  or  Caspian  Sea.  It  contains  the  ancient  Persia  proper,  in 
the  centre  and  south ;  part  of  Susiana,  in  the  west-south-west,  ex- 
tending to  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates  ;  Media,  in  the  north-west ; 
Hyrcania  and  Parthia,  in  the  north ;  and  Carmania,  in  the  south- 
east. The  ancient  Persepolis,  was  in  the  southern  part  of  Persia 
proper.  Ispahan,  the  ancient  Aspadana,  is  the  largest  city  ;  but 
Teheran,  farther  north,  is  now  the  capital.  Eastward  of  these  two 
cities  lies  the  Great  Salt  Desert,  extending  to  East  Persia.  Shiraz 
is  a  large  city  in  the  south ;  Tabreez  in  the  north-west ;  Meshid  in 
the  north-east;  and  Yezd  lies  eastward  of  Ispahan.  The  religion  of 
Persia  is  Mohamedan  ;  learning  and  the  arts  are  in  a  low  state ;  and 
the  government  is  monarchical;  the  Shah  having  despotic  power. 
East  Persia,  comprehends  the  ancient  Aria,  since  called  Khoras- 
san,  in  the  north  and  north-west ;  and  Gedrosia  in  the  south.  On 
the  north,  it  has  the  ancient  Paropamisan  mountains,  now  called 
Hindoo  Koosh;  and  it  extends  eastward  to  the  river  Indus.  It  is 
usually  divided  into  Afghanistan,  in  the  north ;  and  Beloochistan, 
in  the  south ;  so  named  from  the  Afghan,  and  Beloochee  tribes ;  both 
of  which  are  subdivided,  under  independent  chiefs.  The  chief  cities 
are  Cabul,  between  Candahar  and  Peshawur,  in  the  north-east ; 
Herat,  in  the  north-west,  and  Kelat,  in  the  south.  The  sovereigns 
are  tyrannical ;  but  the  whole  country  is  in  a  very  unsettled  state ; 
the  fortress  of  Ghiznee,  which  was  the  ancient  capital,  called  Ghazna, 
not  far  south  of  Cabul,  having  been  taken,  in  1839,  by  an  English 
and  native  army  from  Hindoostan. 

§2.  The  Indies,  or  East  Indies,  so  called  for  ages  past,  com- 
prehend Hindoostan,  and  the  peninsula  east  of  it,  now  named  Chin 
India.  They  are  the  land  of  sugar  and  rice,  cotton  and  silk,  coffee 
and  spices,  which  have  long  been  objects  of  commerce  to  more 
western  nations.  The  elephant  is  there  a  beast  of  burthen  ;  and  the 
tiger  and  anaconda  prowl  in  the  luxuriant  groves  of  the  bamboo, 
banyan,  or  palm.  The  religion  is  Paganism,  and  the  people  are 
degraded  by  gross  superstition ;  but  numerous  missionaries  are  there, 
striving  to  diffuse  the  light  of  science  and  of  Christianity. 

Hindoostan,  was  called  from  remote  times,  India  within  the 
Ganges  ;  extending  on  the  east  to  the  Sinus  Gangeticus,  or  Bay  of 
Bengal.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the  Ganges  in  the  east ;  and  the  Indus, 
or  Sind,  on  the  western  frontier.  The  Himmaleh  or  Himalaya 
mountains,  on  the  north,  are  the  highest  known ;  Choumalarie,  the 
loftiest  peak,  being  nearly  five  and  a  half  miles  high.  Ceylon,  south 
of  Hindoostan,  is  its  principal  island.  The  eastern  and  southern 
parts  of  Hindoostan  are  subject  to  the  British  ;  and  the  other  parts 
are  under  separate  chiefs,  most  of  whom  are  tributary  to  Great  Bri- 
tain ;  so  that  nearly  all  Hindoostan  is  under  British  control ;  acquired 
through  the  agency  of  the  East  India  Company,  which  has  an  army 
of  200,000  men,  and  a  revenue  of  about  $100,000,000.  Among  the 
cities  subject  to  it,  are  Calcutta,  the  capital ;  Patna,  and  Benares, 
on  the  Ganges;  Madras,  in  the  south-east;  and  Surat,  and  Bombay, 
in  the  west.  Delhi,  towards  the  north,  is  the  capital  of  the  Great 
Mogul,  who  is  now  a  petty  prince  :  Lucknow,  farther  east,  belongs 


ASIATIC.  169 

to  the  nabob  of  Oude ;  Lahore,  in  the  north,  is  the  capital  of  the 
Seiks  ;  and  Poona/i,  near  Bombay,  belongs  to  the  Mahrattas.  Gwa- 
lior,  south  of  Delhi  and  Agra,  is  said  to  be  the  capital  of  Scindiah, 
the  most  independent  of  the  Mahratta  chiefs  ;  and  Hyderabad  is  the 
capital  of  Sinde,  bordering  on  the  Indus.  Goa  belongs  to  the  Portu- 
guese ;  Pondicherry,  to  the  French ;  and  Tranquebar,  to  the  Danes. 
British  Hindoostan  has  a  governor  general,  appointed  by  the  sovereign 
of  Great  Britain.  The  Hindoos,  or  natives,  are  divided  into  heredi- 
tary castes ;  of  which  the  Brahmins  rank  the  highest ;  while  the  lower 
castes  are  in  a  very  degraded  state. 

Chin-India,  is  a  name  recently  given  to  the  region  previously 
called  India  beyvnd  the  Ganges  ;  extending  from  the  Bay  of  Ben- 
gal, on  the  west,  to  the  Sea  of  China,  on  the  east.  It  comprehends 
the  Birman  Empire,  including  Jlva  and  Pegu,  in  the  west ;  Siam, 
including  part  of  Laos,  in  the  centre ;  the  empire  of  tfnam,  or 
Annan,  in  the  east ;  and  Malacca,  in  the  south.  The  British  pos- 
sess Arracan,  in  the  north-west ;  and  some  parts  of  Malacca.  The 
empire  of  Anam  comprehends  Tonquin,  and  part  of  Laos,  in  the 
north;  Cochin  China,  in  the  south-east;  and  Cambodia,  in  the  south. 
The  largest  rivers  of  Chin-India,  are  the  Irrawaddy,  in  the  west ; 
and  the  Cambodia;  between  which  is  the  Meinam,  flowing  into  the 
Gulf  of  Siam.  The  chief  cities  are  Jlva,  Ummerapoora,  and  Ran- 
goon, in  Birmah  ;  the  latter  being  farthest  south  ;  Bankok,  in  Siam ; 
and  in  Anam,  are  Hue,  the  central  capital,  Kesho,  in  the  north,  and 
Saigon,  in  the  south.  The  Birmans  are  said  to  be  intelligent ;  the 
Siamese  deceitful ;  and  the  Malays  piratical.  The  religion  is  Boodh- 
ism,  and  the  governments  are  despotic. 

§  3.  The  Chinese  Empire,  includes  China,  Corea,  Thibet,  and 
Chinese  Tartary.  It  is  the  most  populous,  and  one  of  the  richest 
empires  known;  but  embraces  a  great  variety  of  people,  climate, 
and  productions.  The  southern  parts  of  this  empire  are  warm  and 
fertile  ;  but  the  northern,  are  cold  and  barren.  China  proper,  called 
Sinse  by  the  later  Romans,  extends  from  the  China  Sea,  northward 
to  the  Chinese  Wall ;  which  is  1500  miles  long,  and  was  built  2000 
years  ago,  as  a  defence  against  the  Tartars.  Its  chief  rivers  are  the 
Hoang-Ho,  in  the  north;  and  the  Kiang-Ku  or  Yang-Tse-Kiang, 
which  runs  eastward  through  the  centre,  and  is  nearly  2,800  miles 
long,  being  the  longest  in  Asia.  The  Imperial  Canal,  in  the  north- 
east, crossing  both  these  rivers,  is  500  miles  long,  and  the  longest  in 
the  world.  Hainan,  on  the  south,  Formosa,  on  the  south-east,  and 
the  Loo-Koo  (Leoo  Keoo,  or  Liu  Chiu)  Islands,  on  the  east,  belong 
to  China.  The  chief  cities  are  Pekin,  the  capital,  in  the  north-east, 
containing  1,500,000  inhabitants ;  Canton,  in  the  south  ;  and  Nankin, 
Sootchow,  Hangtchow,  (or  Hangtcheou),  and  Kingteching,  in  the 
east.  China  produces  rice,  cotton,  and  silk ;  supplies  the  world 
with  tea ;  and  excels  in  the  manufacture  of  porcelain.  The  religion 
is  chiefly  Boodhism  ;  the  government  is  despotic ;  and  the  learning 
of  the  Chinese  mostly  superficial. 

Corea,  east  of  the  Yellow  Sea,  is  a  small  peninsula,  tributary  to 
China.  Kingkitao  is  its  capital,  and  chief  city.  Thibet,  the  ancient 
Serica,  including  Boo  tan,  which  is  tributary  to  it,  lies  west  of 
22  P 


170  GEOGRAPHY. 

China,  and  extends  southward  to  the  Himmaleh  mountains.  The 
chief  rivers  of  China  and  Chin-India  rise  in  Thibet ;  and  the  Bur- 
rampooter  runs  through  it,  and  through  British  India,  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  Lassa  is  the  capital,  and  residence  of  the  Grand  Lama ; 
but  Jigagungar,  east  of  it,  is  said  to  be  the  largest  city. 

Chinese  Tartary,  to  which  alone  the  name  of  Tartary  properly 
belongs,  lies  north  of  Thibet,  China,  and  Corea ;  extending  north- 
ward to  the  Altaian  (or  Altay)  mountains  ;  and  eastward  to  the  Seas 
of  Japan  and  Okotsk.  It  is  divided  into  Mantchooria,  (or  Mand- 
shuria),  in  the  east ;  including  the  island  of  Seghalien  (or  Saghalien) ; 
Mongolia,  in  the  central  part ;  and  Soongaria,  Little  Bucharia,  and 
Little  Thibet,  in  the  west.  The  western  part  was  anciently  called 
Scythia  extra  Imaum  ;  being  beyond  the  mountains  of  Imaus,  in 
regard  to  the  Romans.  The  largest  river  of  this  region  is  the  <flmoor, 
(or  Saghalien),  in  the  east ;  and  the  great  desert  of  Gobi  (or  Shamo) 
occupies  much  of  the  interior;  being  2,000  miles  long.  Its  chief 
cities  are  Seghalien  and  Chin- Yang,  in  the  east;  Cashgar,  and 
Yarkand,  in  the  west.  The  Tartar  tribes  are  mostly  rovers  ;  living  in 
tents,  subsisting  chiefly  on  the  produce  of  their  flocks,  and  held  in 
slight  subjection  to  China. 

The  Empire  of  Japan,  consists  of  several  islands  east  of  the  Sea 
of  Japan ;  the  largest  of  which  are  Niphon,  the  principal ;  Jesso, 
north  of  it;  and  Kiusiu,  to  the  south-west.  The  chief  cities  are 
Jeddo,  the  capital,  said  to  contain  1,300,000  inhabitants,  Miaco,  (or 
Meaco),  and  Osaca ;  all  on  the  island  of  Niphon.  The  religion  is 
Paganism,  in  various  forms ;  and  the  government  is  despotic.  The 
people  resemble  the  Chinese,  in  their  bigotry,  their  manners,  and 
their  devotion  to  agricultural  pursuits. 

§  4.  The  Northern  Part  of  Asia,  is  generally  very  cold  and  bar- 
ren ;  and  hence  thinly  inhabited,  and  imperfectly  known.  Independ- 
ent Tartary,  more  properly  called  Turkistan,  (or  Turkestan), 
as  being  the  original  country  of  the  Turks,  comprehends  the  ancient 
Bactriana,  in  the  south ;  Sogdiana,  in  the  centre  ;  and  Scythia  intra 
Imaum,  in  the  north  and  east;  extending  eastward  to  the  mountains 
of  Imaus,  now  called  Beloor,  or  Belur  Tag.  It  includes  the  Aral 
Sea,  and  the  rivers  which  flow  into  it ;  the  Cihon,  in  the  east ;  and 
the  Jlmoo,  (formerly  Gihon  or  Jihon),  the  ancient  Oxiis.  This 
country  is  now  held  by  the  Turcomans,  in  the  west ;  the  Kirghees, 
(or  Kirguis),  in  the  north ;  and  the  Usbecks  in  Khokan,  Khiva, 
Great  Bucharia,  and  Koondooz.  The  chief  cities  are  Bucharia, 
Samarcand,  and  Balk,  (the  ancient  Bactra),  all  lying  towards  the 
south;  Khokan,  and  Tashkent,  in  the  east;  and  Khiva,  south  of 
the  Sea  of  Aral.  Khooloom,  in  the  south-east,  is  the  capital  of 
Koondooz.  The  Usbecks  are  more  civilized ;  but  the  other  tribes 
still  live  a  nomadic  or  pastoral  and  wandering  life.  They  are 
governed  solely  by  their  khans,  or  chiefs  ;  and  the  prevailing  religion 
is  the  Mohameclan. 

Russian  Asia,  including  Siberia,  extends  from  the  Ural  Mountains 
and  river  Volga,  (or  Wolga),  on  the  west,  to  the  sea  of  Kamtschatka, 
and  Bhering's  Straits,  on  the  east ;  and  is  inhabited  by  numerous 
tribes,  among  which  are  the  Samoieds,  and  Osliaks,  in  the  west ; 


EUROPEAN. 


171 


the  Tungouses,  in  the  centre ;  and  the  Yakoutes,  Koriaks,  and 
Kamtschatkans,  in  the  east.  The  province  of  Georgia,  between 
the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  including  the  ancient  Colchis,  Iberia, 
and  Albania;  and  the  province  of  Cir cassia  farther  north,  including 
part  of  the  ancient  Carmatia,  are  nominally  a  part  of  the  Russian 
empire  ;  but  are  at  present  struggling  for  independence.  The  chief 
rivers  of  Siberia  are  the  Obi,  which  unites  with  the  Irtish  in  the 
west ;  and  the  Yenisei,  and  Lena,  more  central,  all  running  north- 
ward into  the  Arctic  Ocean.  On  the  north  are  the  islands  Kotelnoi 
and  New  Siberia;  and  on  the  east  the  Aleutian  or  Fox  Islands, 
which  belong  rather  to  Russian  America.  Among  the  cities,  are 
Tobolsk,  the  capital,  with  Orenburg  and  Jlstracan,  in  the  west,  the 
latter  being  farthest  south ;  Tomsk  on  the  Obi ;  Irkutsk,  on  Lake 
Baikal ;  Yakutsk,  on  the  Lena ;  and  Okotsk  (or  Ochotsk)  on  the 
sea  of  that  name,  in  the  extreme  east.  Siberia  produces  furs  and 
minerals  ;  but  adds  little  to  the  strength  of  the  Russian  empire,  to 
which  it  belongs.  It  serves  as  a  place  of  banishment  for  criminals, 
particularly  those  condemned  for  political  crimes ;  whose  lives  are 
often  shortened  by  this  severe  punishment. 


CHAPTER  II. 

EUROPEAN    GEOGRAPHY. 

EUROPE,  though  the  smallest  grand  division  of  the  earth,  has  ex- 
celled all  the  others  in  civilization ;  and  has  made  far  the  greater 
number  of  discoveries  and  improvements,  in  literature,  sciences  and 
arts.  The  southern  and  central  parts  of  Europe,  we  have  already 
said,  were  known  to  the  ancient  civilized  world;  of  which  Italy 
and  Greece  formed  important  portions.  The  papal  missionaries  in 
northern  and  north-eastern  Europe,  acquired  much  information  of 
those  parts  ;  (p.  148) ;  but  the  earliest  authentic  account  of  northern 
Europe  was  written  by  Alfred  the  Great  of  England;  who,  in  901, 
sent  Other  to  sail  around  the  North  Cape,  to  the  White  Sea,  and 
Wuhtan  to  explore  the  Gulf  of  Finland ;  both  of  which  objects 
were  attained.  Iceland  was  discovered  in  861,  by  Naddodr,  a  Nor- 
wegian pirate;  Spitzbergen  or  East  Greenland,  in  1553,  by  Sir 
Hugh  TVilloughby ;  and  Nova  Zembla  is  said  to  have  been  dis- 
covered by  English  navigators,  in  1556.  Of  the  numerous  modern 
travels  in  Europe,  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak. 

The  following  statement  is  the  most  correct  that  we  can  offer  of 
some  important  statistics  of  the  leading  powers  of  Europe. 


Nation. 

Debt. 

Revenue. 

Army. 

Navy. 

Great  Britain. 

Dollars. 
3,700,000,000 
820  000  000 

Dollars. 
300,000,000 
140  000  000 

Men. 
110,000 
330  000 

Ships. 
600 
300 

200,000  000 

80  000  000 

700  000 

160 

225  000  000 

52  000  000 

280  000 

30 

Prussia  
Turkey  
Spain  

115,000,000 
35,000,000 
400,000,000 

35,000,000 
40,000,000 
26,000  000 

150,000 
200,000 
50,000 

6 
100 
26 

172 


GEOGRAPHY. 


The  following  is  the  most  accurate  table  which  we  can  form  of  the 
extent  and  population  of  the  different  countries  of  Europe. 

Sa.  JUiles.      Inhabitants. 


Countries. 

European  Turkey  .200,000. .  10,000,000 
Greece  &  Ion. Is. .   20,000. .    1,000,000 

Two  Sicilies 42,000..   7,500,000 

Papal  States 17,500..   2,600,000 

Lombardo-Venetia     18,500..  4,500,000 
Italian   Dutchies..    13,200..   2,300,000 

Two  Sardinias 29,000. .   4,500,000 

Spain 180,000. .  12,000,000 

Portugal 45,000..   3,500,000 

France 202,000 . .  33,600,000 

Great  Britain 120,000.  .25,300,000 

Belgium 12,800 . .   4,200,000 

Holland 11,000..   2,600,000 

Switzerland 16,000..   2,100,000 


Countries.  Sq.  Miles. 

Baden 5,700. 

Wurtemburg 7,600 . 

Bavaria 30,000. 

Saxony 6,500. 

Hanover 14,600. 

Smaller  Ger.  St. . .   28,000 . 

Austria 256,000. 

Prussia 106,000. 

Denmark  &  Iceland  51,300. 
Sweden  &  Norway  290,000 . 
Russia  and  Rus. 

Poland 1,850,000. 


Inhabitants. 
.    1,200,000 
1,600,000 
4,200,000 
1,600,000 
1,600,000 
4,300,000 
34,000,000 
14,000,000 
2,100,000 
4,100,000 

60,000,000 


TOTAL 3,572,700  244,400,000 


We  proceed  to  treat  of  the  countries  and  states  of  Europe,  in  the 
order  above  named. 

§  1.  The  Southern  Countries  of  Europe  have  a  mild  climate, 
and  are  fertile  in  the  olive  and  grape,  in  corn,  oil  and  wine.  The 
present  inhabitants  are  generally  less  active  and  enterprising  than 
those  farther  north  ;  but  they  still  excel  in  the  fine  arts ;  and  the 
spirit  of  ancient  liberty,  though  fettered  there,  is  not  yet  annihilated. 

Turkey  in  Europe,  extends  from  the  Pontus  Euximts,  or  Black 
Sea,  and  the  sea  of  Marmora,  the  ancient  Propontis,  on  the  east ; 
to  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  the  ancient  Mare  Hadriaticum,  on  the  west ; 
and  the  Archipelago,  the  ancient  JEgseum  Mare,  on  the  south.  It 
includes  the  ancient  Thracia,  in  the  south-east;  Mcesia,  in  the  cen- 
tral part,  stretching  eastward  and  westward ;  Dacia,  north  of  the 
Danube;  Illyricum,  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of  Venice,  in  the  west; 
Macedonia,  south  of  the  Haemus,  now  Balkan  Mountains  ;  with 
part  of  Thessalia  and  Epirus  ;  the  latter  in  the  south-west,  and  both 
belonging  to  ancient  Greece.  The  more  modern  state  of  Servia  is  in 
the  north-western ;  and  Wallachia  and  part  of  Moldavia  are  in  the 
north-eastern  part  of  Turkey.  The  ancient  cities  of  Philippi  and 
Thessalonica  were  in  Macedonia ;  the  latter  being  the  modern  Salo- 
nica.  The  chief  cities  of  Turkey,  are  Constantinople,  the  capital, 
formerly  called  Byzantium,  and  rfdrianople,  in  the  east ;  Bucharest, 
in  the  north,  and  Salonica,  in  the  south.  The  island  of  Candia,  the 
ancient  Creta,  with  many  smaller  ones,  in  the  Archipelago,  belongs 
to  Turkey.  The  religion  of  this  country  is  the  Mohamedan ;  the 
government  has  but  recently  become  a  limited  monarchy,  the  Sultan 
being  at  its  head ;  and  education,  learning  and  the  arts  are  still  in  a 
backward  state. 

Greece,  now  an  independent  monarchy,  retains  its  classic  name, 
and  nearly  its  ancient  limits ;  comprehending  the  Morea,  or  ancient 
Peloponnesus,  south  of  the  Sinus  Corinthiacus,  now  Gulf  of 
Lepanto  ;  and  the  province  of  Livadia,  or  the  ancient  Grxcia  pro- 
pria,  with  part  of  Thessaly  and  Epirus,  north  of  that  Gulf:  besides 
the  island  of  Negropont,  the  ancient  Eubcea,  and  other  smaller 
islands  in  the  Archipelago.  The  ancient  Peloponnesus  contained 
the  states  of  Jlrgolis  and  Laconia,  in  the  east ;  Messenia  and  Elis 


EUROPEAN.  173 

in  the  west ;  Jlchaia  and  Corinthia,  in  the  north  ;  and  Arcadia,  in 
the  interior.  Lacedsemon,  or  Sparta,  was  the  capital  of  Laeonia ; 
Olympici,  of  Elis  ;  and  Corinth,  of  Corinthia.  In  Grsecia  Propria, 
were  the  states  of  Jlttica,  east  of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth;  and 
farther  north,  proceeding  towards  the  west,  were  Bceolia,  Phocis,  the 
Locri,  Doris,  JEtolia,  and  Jlcarnania  ;  this  latter  bordering  on  the 
Gulf  of  Venice.  Athens  was  the  ancient  capital  of  Attica  ;  Thebse 
or  Thebes,  of  Boeotia ;  and  Delphi,  of  Phocis.  The  more  northern 
states  were  Thessaly,  in  the  east,  and  Epirus,  in  the  west ;  which 
belong  only  in  part  to  modern  Greece.  .Athens,  the  present  capital, 
and  Corinth,  retain  their  classic  names  ;  and  among  the  other  cities 
are  Napoli,  in  the  south-east,  near  the  ancient  rfrgos,  in  Argolis  ;  and 
Navarino  and  Missolonghi,  in  the  west.  The  Republic  of  the 
Ionian  Islands,  Cephalonia,  Zante,  Corfu  and  others,  on  the  west- 
ern coast  of  Greece,  is  under  the  protection  of  Great  Britain. 

Italy,  retains  its  ancient  name ;  including  the  ancient  Magna 
Grsecia,  in  the  south;  and  Gallia  Cisalpina,  or  Cisalpine  Gaul,  in 
the  north.  Magna  Grsecia  contained  the  provinces  of  Messapia,  in 
the  east ;  Bruttii,  in  the  south ;  and  farther  north,  Lucania  and 
Apulia.  Paestum,  in  the  south-west,  was  a  city  of  Lucania,  and 
Cannx,  in  the  east,  a  village  of  Apulia.  Italia  Propria,  contained 
the  states  of  Etruria  or  Tuscia,  north-west  of  Rome ;  Latium 
south-east  of  it,  Campania,  farther  south ;  Samnium,  east  of  Latium  ; 
and  numerous  tribes  or  states  in  the  east  and  north-east.  Gallia 
Cisalpina  included  Venetia,  in  the  north-east ;  Liguria,  in  the  west, 
and  numerous  tribes  between.  Italy  is  now  divided  into  the  King- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies,  in  the  south ;  the  States  of  the  Church, 
or  Papal  States,  next  north;  and  the  several  Duchies  of  Tuscany, 
Lucca,  Modena  and  Parma,  in  the  central  part:  the  Lombardo- 
Venetian  kingdom,  including  Lombardy,  and  subject  to  Austria,  in 
the  north-east  and  north ;  and  the  Kingdom  of  Sardinia,  including 
Savoy,  or  as  it  might  be  called,  the  Two  Sardinias,  in  the  north- 
west ;  the  two  latter  states  extending  to  the  rflps,  or  Jllpes  Monies 
of  the  ancients.  The  largest  river  in  Italy,  is  the  Po,  the  ancient 
Padus ;  south-eastward  from  which  runs  the  Appenine  range  of 
Mountains ;  and  Italy  contains  two  of  the  most  celebrated  volcanoes 
in  the  world ;  Vesuvius,  near  Naples ;  and  Etna,  on  the  island  of 
Sicily.  The  chief  cities  of  Italy  are,  in  the  Two  Sicilies,  Naples, 
anciently  Neapolis,  the  capital,  on  the  main  land ;  and  Syracuse., 
and  Palermo,  the  ancient  Panormus,  on  the  island  of  Sicily:  in 
the  States  of  the  Church,  Home,  Jincona,  and  Bologna :  in  Tusca- 
ny, Florence  and  Leghorn :  in  the  other  duchies,  capitals  bearing 
their  names  ;  in  the  Lombardo- Venetian  Kingdom,  Venice,  and 
Milan  ;  and  in  the  Sardinias,  Turin,  and  Genoa.  Italy  has  a  com- 
mon language,  literature,  and  religion,  and  excels  in  the  fine  arts; 
but  its  divided  states  suffer  from  their  unhappy  political  condition. 

Spain,  called  by  the  ancient  Romans,  Hispania,  and  by  the 
Greeks,  Iberia,  formerly  included  Portugal;  and  extended,  as  it 
now  does,  from  the  Fretum  Herculeum,  or  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  on 
the  south,  to  the  Oceanus  Gallicus  or  jlquitanicus,  the  Bay  of  Bis- 
cay, on  the  north.  Hispania  was  divided,  under  Angustus,  into 


174  GEOGRAPHY. 

Lusitania,  now  Portugal,  in  the  south-west;  Bsetica,  in  the  south ; 
and  Tarraconensis,  previously  called  Hispania  Citerior,  in  the 
north  and  east ;  each  inhabited  by  various  tribes.  The  largest  rivers 
of  Spain,  are  the  Ebro,  or  ancient  Iberus,  in  the  east;  and  the 
Douro,  7'agus,  and  Guadiana,  this  last  anciently  called  Anas,  in 
the  west.  The  Pyrenees,  or  Pyrensci  Monies,  separate  Spain  from 
France  ;  and  to  Spain  belong  the  Balearic  Isles,  Majorca,  Minorca, 
and  Ivica,  in  the  Mediterranean  ;  as  also  the  Canaries,  and  some 
of  the  West  Indies.  Madrid  is  the  capital,  centrally  located ;  and 
among  the  other  cities  of  Spain,  are  Saragassa,  Barcelona,  Valen- 
cia, and  Carthagena,  (anciently  Carthago  Nova),  in  the  east;  and 
Granada,  Malaga,  Cadiz,  Seville,  and  Cordova,  in  the  south. 
Spain  has  many  shepherds,  and  grows  excellent  wool ;  but  agri- 
culture and  the  arts  are  nearly  prostrate,  from  long  civil  wars,  and 
the  effects  of  luxury  and  superstition.  Portugal,  the  ancient  Lusi- 
tania, is  in  a  similar  state  to  that  of  Spain.  Its  chief  cities  are 
Lisbon,  the  capital,  anciently  Olisipo ;  and  in  the  north,  Oporto. 
The  Azores,  Madeiras,  and  Cape  Verde  Islands,  belong  to  Portugal ; 
and,  like  it,  furnish  large  supplies  of  wine  for  exportation.  Here, 
as  in  Spain,  the  Roman  religion,  supported  by  its  Convents  and  In- 
quisition, long  held  absolute  sway. 

§  2.  We  proceed  next  to  the  Geography  of  France,  and  Great 
Britain  ;  which  are  strongly  associated  by  historical,  political,  com- 
mercial, and  scientific  relations.  Both  are  constitutional  monarchies  ; 
but  in  France,  the  Roman  Catholic  religion  prevails  ;  while  in  Great 
Britain  the  Protestant  is  the  established  religion  ;  though  in  both 
countries  other  denominations  are  tolerated. 

France,  the  ancient  Gallia,  or  Gallia  Transalpina,  extends  from 
the  Fretum  Gallicum,  or  English  Channel,  on  the  north,  to  the 
Gallicus  Sinus,  a  part  of  the  Mediterranean,  on  the  south.  It  was 
the  land  of  the  Gauls  ;  and  comprehended  Narbonensis,  in  the  south- 
east ;  Jlquitania,  in  the  south-west ;  Lugdunensis,  in  the  centre  and 
north-west ;  and  Belgica,  in  the  north-east.  At  a  later  period,  it  com- 
prehended, among  others,  the  provinces  of  Provence,  with  Dau- 
phiny  north  of  it,  and  Languedoc  west  of  it,  all  in  the  south-east; 
Gascony,  and,  north-east  of  it,  Guienne,  both  in  the  south-west ; 
Poitou  and  Jlnjou,  in  the  west :  Brittany  and  Normandy,  in  the 
north-west;  rfrtois,  and  Picardy,  south  of  it,  both  in  the  north;  Lor- 
raine, Jllsace,  south-east  of  it,  and  Franche  Compte,  south  of  it,  all 
in  the  east ;  and  Champagne,  Burgundy,  and  Jluvergne  in  the  inte- 
rior, proceeding  towards  the  south.  The  chief  rivers  of  France,  are 
the  Rhone,  the  ancient  Rhodanus,  in  the  south-east ;  the  Garonne 
and  the  Loire,  once  called  Liger,  in  the  west ;  and  the  Seine,  the 
ancient  Sequana,  in  the  north.  Its  mountains  are  the  Cevennes  or 
Auvergne  mountains,  in  the  interior;  the  Pyrenees,  on  the  south- 
western frontier ;  and  the  Alps,  Jura,  and  Vosges,  which  skirt  it  on 
the  east.  The  chief  cities  of  France,  are  Paris,  the  capital,  contain- 
ing 900,000  inhabitants  ;  with  Rouen,  below  it  on  the  Seine,  and 
Lisle  (or  Lille),  in  the  extreme  north ;  Lyons,  in  the  east,  and  Mar- 
seilles and  Toulon,  in  the  south-east ;  Bordeaux  and  Toulouse,  in  the 
south-west;  Nantes  and  Orleans,  on  the  Loire,  the  latter,  beino- 


EUROPEAN.  175 

nearly  central  in  France ;  and  Brest  and  Cherburg,  in  the  north-west. 
The  island  of  Corsica  belongs  to  France.  The  Canal  of  Languedoc, 
in  the  south-west,  is  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  long ;  and  there 
are  other  important  canals,  connecting  the  principal  rivers  ;  but  these 
we  have  no  room  to  mention.  France  excels  in  agriculture,  manu- 
factures, science  and  literature;  and  is  now  enjoying  great  national 
prosperity. 

Great  Britain-,  includes  England,  Wales,  Scotland,  and  Ireland; 
with  the  adjacent  smaller  islands,  west  of  the  North  or  German 
Sea.  The  island  of  Britain  or  Britland,  was  anciently  called 
Britannia;  and  comprehended  Britannia  Prima,  in  the  south; 
Britannia  Secunda,  since  called  Wales ;  Flavia  Cassariensis,  in 
the  centre  and  east ;  Maxima  Csesariensis,  now  the  north  of  Eng- 
land ;  with  Valentia  in  the  south,  and  Caledonia  in  the  north  of 
Scotland.  The  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands,  north  of  Scotland, 
and  the  Hebrides  or  Western  Islands,  on  the  west  of  it,  belong  to 
Great  Britain.  The  Wall  of  Hadrian  ran  eastward  from  Solway 
Frith  ;  and  that  of  Jintonine  extended  from  the  Frith  of  Clyde  to 
that  of  Forth.  Ireland  was  anciently  called  lerne  or  Hibernia  ;  and 
the  Irish  Sea,  Mare  Hibernicum.  The  capital  of  Great  Britain,  is 
London,  anciently  called  Londinium,  on  the  river  Thames ;  now 
containing  1,600,000  inhabitants,  and  probably  the  largest  city 
in  the  world.  The  other  chief  cities  of  England,  are  Bristol,  Bir- 
mingham, Liverpool,  Manchester,  and  Leeds,  in  the  west,  all  ex- 
celling in  manufactures  and  commerce  ;  York,  the  ancient  Eboracum, 
in  the  north-east ;  Portsmouth,  and  Plymouth,  in  the  south ;  and 
Oxford,  on  the  Thames,  and  Cambridge,  in  the  east,  famed  for  their 
Universities.  In  Scotland,  are  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  Paisley, 
and  Aberdeen  ;  and  in  Ireland,  Dublin,  Cork,  ami  Limerick.  Great 
Britain  has  extensive  resources  in  her  exhaustless  mines  of  iron  and 
coal ;  and  her  vast  manufactories  ;  in  which  and  in  extent  of  com- 
merce, she  stands  unrivalled.  She  excels  all  other  nations,  except 
perhaps  the  United  States,  in  the  extent  of  her  canals  and  railroads  ; 
by  which  all  the  parts,  of  England  especially,  are  closely  connected. 
Her  progress  in  science  and  literature  has  not  been  inferior ;  and  she 
has  done  perhaps  more  than  any  other  nation,  to  civilize  and  Chris- 
tianize the  world. 

§  3.  We  come  next  to  Central  Europe,  including  Germany  and 
the  nations  with  which  it  is,  or  has  been,  associated.  This  is  a  rich 
and  fertile  portion  of  the  old  world,  producing  grain,  wine,  wool, 
and  cattle,  in  abundance  ;  and  the  mines  of  Germany  are  among  the 
most  extensive  and  celebrated  known.  In  education,  arts,  literature, 
and  science,  Germany  shares  with  France  and  Great  Britain,  the 
foremost  place  among  the  nations,  notwithstanding  her  divided  politi- 
cal state. 

Belgium,  is  a  part  of  the  ancient  Belgica ;  and  recently  formed, 
in  connection  with  Holland,  the  kingdom  of  Netherlands  :  but  it  now 
constitutes  a  distinct  and  flourishing  monarchy,  though  of  small 
extent.  It  includes  the  old  provinces  of  Luxemberg,  and  Liege,  in 
the  south-east,  Brabant,  in  the  east,  and  the  greater  part  of  Flanders, 
in  the  west.  Luxemberg,  is  a  part  of  Germany ;  and  hence  the 


176  GEOGRAPHY. 

king  of  Belgium  is  a  member  of  the  Germanic  Diet.  The  largest 
river  in  this  country  is  the  Maese,  the  ancient  Mosa.  The  chief  cities, 
are  Brussels,  the  capital;  and  Ghent,  Antwerp,  and  Liege.  Hol- 
land, was  included  by  the  ancients  as  a  part  of  Germany  ;  and  is  the 
country  of  the  ancient  Frisii,  and  the  modern  Dutch.  It  was  re- 
cently separated  from  Belgium  ;  and  the  name  Netherlands  was  then 
superseded  by  its  older  one,  now  restored.  The  chief  river  of  Hol- 
land is  the  Rhine,  the  ancient  Rhenus.  Much  of  this  country  is 
below  the  level  of  the  sea,  from  which  it  is  protected  by  dykes  of 
earth,  flagged  with  wood,  and  stone.  The  chief  cities  of  Holland, 
are  Hague,  the  capital ;  Amsterdam,  the  largest  city ;  Rotterdam, 
and  Leyden.  The  Dutch  are  an  industrious  people,  and  still  excel  in 
commerce.  Switzerland,  is  the  country  of  the  ancient  Helvetii ; 
including  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  the  ancient  Lemanus  or  Lcman,  in 
the  west;  and  extending  to  the  Lake  of  Constance,  in  the  north-east. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Alps;  of  which  the  peak  called 
Mont  Blanc,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  Europe ;  being  three  miles 
high.  The  chief  cities  of  Switzerland,  are  Berne,  the  nominal  capi- 
tal ;  Basle  and  Zurich,  in  the  north-east ;  and  Geneva,  in  the  south- 
west. Switzerland  is  a  confederated  republic,  composed  of  inde- 
pendent cantons,  united  for  national  security,  in  a  general  diet.  The 
Swiss  are  a  hardy  and  virtuous  people ;  and  though  no  longer  in 
political  connection  with  Germany,  they  mostly  speak  the  German 
language. 

Germany,  the  ancient  Germania,  extends  from  Switzerland,  to 
the  German  Sea,  or  Oceanus  Germanicus,  and  to  the  Baltic  Sea, 
the  ancient  Sinus  Codanus.  The  Rhine  and  the  Danube  were 
anciently  regarded  as  its  boundaries  ;  and  it  was  inhabited  by  the 
Istevones,  in  the  west,  including  the  Cherusci,  Frisii  and  Alemanni ; 
the  Hermiones,  in  the  south,  including  the  Marcomanni,  Hermunduri, 
and  Boiohemi  ;  the  Vendili,  in  the  north-east,  including  the  Longo- 
bardi,  Burgundiones,zi\&  Gothones  ;  and  the  Chauci,  in  the  north, 
bordering  on  the  German  Sea.  The  chief  rivers,  were,  besides  the 
Rhine  and  Danube,  the  Albis  or  Elbe ;  the  Viadrus  or  Oder ;  and 
the  Vistula.  The  Erz  Mountains  are  a  part  of  the  ancient  Hercy- 
nian ;  this  name  now  designating  the  more  south-eastern  range. 
The  Harz  Mountains,  in  the  north,  are  a  detached  group,  famous 
for  their  mines.  Germany  now  forms  a  part  of  Belgium,  Austria, 
Prussia,  and  Denmark  ;  and  contains,  besides,  thirty-one  independent 
states,  and  four  free  cities ;  all  united  in  the  Germanic  Confedera- 
tion ;  the  affairs  of  which  are  regulated  by  a  Diet  of  representatives, 
for  mutual  safety  and  defence. 

The  five  principal  states  of  Germany,  next  to  those  above  men- 
tioned, are  the  grand  duchy  of  Baden,  in  the  south-west;  and  the 
kingdoms  of  JVirtemberg  and  Bavaria,  east  of  it ;  the  kingdom  of 
Saxony,  in  the  east;  and  that  of  Hanover,  in  the  north.  The  chief 
cities  in  these  and  the  smaller  states  are  Munich  and  Nuremberg,  in 
Bavaria  ;  Dresden  and  Leipzic,  in  Saxony  ;  Hanover,  in  Hanover ; 
Stuttgard,  in  Wirtemberg ;  Manheim,  in  Baden  ;  and  Cassel  in 
the  electorate  of  Hesse  Cassel,  between  East  and  West  Prussia. 
The  smaller  states  next  in  size  to  those  already  named,  are  Hesse 


EUROPEAN.  177 

Darmstadt,  and  north  of  it  Hesse  Cassel,  both  north  of  Baden ; 
Nassau,  west  of  Hesse  Darmstadt;  Brunswick,  between  Hesse 
Cassel  and  Hanover ;  Oldenburg  nearly  surrounded  by  Hanover ; 
Mecklenburg  Schwerin,  north-east  of  Hanover ;  and  Saxe  Weimar, 
north  of  Bavaria.  The  free  cities  of  Germany  are  Hamburg,  Lubecr 
and  Bremen  in  the  north-east ;  and  Frankfort  on  the  Maine.  .____ 

The  empire  of  Austria  comprehends  the  ancient  Vindelicia  and 
Rhxtia,  in  the  west ;  Noricum,  in  the  centre ;  Pannonia  and  part 
of  Dacia,  in  the  east ;  and  Illyricum,  including  Dalmatia,  in  the 
south ;  besides  its  possessions  in  Italy  and  Germany.  Its  German 
possessions,  constituting  the  south-eastern  part  of  Germany,  are  Bohe- 
mia, Moravia,  and  the  duchy  of  Austria,  which  gave  name  to  the 
empire.  Its  other  divisions,  at  the  present  day,  besides  Lombardy 
and  Venice,  are  Tyrol,  in  the  west ;  Illyria,  and  Dalmatia,  in  the 
south ;  Styria  and  Carinthia,  in  the  centre ;  and  the  kingdoms  of 
Galicia,  and  Hungary,  in  the  east ;  Hungary,  including  Transylvania 
in  the  extreme  east,  and  Sclavonia  and  Croatia,  in  the  south.  The 
Danube  is  its  chief  river,  and  it  has  the  Carpathian  mountains  in  the 
east.  Its  chief  cities  are  Vienna,  the  capital,  anciently  called  Vindo- 
bona;  Prague,  in  Bohemia ;  Presburg,  Pest  and  Buda,  in  Hungary ; 
Trieste,  in  Illyria  ;  and  Lemberg,  in  Galicia.  The  Austrian  empire, 
comprising  so  many  different  states,  has  a  great  variety  of  people,  and 
character.  The  government  is  one  of  the  most  despotic  in  Europe ; 
but  there  is  religious  toleration  ;  though  the  established  religion  is  the 
Roman  Catholic. 

The  kingdom  of  Prussia  consists  of  the  divisions  formerly  called 
East  and  West  Prussia,  and  Pomerania,  bordering  on  the  Baltic 
Sea  ;  Posen,  taken  from  Poland  ;  Brandenburg  and  Silesia,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Germany ;  and  Westphalia  with  the  Lower  Rhine, 
in  the  heart  of  Germany,  separated  from  the  preceding  divisions  by 
Brunswick  and  other  states.  It  comprehends,  therefore,  a  part  of 
ancient  Germany  and  a  part  of  Sarmatia.  The  Rhine,  Elbe,  Oder 
and  Vistula  rivers,  flow  through  Prussia  ;  and  the  latter  three  are 
connected  by  canals.  The  chief  cities  are  Berlin,  the  capital,  with 
Potsdam,  Magdeburg  and  Halle  in  Brandenburg ;  Breslau  in  Sile- 
sia ;  Dantzic,  in  West,  and  Kdnigsberg,  in  East  Prussia  ;  Posen,  in 
Posen  ;  and  Cologne,  in  Cleves,  connected  with  Westphalia.  Prussia 
has  been  a  very  warlike  nation  ;  but  has  recently  made  great  progress 
in  education  and  refinement.  The  Protestant  religion  prevails  ;  but 
there  is  general  religious  toleration. 

The  kingdom  of  Denmark,  comprehends  the  German  duchy  of 
Holstein;  and  the  peninsula  of  Jutland,  which  was  the  ancient 
Cimbrica  Chersonesus,  or  country  of  the  Cimbri,  Jlngli,  Saxones, 
and  Teutones.  The  Faroe  or  Ferroe  Islands,  and  Iceland  belong 
also  to  Denmark.  The  chief  cities  are  Copenhagen,  the  capital, 
and  Elsinore ;  both  on  the  island  of  Zealand,  at  the  entrance  of  the 
Baltic  Sea ;  with  Mtona  and  Kiel,  in  Holstein.  The  Danes  are  a 
brave,  hardy,  and  enterprizing  people. 

§  4.  Northern  Europe,  of  which  we  are  lastly  to  speak,  has  a  cold 
climate,  a  more  barren  soil,  and  a  less  dense  population,  than  the 
preceding  divisions.  The  people  are  hardy,  and  brave ;  but  com- 
23 


178  GEOGRAPHY. 

paratively  ignorant :  and  the  lower  classes,  for  the  most  part,  live  in 
a  comparatively  degraded  state.  Travelling,  during  the  long  winters, 
is  performed  on  sledges,  drawn  by  the  reindeer ;  and  this  useful  animal 
also  supplies  the  inhabitants  partially  with  food  and  clothing. 

Norway  and  Sweden,  together  constituted  the  ancient  Scandina- 
via ;  and  Norway  was  also  called  Nerigonia.  Norway  is  separated 
from  Denmark  by  the  Skager  Rack  strait ;  Sweden  from  Denmark 
by  the  Cattegat ;  and  they  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the 
Dofrafield  or  Dovrefeld  mountains.  On  the  north-west  coast  are  the 
Loffoden  islands  ;  south  of  which  is  the  Maelstrom,  a  vast  whirlpool, 
the  roaring  of  which  is  sometimes  heard  at  a  distance  of  several  miles ; 
and  a  near  approach  to  which  would  be  dangerous  to  vessels.  Sweden 
contains  the  lakes  Wener,  Wetter,  and  Malar  ;  but  its  rivers  are  small, 
and  of  little  note.  The  chief  cities  of  Sweden,  are  Stockholm,  the 
capital ;  and  in  the  south,  Gottenburg  and  Carlscrona  :  those  of  Nor- 
way, are  Christiania,  and  Bergen,  in  the  south ;  and  Drontheim, 
farther  north.  Norway  is  subject  to  Sweden :  but  governed  by  a 
viceroy  and  local  legislature. 

Russia  comprehends  the  greater  part  of  the  ancient  Sarmatia  ; 
including  Finland,  between  the  Gulfs  of  Finland  and  Bothnia;  Lap- 
land, in  the  extreme  north,  with  the  islands  of  Spitzbergen  and  Nova 
Zembla  ;  and  in  the  south-west  or  west,  the  greater  part  of  Poland, 
which  forms  a  nominal  kingdom,  but  is  subject  to  the  emperor  of 
Russia  as  its  king.  The  little  Republic  of  Cracow,  having  Cracow 
for  its  capital,  is  the  only  part  of  Poland  which  remains  nominally 
independent.  Russia  has  the  large  lakes  Ladoga  and  Onega  ;  and  the 
river  Dwina  with  the  White  Sea,  in  the  north  ;  and  the  rivers  Volga, 
Don,  Dnieper  and  Dniester,  in  the  south.  The  Volga,  or  Wolga, 
flows  into  the  Caspian  ;  and  the  Don  into  the  Sea  of  Azoph  ;  but  the 
two  last  named  rivers  flow  directly  into  the  Black  Sea.  The  Canal  of 
Vishnei  Volotchoc  establishes  a  navigable  communication  between  the 
Baltic  and  Caspian  Seas.  The  chief  cities  of  Russia,  are  St.  Peters- 
burg, the  capital,  Cronstadt  being  its  outport ;  Moscow,  the  former 
capital ;  Warsaw,  in  Poland ;  PFilna,  in  Lithuania;  Riga,  in  Livonia; 
Odessa  and  Kiev,  in  the  south ;  Kazan,  in  the  east ;  Archangel,  in 
the  north ;  and  Mo,  in  Finland.  The  Russians  generally  are  still  infe- 
rior to  central  and  western  Europe  in  all  the  elements  of  civilization. 


CHAPTER  III. 

AFRICAN    GEOGRAPHY. 

AFRICA,  united  to  Asia  by  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  is  the  least  en- 
lightened and  the  least  known  of  all  the  grand  divisions  of  the  earth. 
Egypt  was  inhabited  and  cultivated  at  a  very  early  period  :  Ethiopia, 
south  of  it,  was  well  known  to  the  ancients ;  and  Carthage  was 
settled  by  Phoenician  colonists  as  early  as  869  B.  C. :  but  of  central 
and  southern  Africa  nothing  was  known  until  modern  times.  Hero- 
dotus indeed  states  that  Pharaoh  Necho  sent  a  Phoenician  fleet,  which 
sailed  around  Africa,  604  B.  C.;  but  the  statement  has  been  justly 


AFRICAN. 


179 


doubted.  The  more  southern  coasts  of  Africa  were  first  explored  by 
the  Portuguese,  led  on  by  the  Infante,  Prince  Henry,  after  their 
successes  in  Barbary.  Zarco  discovered  Madeira  in  1419  ;  Gilanez 
doubled  cape  Bojador  in  1433  ;  Noel  discovered  the  Cape  Verde 
islands  in  1446;  Escovar  coasted  Guinea,  and  discovered  Prince's 
Island  in  1471  ;  Diego  Cam  reached  the  river  Zaire  or  Congo  in 
1484 :  and  Bartholomew  Diaz  reached  the  southern  cape  of  Africa, 
which  he  called  the  Cape  of  Storms,  in  1486 ;  but  his  sovereign, 
John  II.,  changed  its  name  to  Good  Hope.  Vasco  de  Gama  first 
sailed  around  that  cape,  coasted  as  far  as  Melinda,  and  thence  obtain- 
ing Arabian  pilots,  proceeded  to  Calicut,  in  Hindoostan,  in  1498  ;  thus 
opening  a  southern  passage  to  India.  Madagascar  was  afterwards 
discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1506  or  7.  Central  Africa  has  been 
partially  explored  by  the  travels  of  Bruce  in  Abyssinia,  in  1768 ;  of 
Mungo  Park,  in  Bambara  and  Tiinbuctoo,  in  1796 ;  of  Oudney  and 
Denham  to  Bornou,  and  Clapperton  to  Houssa,  in  1823  ;  and  of 
Richard  and  John  Lander,  who  in  1830  traced  the  river  Niger  or 
Quorra,  to  its  mouth,  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  There  have  been  nume- 
rous other  travellers  in  Africa,  whom  we  have  no  room  here  to  mention. 
The  following  table  presents  the  nearest  approximation  which  we 
can  make  to  an  estimate  of  the  extent  and  population  of  Africa. 

Countries.  Sq.  Miles.      Inhabitants. 

Egypt 1 80,000 .     2,500,000 

Barbary 700,000.    14,000,000 

Sahara 2,500,000.         300,000 

Nubia 350,000 .      1 ,700,000 

Abyssinia 300,000 .     3,500,000 

Nigritia 1,600,000.    18,000,000 

Senegambia  . . .  350,000..   8,000,000 

Upper   Guinea.  500,000..   7,000,000 


Countries.  Sq.  Miles. 

Lower  Guinea.  700,000. 

Ethiopia 2,000,000. 

South  Africa . . .  600,000 . 

Mozambique . . .  400,000 . 

Zanguebar  ....  500,000. 

African   Islands  200,000. 

TOTAL.  . 


Inhabitants. 
6,000,00.0 

10,000,000 
1,000,000 
2,000,000 
3,000,000 
3,000,000 


..10,880,000     80,000,000 
We  proceed  to  treat  of  the  divisions  of  Africa,  in  the  order  above 
named. 

§  1.  Northern  Africa,  including  Sahara,  is  the  only  part  which  is 
yet  generally  elevated  above  a  savage  state.  It  is  a  land  of  historic 
fame,  including  the  ancient  states  of  Egypt,  Carthage,  and  Numidia ; 
but  it  is  now  inhabited  chiefly  by  Arabs,  mingled  with  Negroes  ; 
among  most  of  whom  the  Mohamedan  religion  prevails.  It  is  a  very 
hot  region,  owing  partly  to  the  deserts  which  it  contains ;  but  the 
northern  parts  are  fertile  in  date  palm  trees,  and  other  tropical  pro- 
ductions. 

Egypt  retains  its  ancient  name,  and  the  ruins  of  its  former  great- 
ness.1  It  was  anciently  divided  into  JEgyptus  Inferior,  in  the  north, 
including  the  Delta  between  the  mouths  of  the  Nile  ;  Heptanomis, 
or  the  middle  part ;  and  T/iebais  or  JEgyptus  Superior,  in  the  south. 
Among  its  cities  were  Alexandria,  the  new  capital,  in  the  north-west ; 
Pelusimn,  in  the  north-east ;  Memphis,  the  old  capital,  near  the 
Pyramids ;  and  Ptolemais,  and  Thebse  or  Thebes,  the  most  ancient 
capital,  in  Upper  Egypt.  The  chief  modern  cities  are  Cairo  or  Grand 
Cairo,  the  present  capital,  near  the  ancient  Memphis  ;  and  Alexan- 
dria and  Damietta.  Egypt  is  fertilized  by  the  inundations  of  the 
river  Nile,  beyond  the  borders  of  which  it  is  mostly  a  desert.  It  is 
ruled  by  a  Pacha,  with  absolute  power.  The  most  interesting 


180  GEOGRAPHY. 

objects  in  this  country,  are  the  Pyramids,  near  Grand  Cairo,  and  the 
remains  of  the  ancient  temples  and  tombs,  at  Thebes,  and  elsewhere 
in  Upper  Egypt. 

Barbary,  occupies  the  northern  border  of  Africa,  from  Egypt  to 
the  Atlantic  Ocean ;  and  comprehends  the  stales  of  Tripoli,  in  the 
east ;  Tunis  and  Algiers,  central ;  and  Morocco,  in  the  west ;  be- 
sides the  region  called  Biledulgerid,  or  Beled-el-Jerid,  south  of  the 
Atlas  Mountains.  The  name  of  Moors,  derived  from  the  ancient 
Mauritania,  belongs  properly  to  the  people  of  Morocco  ;  but  is  often 
applied  to  the  people  of  Barbary  generally.  Tripoli,  is  the  Tripo- 
litana  of  the  Romans ;  and  includes  Barca,  the  ancient  Libya,  on 
the  east ;  and  Fezzan,  the  great  oasis,  to  the  south  ;  both  of  which 
are  tributary  to  Tripoli  proper.  Libya  comprehended  Cyrenaica, 
along  the  coast,  so  named  from  its  chief  city,  Cyrene.  The  present 
cities  of  Tripoli,  are,  besides  Cyrene,  Tripoli,  the  capital ;  Derne, 
in  Barca ;  and  Mourzouk  in  Fezzan.  The  Pacha  of  Tripoli,  is 
still  tributary  to  Turkey.  Tunis,  is  the  country  of  ancient  Car- 
thage; to  which  the  name  Africa  was  originally  confined.  Its  chief 
city  and  capital  is  Tunis,  near  the  site  of  Carthage,  and  east  of 
ancient  Ulica.  The  Bey  of  Tunis  is  also  tributary  to  the  Turkish 
Sultan. 

Algiers  comprehends  the  ancient  Numidia,  and  part  of  Mauri- 
tania. Its  chief  cities  are  Algiers,  the  capital ;  Constantinc  and 
Bona,  in  the  east;  and  Oran,  in  the  west.  Algiers  was  recently 
conquered  by  France,  and  is  now  a  French  colony,  held  by  military 
force.  Morocco,  the  ancient  Mauritania,  includes  Fez,  in  the  north  ; 
Tafilet,  in  the  east ;  and  Suse,  in  the  south-west ;  all  of  which  were 
formerly  independent,  but  are  now  tributary  to  the  Moorish  emperor. 
The  chief  cities  of  this  small  empire,  are,  Morocco,  the  capital ;  Fez 
and  Mequinez,  in  the  north ;  and  Mogadore,  on  the  western  coast. 
The  emperor  is  a  despotic  and  independent  sovereign  ;  whose  political 
strength  is  said  to  be  declining.  Biledulgerid  or  Bled-el-Jereed,  so 
named  from  its  being  the  land  of  the  date  palm  tree,  lies  south  of 
Algiers  and  Tunis  ;  extending  to  the  great  desert.  Tuggurt,  is  one 
of  its  chief  towns  ;  but  the  inhabitants  are  principally  roving  Arabs. 

Sahara,  or  Zaara,  often  called  the  Great  Desert,  extends  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to  the  borders  of  Egypt  and  Nubia,  including 
Fezzan,  and  other  oases,  or  fertile  spots,  like  islands,  in  an  ocean  of 
sand.  The  part  of  it  east  of  Fezzan,  is  called  the  Libyan  Desert, 
and  the  whole  was  anciently  called  Deserta  Libyse  Interioris.  It  is 
nearly  3000  miles  long,  and  1,000  wide  ;  and  is  inhabited  only  by 
tribes  of  wandering  Arabs,  who  travel  over  it  in  caravans,  on  camels  ; 
living  partly  by  merchandize,  and  partly  by  plunder. 

Nubia,  is  a  part  of  the  ancient  Ethiopia,  like  Egypt,  partly 
watered  by  the  Nile,  and  partly  a  sandy  desert.  It  comprehends  the 
petty  kingdoms  of  Dongola,  in  the  north,  and  Sennaar,  in  the  south  ; 
each  deriving  its  name  from  its  capital  city.  The  northern  part 
of  Nubia  is  said  to  be  subject  to  Egypt.  Abyssinia,  is  also  a  part 

ancient  Ethiopia  ;  the  southern  and  western  boundaries  of  which 

were  undefined.    Abyssinia  contains  the  eastern  sgurces  of  the  Nile  ; 

I  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  or  main  source  may  be  regarded  as  its  western 


AFRICAN.  181 

boundary.  This  country  was  formerly  united  under  one  govern- 
ment ;  but  now  comprises  three  independent  states  ;  Jlmhara,  in  the 
north-west ;  Tigre,  in  the  north-east ;  and  Shoo,  Efat,  in  the  south. 
Gondar,  the  former  capital,  is  now  the  capital  of  Amhara  ;  and 
Mowa,  is  that  of  Tigre  ;  but  Shoa  Efat,  has  no  large  town,  and  has 
been  partly  subdued,  by  the  savage  Gallas,  from  the  south.  The 
religion  of  Abyssinia,  is  nominally  the  Christian ;  but  very  much 
corrupted. 

§  2.  We  now  come  to  that  part  of  Africa,  which  is  inhabited  almost 
exclusively  by  the  Negro  race  ;  and  shall  commence  with  the  portion 
next  south  of  Sahara,  a  part  of  which  has  been  penetrated,  by  the  Arabs, 
and  exhibits  some  traces  of  their  language  and  religion.  Nigritia 
or  Negroland,  extends  from  Senegambia  on  the  west,  to  Nubia  and 
Abyssinia  on  the  east ;  the  central  and  western  portions  being  also 
known  by  the  name  of  Soudan.  It  comprises  a  large  number  of 
petty  kingdoms  or  states;  some  of  which  are  Bergoo,  Darfur,  Kor- 
dofan,  and  Fertit,  in  the  east ;  Darkulla,  Bornou,  Mandara,  Houssa, 
and  Yarriba,  central ;  Timbuctoo,  (or  Tombuctoo),  Bambarra,  and 
Kaarta,  in  the  west.  Among  the  cities,  are  Kemmoo,  in  Kaarta ; 
Sego,  in  Bambarra  ;  Timbuctoo,  in  Timbuctoo ;  Soccatoo,  or  Sacka- 
too,  in  Houssa;  Bornou,  in  Bornou  ;  Wara,  in  Bergoo  ;  and  Cobbe, 
in  Darfur.  The  Niger  is  the  chief  river,  running  first  eastward,  then 
southward  into  the  Gulf  of  Guinea.  The  more  eastern  tribes  are 
professed  Mohamedans,  and  slightly  civilized ;  but  the  Fellatahs,  in 
the  central  part,  are  barbarous  and  warlike. 

Under  the  name  of  Western  Africa,  we  comprehend  all  the  coun- 
tries on  the  western  coast,  from  Sahara  to  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 
This  is  the  region  in  which  the  Slave  Trade  has  mostly  prevailed ; 
a  horrid  traffic,  which  philanthropy  has  not  yet  been  able  fully  to 
suppress  :  though  much  has  already  been  done  by  the  establishment 
of  enlightened  and  well  governed  colonies,  on  this  benighted  coast. 
Senegambia,  so  named  from  its  two  principal  rivers,  the  Senegal 
and  Gambia,  is  the  land  of  the  Jaloffs,  or  Yoloffs,  in  the  north;  the 
Foulahs,  (or  Foolahs),  in  the  south;  and  the  Mandingoes,  in  the 
interior  ;  which  races  are  intermediate  between  the  Moors  and  Ne- 
groes. Sierra  Leone,  in  the  south,  is  a  British  colony,  and  an  asylum 
for  Negroes  liberated  from  slave-ships.  Freetown,  is  its  capital. 
The  French  have  settlements  at  St.  Louis,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Senegal ;  and  the  Portuguese,  at  the  mouth  of  Rio  Grande,  a  small 
river  in  the  central  part. 

Upper  Guinea,  called  also  Guinea,  or  the  coast  of  Guinea,  extends 
along  the  coast,  eastward,  to  the  mouths  of  the  Niger  ;  and  includes 
the  colony  of  Liberia,  in  the  west ;  with  the  negro  states  of  Ashan- 
tee,  and  Dahomey,  in  the  centre ;  and  Benin,  in  the  east.  The 
Grain  Coast,  belongs  to  Liberia ;  the  Ivory  and  Gold  Coasts,  to 
Ashantee  ;  and  the  Slave  Coast,  to  the  more  eastern  states.  Liberia 
is  settled  by  emancipated  slaves,  under  the  direction  of  the  American 
Colonization  Society,  and  now  contains  5000  colonists,  besides 
30,000  natives,  whose  situation  is  rapidly  improving,  under  its  repub- 
lican government,  and  Christian  institutions.  Its  capital  is  Monro- 
via. The  chief  town  of  Ashantee,  is  Coomassie  ;  that  of  Dahomey, 

Q 


182  GEOGRAPHY. 

is  Momey;  and  Benin  has  a  capital  bearing  its  own  name.     The 
British  have  some  settlements  on  this  coast. 

Lower  Guinea,  may  be  considered  as  extending  from  the  eastern 
mouth  of  the  Niger,  to  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  along  the  western 
coast  of  Africa.  It  includes  the  negro  states  of  Biafra  and  Calbon- 
gas,m  the  north  ;  Loango,  Congo,  Angola,  and  Benguela,  more  cen- 
tral ;  and  Cimbebas,  which  is  partly  a  desert,  in  the  south.  It  has 
the  Crystal  mountains  in  the  east ;  and  the  Congo,  or  Zaire,  is  its 
largest  river.  Loango  and  Benguela,  have  capitals  of  their  own 
name ;  that  of  Congo,  is  St.  Salvador,  or  Banza  Congo  ;  and  the 
Portuguese  occupy  Loando,  in  Angola,  for  the  purchase  of  slaves. 
The  religion  of  both  Upper  and  Lower  Guinea,  is  paganism,  the 
governments  are  despotic  ;  and  the  people  very  degraded.  The  cli- 
mate of  the  preceding  parts  of  Africa  is  intensely  hot,  and  in  many 
places  unhealthy  to  Europeans  ;  but  the  productions  are  numerous  ; 
including  the  baobab,  a  kind  of  bread-tree ;  and  among  the  animals 
of  this  region  are,  the  lion,  tiger,  elephant,  rhinoceros,  hippopotamus, 
giraffe,  zebra,  and  ostrich. 

§  3.  We  proceed  next  to  the  more  southern  and  eastern  parts  of 
Africa;  commencing  with  Ethiopia;  of  which  we  can  only  say, 
that  it  is  a  vast  region,  extending  from  the  Jibbel-el-Kumri,  or 
Mountains  of  the  Moon,  on  the  north,  to  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  on 
the  south ;  but  it  is,  as  yet,  almost  entirely  unknown  to  the  civilized 
world.  Cazembe,  is  said  to  be  a  considerable  state  in  its  southern 
part.  The  name  South  Africa,  is  applied  to  that  part  of  Africa 
which  lies  south  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  :  including  the  British 
Colony  of  the  Cape,  in  the  south ;  the  country  of  the  Hottentots, 
in  the  middle  and  west;  and  Caffraria  and  Bushuana,  in  the  east. 
Its  chief  river  is  the  Orange,  running  westward,  through  the  Hot- 
tentot region.  The  chief  towns  are,  Cape  Town,  in  the  Cape 
Colony;  and  Lattalcoo,  and  Kurreechane,  in  Boshuana.  The  Cape 
Colony  was  first  settled  by  the  Dutch,  but  taken  by  the  English  in 
1795,  and  again  in  1806.  The  Hottentots,  including  the  Damaras, 
Namaquas,  and  Bushmen,  are  an  extremely  barbarous  and  degraded 
people.  South  Africa  is  the  coolest,  and  perhaps  the  most  healthy 
portion,  which  has  yet  been  explored,  of  this  quarter  of  the  globe. 

Eastern  Africa,  may  be  considered  as  extending  from  the  tropic 
of  Capricorn,  or  Delagoa  Bay,  northward  to  the  strait  of  Babel- 
mandel ;  and  it  may  be  divided  into  the  coast  of  Mozambique  ;  and 
that  of  Zanguebar;  the  latter  including  Ajan.  The  inhabitants  are 
mostly  of  the  African  race ;  governed  by  petty  chiefs ;  and  many 
of  them  profess  the  Mohamedan  religion.  The  Coast  of  Mozam- 
bique, extending  north  to  Cape  Delgado,  includes  the  small  states  of 
Inhambane,  Sofala,  Mocaranga,  and  Mosambique,  on  the  coast ; 
and  Monomotapa,  in  the  interior.  The  Cuama,  or  Zambeze,  is  its 
principal  river  ;  and  its  chief  towns  are,  Inhambane,  Sofala,  Quili- 
mane,  and  Mosambique,  all  of  which  are  subject  to  the  Portuguese. 
The  Maravis,  and  the  Bo-roras,  are  the  principal  tribes,  scattered 
through  the  interior. 

The  Coast  of  Zanguebar,  extends  northward  from  Mozam- 
bique ;  and  includes  the  states  of  Quiloa  and  Mombas,  in  the  south  ; 


NORTH    AMERICAN.  183 

and  Melinda  and  Magadoxa,  in  the  north.  All  of  these  states  are 
named  from  their  chief  towns ;  but  Magadoxa,  is  the  chief  place  of 
trade,  supplying  ivory,  myrrh,  and  frankincense.  The  name  Somau- 
lia,  may  be  applied  to  the  remaining  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  extend- 
ing from  Magadoxa  to  Cape  Guardafui,  and  thence  to  Abyssinia.  It 
comprises  Ajan,  in  the  south-east :  and  Berbora,  and  Adel,  in  the 
north  and  north-west.  Berbora,  is  so  named  from  its  chief  town ; 
and  Zeyla,  in  Adel,  on  the  straits  of  Babelmandel,  is  also  a  place 
of  trade.  The  Somaulies,  on  the  coast,  and  the  Gallas,  in  the  inte- 
rior, are  the  leading  native  tribes  ;  in  a  very  savage  state. 

§  6.  The  African  Islands,  are  numerous,  but  subject  mostly  to 
European  powers.  Madagascar,  the  largest,  is  inhabited  by  Arabs, 
Malays,  and  Negroes ;  and  divided  into  several  small  states.  Tana- 
narivou,  the  capital  of  Imerina,  in  the  central  part,  is  probably  the 
largest  town.  Of  the  adjacent  islands,  Mauritius,  on  the  east,  and 
the  Almirante,  and  Seychelle  Islands,  to  the  north-east,  belong  to 
Great  Britain ;  but  Bourbon,  near  Mauritius,  belongs  to  France.  That 
part  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  which  surrounds  these  islands,  is  known 
as  the  Ethiopian  Archipelago.  Of  the  islands  west  of  Africa,  the 
Canaries  belong  to  Spain;  Santa  Cruz,  on  Teneriffe,  being  their 
chief  town.  The  Azores  or  Western  Islands,  the  Madeiras,  the 
Cape  Verdes,  St.  Matthews,  and  Ascension,  belong  to  Portugal ; 
and  St.  Helena,  to  the  British. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

NORTH    AMERICAN   GEOGRAPHY. 

NORTH  America,  colonized  chiefly  by  the  English,  and  Spaniards, 
now  ranks  next  to  Europe,  in  civilization,  science,  and  improve- 
ments. It  was  unknown  to  the  civilized  world,  until  comparatively 
recent  times.  Greenland,  was  discovered  by  the  Icelanders,  as  early 
as  A.  D.  982 ;  and  either  Newfoundland  or  New  England,  appears 
to  have  been  discovered  by  Biorn,  (or  Bjorn),  a  Norwegian,  in  1002, 
under  the  name  of  Finland,  or  wine-land.  It  is  also  supposed  that 
the  brothers  Zeno,  (the  Zeni),  of  Venice,  discovered  the  same 
region,  which  they  called  Estotiland,  in  1390  ;  but  still,  the  ex- 
istence of  a  western  continent  was  not  believed  in,  by  the  civilized 
world,  until  Christopher  Columbus,  of  Genoa,  under  Spanish 
patronage,  discovered  Guanahani,  since  called  St.  Salvador,  or  Cat 
Island,  one  of  the  Bahamas,  in  1492.  In  the  same  year,  he  disco- 
vered Cuba  and  St.  Domingo :  in  his  second  voyage,  Jamaica ;  and 
in  his  third  voyage,  in  1497,  he  discovered  Trinidad,  and  the  con- 
tiguous coast  of  South  America ;  of  which  we  are  again  to  speak. 

In  the  year  last  mentioned,  1497,  John  Cabot,  and  his  son  Sebas- 
tian, sent  by  Henry  VII.  of  England,  in  search  of  a  north-west 
passage  to  India,  discovered  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfoundland ;  and 
the  latter,  in  a  second  voyage,  in  1498,  coasted  southward  as  far  as 


184 


GEOGRAPHY. 


Florida.  In  1513,  Balboa  or  Balbao,  crossing  the  Isthmus  of  Darien, 
discovered  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  thus  ascertained  that  America  was 
separated  from  Asia.  Florida  was  explored  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  in 
1512  ;  and  Mexico  by  Cortex,  in  1519.  The  attempt  to  discover  a 
north-west  passage  to  India,  was  repeated,  in  1576,  by  Frobisher, 
who  discovered  Frobisher's  Straits;  in  1585,  by  Capt.  John  Davis, 
who  discovered  Davis'  Straits  ;  in  1610,  by  Capt.  Henry  Hudson, 
who  discovered  Hudson's  Straits  and  Bay  ;  in  1616,  by  Capt.  Baffin, 
who  discovered  Baffin's  Bay,  and  Cumberland  Island,  now  Prince 
William's  Land  ;  and  more  recently,  in  1818,  by  Capt.  Ross,  who 
penetrated  Lancaster's  Sound  ;  and  again  in  1819,  by  Lieut.  Parry, 
who  wintered  at  Melville  Island,  and  whose  progress  in  that  direction 
has  not  since  been  surpassed.  The  expedition  of  Parry  and  Lyon  to 
the  northern  part  of  Hudson's  Bay,  in  1821-3,  was  unsuccessful. 

Meanwhile,  the  Spaniards  under  Cortez  discovered  California,  in 
1536 ;  and  the  North  West  coast,  which  is  said  to  have  been  visited 
by  Mendana,  in  1595,  was  explored  by  Carter et,  in  1767  ;  by  Cook, 
in  1778;  and  by  Vancouver,  about  1794.  In  1771,  Mr.  Hearne 
discovered  the  Arctic  Ocean  at  a  point  south  of  Melville  Island  ;  and 
in  1789,  Mackenzie,  who  first  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  and 
reached  the  Pacific  by  land,  discovered  Mackenzie's  River,  and  the 
sea  at  its  mouth.  Sir  John  Franklin  and  Dr.  Richardson,  in  1826, 
explored  the  northern  coast  of  America,  from  Bathurst  Inlet,  and 
Hearne's  discoveries,  westward  to  those  of  Mackenzie ;  and  thence 
westward  to  Point  Beechey.  Messrs.  JJease  and  Simpson,  in  1837, 
completed  the  exploration  from  Point  Beechey  to  Behring's  Straits  ; 
and  in  1839,  they  explored  the  coast  eastward,  from  Bathurst  Inlet, 
to  Cape  Britannia,  (Lat.  68°  4'  N. ;  Lon.  94°  35'  W.),  near  which 
their  progress  was  interrupted  by  the  lateness  of  the  season.  It  is 
now  rendered  nearly  certain  that  Greenland,  and  the  North  Georgian 
Islands,  are  separated  from  the  continent  of  America,  though  closely 
contiguous  to  it.  Of  numerous  expeditions  to  the  central  parts  of 
North  America,  we  have  no  farther  room  to  speak. 

The  following  is  the  nearest  estimate  which  we  can  make  of  the 
extent  and  population  of  the  countries  of  North  America. 


Countries.  Sq.  Miles. 

Greenland 600,000 . 

Russian  America    500,000. 

New  Britain 2,660,000. 

British  Provinces  435,000. 
United  States. .  .2,300,000. 
Texas 200,000. 


Inhabitants. 

20,000 

50,000 

300,000 

1,380,000 

17,500,000 

150,000 


Countries.  Sq.  Miles.      Inhabitants. 

Mexico 1,550,000..   8,000,000 

Central  America     200,000..    2,000,000 
West  Indies 90,000. .    3,000,000 

TOTAL 8,535,000     32,400,000 


Of  these  divisions  we  proceed  to  treat,  commencing  at  the  north. 

§  1.  The  Northern  Division  of  North  America,  is  mostly  cold, 
barren,  and  thinly  inhabited.  It  is  valuable  to  the  civilized  world 
chiefly  on  account  of  the  Fur  trade,  carried  on  by  the  whites  with 
the  Indians.  In  this  division  we  include  Greenland;  though  it  is 
now  almost  certain  that  the  region,  so  named,  does  not  belong  to  the 
continent  of  America,  but  is  only  to  be  regarded  as  a  large  contiguous 
island.  Greenland  belongs  to  Denmark  ;  but  it  is  of  very  little  value. 


NORTH    AMERICAN.  185 

It  is  inhabited  by  a  few  Esquimaux  Indians,  and  Danish  colonists, 
who  have  settlements  on  the  western  coast.  There  are  Moravian 
missions  at  Lichtenfels,  New  Hernhut  and  other  places  ;  but  Pagan- 
ism still  prevails.  The  coasts  of  Greenland  are  occasionally  visited, 
in  the  summer,  by  ships,  in  pursuit  of  whales  and  seals,  and  the  oil 
of  the  former,  and  skins  of  the  latter,  supply  the  natives,  in  part, 
with  food  and  clothing. 

Russian  America  includes  that  portion  which  lies  west  of  the  141st 
degree  of  west  longitude ;  and  the  Russians  lay  claim  to  the  coast  as 
far  south  as  54°  40'  of  north  latitude.  This  territory  includes  the 
peninsula  of  Alaska,  and  the  Aleutian  or  Fox  Islands,  sometimes 
called  the  Northern  Archipelago.  The  principal  settlement  is  said 
to  be  Sitka  (Sitcha)  or  Neto  Archangel,  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the 
Georgian  Archipelago,  south  of  Mounts  St.  Ellas  and  Fairweather. 
A  few  of  the  inhabitants  are  Russians  ;  and  the  rest,  Esquimaux 
Indians,  in  a  barbarous  state,  subsisting  chiefly  by  hunting  and 
fishing.  These  possessions  are  valuable  to  Russia  chiefly  on  account 
of  the  fur  trade,  which  is  carried  on  there,  to  a  great  extent,  with  the 
Indians. 

British  America,  comprehends  New  Britain,  and  the  five  Pro- 
vinces of  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Prince  Edward's 
Island,  and  Newfoundland.  Each  of  these  provinces  has  a  Lieute- 
nant Governor,  Executive  Council,  and  Legislative  Assembly  ;  and 
the  whole  is  under  a  Governor  General,  appointed  by  the  British 
Crown.  New  Britain  comprises  the  whole  country  extending  from 
Russian  America,  eastward,  around  Hudson's  Bay,  to  Baffin's  Bay, 
and  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  The  eastern  coast,  bordering  on  the  Atlantic, 
is  called  Labrador  ;  and  the  region  between  this  and  Hudson's  Bay 
is  called  East  Main;  while  the  region  west  of  Hudson's  Bay  is 
termed  New  South,  and  New  North  Wales.  New  Britain  is  tra- 
versed by  the  Rocky  Mountains  ;  and  contains  Mackenzie's  River, 
which  flows  northward  from  Slave  Lake,  receiving  the  waters  of 
Lake  Athapescow  (or  Athabasca) ;  and  Nelson  River,  which  flows 
from  Lake  Winnipeg,  north-eastward  into  Hudson's  Bay.  Prince 
William's  Land,  north  of  Hudson's  Strait,  as  also  Boothia  Felix, 
farther  west,  and  the  North  Georgian  Islands,  including  Melville 
Island,  may  be  considered  as  a  part  of  New  Britain.  Among  the 
places  of  trade,  are  Forts  Albany,  Severn,  York,  and  Churchill,  on 
Hudson's  Bay.  Among  the  Indian  tribes  which  inhabit  this  region, 
are  the  Esquimaux,  in  the  north  and  east ;  the  Chippewayans 
towards  the  west ;  and  the  Knisteneaux  in  the  more  southern  and 
central  parts.  New  Britain  is  attached  to  the  government  of  Lower 
Canada  ;  and  it  is  the  seat  of  an  extensive  fur  trade,  carried  on  by  the 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  with  which  the  old  North  West  Company 
is  now  united. 

Of  the  Five  Provinces,  above  named,  constituting  the  more  im- 
portant part  of  British  America,  the  St.  Lawrence  is  the  chief  river; 
and  the  lakes  Superior,  Huron,  St.  Clair,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  form 
a  part  of  their  southern  boundary ;  lying  between  Canada  and  the 
United  States.  The  extent  and  population  of  these  provinces,  is 
nearly  as  follows  : 

24  Q2 


186  GEOGRAPHY. 

Provinces.  Stf-  JMles.        Inhab.   I         Provinces.  Sg.  Miles.        Inhab 

Upper  Canada* 100,000.  .400,000  jNova  Scotia 18,800. .  160,000 

Lower  Canada* 250,000.  .600,000  Prince  Edward's  Is 2,200. .  .40,000 

New  Brunswick 28,000. .  140,000  Newfoundland 36,000. .  .80,000 

Prince  Edtoard's  Island,  was  formerly  called  St,  Johns ;  but  the 
name  was  changed,  when  it  became  a  distinct  province.  The  island 
of  Cape  Breton,  is  attached  to  Nova  Scotia;  and  Anticosti,  to 
Lower  Canada.  The  chief  towns  in  these  provinces,  are,  of  Upper 
Canada,  Kingston,  and  Toronto,  formerly  called  York  ;  of  Lower 
Canada,  Quebec,  and  Montreal ;  of  New  Brunswick,  Frederickton, 
the  capital,  and  St.  Johns;  of  Nova  Scotia,  Halifax;  of  Prince 
Edward's  Island,  Charlotte  Town;  and  of  Newfoundland,  St. 
Johns.  The  inhabitants  of  Lower  Canada,  are  chiefly  of  French 
descent,  and  Catholics ;  but  the  other  parts  were  mostly  settled  by 
the  British.  The  chief  trade  is  in  timber  and  furs. 

§  2.  The  United  States  of  America,  comprise,  at  present, 
twenty-six  states,  and  three  organized  territories;  besides  the  dis- 
trict of  Columbia,  and  the  extensive  western  region,  still  inhabited 
by  the  aborigines  or  Indians.  The  principal  mountains  are,  the 
Rocky,  or  Chippewayan,  in  the  west ;  and  the  Mleghany  range  in 
the  east ;  besides  the  White  Mountains,  Green  Mountains,  Catskill 
Mountains,  Blue  Ridge,  Laurel  and  Chesnut  Hills,  and  the  Cum- 
berland Mountains.  The  largest  rivers  are,  the  Mississippi,  with  its 
tributaries,  the  Missouri,  Ohio,  Arkansas,  and  Red  River ;  which 
together  discharge  the  waters  of  the  great  central  basin  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico;  and  the  Columbia  River,  in  the  extreme  west, 
flowing  into  the  Pacific  Ocean.  On  the  eastern  coast,  are  the  Penob- 
scot,  Kennebec,  Connecticut,  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susquehanna,  Po- 
tomac, James,  Roanoke,  Pedee,  Santee,  Savannah,  and  Alatamaha, 
or  Altamaha ;  and  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  flow  the  Apalachicola, 
Alabama,  Pascagoula,  and  Pearl  rivers.  The  Tennessee,  Cumber- 
land, and  Wabash,  flow  into  the  Ohio ;  and  the  Kaskaskia,  Illinois, 
and  Wisconsin,  into  the  upper  Mississippi.  The  St.  Lawrence,  is 
the  outlet  of  the  large  lakes,  mentioned  under  the  British  Provinces  ; 
as  also  of  lakes  Michigan,  and  Champlain,  which  lie  wholly  within 
the  United  States.  Long  Island,  the  largest  belonging  to  the  United 
States,  is  a  part  of  New  York. 

The  largest  cities,  in  the  United  States,  are  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  Boston,  and  New  Orleans ;  and  next  to  these  in 
size,  are  Cincinnati,  Pittsburg,  Charleston,  and  Albany.  New 
York,  containing  300,000  inhabitants,  is  the  largest  city  in  America. 
The  Canals  and  Railroads  of  the  United  States,  are  too  numerous  to 
be  here  mentioned  ;  but  the  total  length  of  the  former  now  completed, 
is  not  less  than  2,500;  and  of  the  latter,  3,500  miles;  besides  about 
135,000  miles  of  common  post  roads.  The  annual  revenue  is  20  or 
25  million  dollars;  the  exports  about  110  millions;  and  the  imports 
about  120  millions  of  dollars.  There  are  in  the  United  States  about 
880  banks,  including  branches,  with  an  authorized  capital  of  440 

*  These  two  provinces,  the  boundary  between  which  was  the  Utawas  River, 
were  united  in  one,  on  the  10th  of  February,  1841  ;  Kingston  being  now  the  seat 
of  Government. 


NORTH    AMERICAN. 


187 


million  dollars ;  and  the  total  wealth  of  the  nation  may  be  estimated 
at  not  less  than  seven  times  that  amount.  The  army  now  consists  of 
nearly  12,000  men  :  and  the  navy  of  62  vessels.  The  government  is 
representative  and  republican,  as  already  described,  (p.  Ill );  and  the 
religion  is  chiefly  protestant,  of  various  denominations.  There  are  now 
about  95  Colleges  in  operation  in  the  United  States  ;  besides  Acade- 
mies, and  Common  Schools.  The  number  of  Indians  in  the  U.  S., 
chiefly  in  the  Western  Territory,  cannot  be  less  than  500,000 ;  and 
they  are  divided  into  almost  innumerable  tribes  ;  of  which  the  Cherokees, 
Creeks,  and  Choctaws,  are  perhaps  the  most  civilized  and  best  known. 
The  following  is  a  table  of  the  extent  of  the  several  states,  with 
their  population,  in  1830,  and  in  1840  ;  and  their  capitals. 


States. 

Sq.  Miles. 

Pop.  in  1830. 

Pop.  in  1840. 

Capital. 

Maine, 

33,000 

399,955 

501,793 

Augusta. 

N.  Hampshire, 

9,400 

269,328 

284,574 

Concord. 

Vermont, 

10,210 

280,652 

291,948 

Montpelier. 

Massachusetts, 

7,600 

610,408 

737,699 

Boston. 

Rhode  Island, 

1,350 

97,199 

108,830 

Providence  &  Newport. 

Connecticut, 

4,700 

297,665 

310,015 

Hartford  &N.  Haven. 

New  York, 

46,000 

1,918,608 

2,428,921 

Albany. 

New  Jersey, 

7,500 

320,823 

373,306 

Trenton. 

Pennsylvania, 

44,000 

1,348,233 

1,724,022 

Harrisburg. 

Delaware, 

2,100 

76,748 

78,085 

Dover. 

Maryland, 

13,000 

447,040 

469,232 

Annapolis. 

Virginia, 

64,000 

1,211,405 

1,239,797 

Richmond. 

N.  Carolina, 

50,000 

737,987 

753,110 

Raleigh. 

S.  Carolina, 

29,000 

581,185 

594,398 

Columbia. 

Georgia, 

60,000 

516,823 

750,000* 

Milledgeville. 

Alabama, 

50,000 

309,527 

660,000* 

Tuscaloosa. 

Mississippi, 

46,000 

136,621 

375,65  1 

Jackson. 

Louisiana, 

48,500 

215,739 

351,176 

New  Orleans. 

Arkansas, 

55,000 

30,388 

95,642 

Little  Rock. 

Tennessee, 

40,000 

681,904 

829,210 

Nashville. 

Kentucky, 

40,000 

687,917 

800,000* 

Frankfort. 

Ohio, 

39,000 

937,903 

1,519,467 

Columbus. 

Michigan, 

44,000 

31,639 

211,705 

Detroit. 

Indiana, 

36,000 

343,031 

683,314 

Indianapolis. 

Illinois, 

54,000 

157,455 

474,404 

Vandalia. 

Missouri, 

62,000 

140,445 

381,102 

Jefferson  City 

D.  of  Columbia, 

100 

39,834 

43,712 

WASHINGTON. 

Florida  T., 

50,000 

34,730 

54,207 

Tallahassee. 

Wisconsin  T., 

90,000 

- 

30,752 

Madison  City. 

Iowa  T., 

180,000 

- 

43,068 

Burlington. 

1,216,460 

12,861,192 

17,199,140 

Missouri,  Oregon,  and  the  Indian  Territory,  have  no  organized 
territorial  governments. 

Texas,  formerly  belonging  to  Mexico,  has  been  mostly  settled  by 
emigrants  from  the  United  States.  Its  chief  river,  is  the  Brazos  ; 
and  its  principal  towns,  are  Houston,  the  late  capital ;  Austin,  the 
new  capital ;  both  centrally  situated  ;  and  Nacogdoches,  and  Mata- 
gorda,  in  the  east.  The  government  is  republican  ;  and  the  popula- 
tion rapidly  increasing. 

§  3.  The  Southern  Division  of  North  America,  including  Mexi- 
co, and  Central  America,  was  colonized  by  the  Spaniards ;  and 
*  Returns  incomplete. 


188  GEOGRAPHY. 

retains  their  language,  with  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  The 
governments  are  now  republican;  but  these  countries  are  in  an  unset- 
tled state;  and  education  is  not  generally  diffused,  though  much 
needed,  for  their  improvement. 

Mexico,  formerly  called  New  Spain,  includes  the  peninsulas  of 
Yucatan,  in  the  south-east,  and  California,  in  the  west.  It  is  tra- 
versed by  the  great  American  chain  of  mountains,  here  called  the 
Cordilleras;  and  its  chief  rivers,  are  the  Del  Norte,  and  Western 
Colorado  ;  the  latter  flowing  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  The  Great 
American  Desert,  lies  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  partly  in  Mexi- 
co, and  partly  in  the  United  States ;  and  the  Great  Sandy  Desert, 
is  in  the  north-western  part  of  Mexico.  The  chief  cities  of  this 
country,  are  Mexico,  the  capital;  Puebla,  south-east  of  it;  Gua- 
naxuato,  and  Guadalaxara,  north-west  of  it ;  San  Luis  Potosi, 
and  Oaxaca,  south  of  Puebla :  and  the  principal  sea-ports,  are  Vera 
Cruz,  and  Tampico.  Mexico  is  celebrated  for  its  gold  and  silver 
mines ;  many  of  which  are  now  neglected.  The  antiquities  of  this 
country,  and  particularly  the  pyramid  of  Cholula,  and  the  ruins 
of  the  ancient  city  Calhuacan,  near  Palenque,  attest  the  power  and 
civilization  of  its  former  inhabitants.  The  government  of  Mexico, 
is  nominally  republican ;  but  controlled  for  the  most  part  by  mi- 
litary force.  Yucatan  has  recently  become  a  separate  and  inde- 
pendent republic,  of  which  Merida  is  the  capital.  The  settlement  of 
Balize,  on  the  Bay  of  Honduras,  belongs  to  the  British. 

Guatimala,  now  called  Central  America,  extends  southward  to  the 
isthmus  of  Darien;  and  contains  the  Lake  Nicaragua;  with  some 
volcanoes,  in  the  Cordillerian  range  of  mountains.  Its  chief  cities, 
are  St.  Salvador,  the  capital ;  Guatimala,  and  Leon.  The  climate 
is  hot,  and  less  healthy  than  on  the  table  lands  of  Mexico.  Its  most 
valued  productions  are  logwood,  mahogany,  indigo,  and  cochineal ; 
but  here,  as  in  Mexico,  the  country  is  not  highly  cultivated. 

§  4.  The  West  Indies,  are  a  numerous  group  of  islands,  so  named 
from  the  supposition  of  Columbus,  that  they  were  a  part  of  the 
Indies  known  in  preceding  times.  They  are  all,  excepting  Hay- 
ti,  subject  to  different  European  powers ;  and  their  commerce  is 
of  much  value.  The  four  largest  islands,  Cuba,  Hayti,  Jamaica, 
and  Porto  Rico,  are  known  as  the  Great  Antilles.  The  names 
Lesser  Antilles,  and  Caribbee  Islands,  are  variously  applied  to  the 
islands  south  and  east  of  these  ;  but  we  prefer  to  call  them  all  Carib- 
bee Islands,  including  the  Windward,  or  more  eastern,  and  the 
Leeward,  or  more  western. 

Hayti,  Hispaniola,  or  St.  Domingo,  is  now  occupied  by  Africans, 
having  a  distinct  and  independent  government,  under  a  president, 
chosen  for  life.  Its  chief  towns,  are  Port  au  Prince,  and  Cape 
Haytien;  the  latter  being  the  capital.  Cuba,  and  Porto  Rico,  are 
still  subject  to  Spain.  Their  chief  towns,  are,  in  Cuba,  Havana, 
and  Puerto  Principe  ;  and  in  Porto  Rico,  St.  Johns.  The  interior 
of  Cuba,  being  mountainous,  has  a  cool  and  healthy  climate,  though 
within  the  torrid  zone. 

The  British  possessions  in  the  West  Indies,  are  Jamaica;  and 
Trinidad,  Tobago,  Grenada,  Barbadoes,  St.  Lucia,  Dominica,  An- 
tigua, the  Bahamas,  and  Bermudas,  with  several  smaller  islands. 


SOUTH    AMERICAN. 


189 


The  capital  of  Jamaica  is  Kingston:  but  the  other  towns  of  these 
islands,  are  too  small  to  find  mention  in  this  place.  Slavery  has 
recently  been  abolished  in  the  British  West  Indies  ;  but  in  Cuba,  and 
Porto  Rico,  it  still  continues  to  exist.  Guadaloupe,  and  Martinico, 
belong  to  the  French  ;  St.  Eustatia,  Curagoa,  and  St.  Martin's,  to 
the  Dutch ;  Santa  Cruz,  St.  Thomas,  and  St.  Jo/ins,  to  the  Danes, 
and  St.  Bartholomew,  Mariegalante,  and  Deseada,  to  the  Swedes. 


CHAPTER  V. 

SOUTH    AMERICAN    GEOGRAPHY. 

SOUTH  America,  colonized  by  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese,  was, 
like  the  preceding  grand  division,  made  known  to  the  civilized  world 
by  the  genius  and  labors  of  Columbus.  He  was  its  first  European 
discoverer,  and  first  visited  it,  as  before  mentioned,  in  1497.  In  the 
year  1500,  Alvarez  Cabral,  when  on  his  way  to  the  East  Indies, 
under  the  orders  of  the  Portuguese  government,  discovered  the  coast 
of  Brazil.  The  river  La  Plata,  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  in 
1512  ;  but  the  more  southern  part  of  South  America,  was  first  ex- 
plored by  Magellan,  in  1520,  under  Spanish  authority,  and  on  his 
voyage  around  the  world,  the  first  which  was  ever  made.  In  1524, 
Peru  became  known  to  the  Spaniards,  which  led  to  its  conquest  by 
Pizarro,  begun  in  the  following  year.  Buenos  Ayres,  was  visited 
by  l)e  Soils,  in  1517;  and  by  Sebastian  Cabot,  in  1526.  Chili, 
was  invaded  by  Mnagro,  in  the  year  1535.  We  have  only  room  to 
add,  that  Orelland,  or  Ovellana,  a  Spaniard,  is  regarded  as  the  dis- 
coverer of  the  river  Amazon,  and  the  region  of  Amazonia,  about  the 
year  1541. 

The  following  is  offered  as  an  approximate  statement  of  the  extent 
and  population  of  the  countries  of  South  America. 

Countries.  Sq.  Mies.      Inhabitants. 

Chili 170,000..    1,500,000 

La  Plata 750,000. .  2,000,000 

Paraguay 100,000 . .      300,000 

Uruguay 110,000..      1 50,000 

Patagonia 380,000 . .        40,000 

TOTAL 6,930,000     15,870,000 

We  proceed  to  speak  of  these  divisions,  in  the  order  above  named. 

§  1.  The  Eastern  Division  of  South  America  comprises  Brazil 
and  Guiana,  colonized  by  other  nations  than  the  Spaniards.  The 
climate  of  this  region  is  hot,  and  in  some  parts  unhealthy ;  but  it  has 
generally  a  fertile  soil,  and  produces  cotton,  coffee,  sugar,  rice, 
maize,  Brazil  wood,  and  various  tropical  trees  and  plants.  Among 
the  animals  of  this  region,  are  the  jaguar,  or  American  tiger,  the 
tapir,  resembling  the  African  hippopotamus;  and  the  large  aboma 
snake,  almost  vieing  with  the  East  India  anaconda. 

Krazil,  is  an  extensive,  though  thinly  peopled  empire  ;  and  nomi- 
nally includes  the  central  region  of  South  America,  called  Amazonia, 


Countries. 
Brazil  
Guiana  
Venezuela  
New  Grenada.  . 
Equador  
Peru 

Sq.  Jlfiles.      Inhabitants. 
3,200,000..    5,200,000 
160,000..       180,000 
420,000..      900,000 
450,000..    1,700,000 
300,000..      600,000 
440,000..    1,700,000 

Bolivia  

450,000..    1,600,000 

190  GEOGRAPHY. 

still  chiefly  inhabited  by  the  Indians.  Indeed,  various  Indian  tribes 
are  scattered  over  all  its  wide  territory  :  but  these  we  have  no  room  to 
name.  It  is  watered  by  the  Amazon  in  the  north,  with  its  branches, 
the  Negro,  Madeira,  Topayos  or  Tapajos,  and  Xingu  or  Chingu  :  in 
the  central  part  is  the  Araguay  or  Tocantins  ;  and,  in  the  east,  the 
river  St.  Francisco.  The  Brazilian  mountains  extend  along  the 
south-eastern  coast.  The  chief  cities  of  this  empire  are  Rio  Janeiro, 
the  capital ;  Bahia,  or  St.  Salvador,  and  Pernambuco,  farther  north  ; 
and  between  the  two  latter  Sergippe  del  Rey,  all  in  the  eastern  part ; 
Cm/aba,  in  the  centre  ;  Para  and  Maranham,  in  the  north  ;  and  St. 
Paul,  in  the  south.  Brazil  has  rich  mines,  especially  of  gold  and 
diamonds.  It  was  formerly  a  Portuguese  colony,  but  is  now  an 
independent  monarchy  ;  and  the  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic. 

Guiana,  north  of  Brazil,  is  now  limited  to  the  French,  Dutch, 
and  British  possessions  of  that  name  ;  the  part  which  formerly 
belonged  to  Portugal,  being  now  merged  in  Brazil.  Cayenne  is  the 
capital  of  Cayenne,  or  French  Guiana ;  Paramaribo,  of  Surinam  or 
Dutch  Guiana  ;  and  Georgetown  is  the  capital  of  Berbice,  Demerara, 
and  Essequibo,  or  British  Guiana.  The  commerce  of  this  region  is 
of  some  value ;  but  owing  perhaps  to  the  climate  the  people  are  said 
to  be  indolent ;  and  the  greater  part  of  the  population  are  slaves. 

§  2.  The  countries  in  the  North  Western  Division  of  South 
America,  were  all  colonized  by  Spain  ;  and  though  now  independent, 
retain  the  Spanish  language  and  manners,  with  the  Roman  Catholic 
religion.  Their  governments  are  all  nominally  republican ;  but 
imperfectly  administered,  from  the  want  of  general  education  and 
knowledge  among  the  people. 

Venezuela,  is  a  part  of  the  recent  republic  of  Colombia,  which 
included  also  New  Grenada  and  Equador.  Its  chief  river  is  the 
Orinoco  ;  the  island  of  Margarita  belongs  to  this  state ;  and  Lake 
Maracaybo  is  near  its  western  border.  Its  chief  cities,  are  Carac- 
cas,  the  capital ;  Maracaybo,  Coro,  and  Valencia,  west  of  it,  and 
Cumana,  farther  east.  Venezuela  produces  domestic  animals,  sugar, 
and  cocoa,  in  great  abundance  ;  and  the  inhabitants  are  said  to 
be  making  considerable  progress  in  education  and  the  arts.  New 
Grenada,  recently  a  part  of  Colombia,  and  now  an  independent 
republic,  is  rich  in  the  productions  of  all  climates,  and  has  mines  of 
gold  and  silver.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Jlndes  mountains,  on  which 
its  climate  is  cool,  though  in  the  torrid  zone.  The  Magdalena  is 
its  principal  river ;  and  its  chief  towns  are  Bogota,  (Santa  Fe  de 
Bogota),  the  capital;  Popayan,  south  of  it;  and  Carthagena,  and 
Panama,  in  the  north  and  west.  Coffee,  cotton,  indigo,  and  tobacco 
are  among  its  productions ;  but  agriculture  and  the  arts  are  in  a 
backward  state. 

Equador,  (Ecuador  or  Equator),  the  remaining  part  of  Colombia, 
and  now  independent,  borders  on  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  lies  chiefly 
south  of  the  equator,  from  which  it  derives  its  name.  It  contains 
Chimborazo  and  numerous  other  lofty  peaks  of  the  Andes,  some  of 
which,  including  Cotopaxi,  are  volcanoes.  In  its  eastern  part,  the 
rivers  Ucayale  and  Tunguragua  unite  to  form  the  Amazon  ;  and  the 
Yupura  or  Caqueta  forms  a  part  of  its  northern  boundary.  Its  chief 


SOUTH    AMERICAN.  191 

cities,  are  Quito,  the  capital ;  and  south  of  it,  Guayaquil,  Riobamba, 
and  Cuenca.  Its  productions  and  characteristics  are  nearly  the  same 
as  those  of  New  Grenada.  Peru,  south  of  Equador,  is  also  tra- 
versed by  the  Andes,  and  contains  the  river  Ucayale,  the  chief  source 
of  the  Amazon.  Lake  Titicaca  lies  in  its  southern  part,  among  the 
mountains.  Its  chief  cities  are  Lima,  the  capital ;  and  south-east  of 
it  Cusco,  and  Arequipa  ;  but  the  principal  seaports  are  Callao  near 
Lima,  and  Truxillo.  Peru  produces  the  Peruvian  bark,  and  various 
tropical  fruits ;  and  it  is  the  native  country  of  the  llama,  which  is  used 
as  a  beast  of  burthen.  This  country  is  rich  in  mines  of  gold  and 
silver;  and  abounds  in  interesting  ^antiquities.  It  has  been  divided 
into  two  states,  North  Peru  and  South  Peru;  but  the  government 
is  at  present  in  an  unsettled  state. 

§  3.  The  Central  Division  of  South  America,  colonized  also  by  the 
Spaniards,  has  a  cooler  climate  than  the  preceding,  but  still  abounds 
in  tropical  productions.  Its  state  in  regard  to  religion,  government 
and  civilization,  is  quite  similar  to  that  of  the  preceding  division. 

Bolivia,  sometimes  called  Upper  Peru,  contains  Mount  Sorata, 
said  to  be  the  highest  peak  of  the  Andes,  or  nearly  four  miles  and 
three-fifths,  in  height.  The  Madeira  river  runs  from  it  northward 
to  the  Amazon;  and  the  Pilcomayo  and  Vermejo  run  south-eastward 
into  the  Paraguay.  Its  chief  cities  are  Chuquisaca,  the  capital ;  and 
north  of  it  Cochabamba,  and  La  Paz.  It  raises  grain  for  exporta- 
tion to  Peru,  and  contains  the  rich  silver  mines  of  Potosi  ;  but  here 
as  in  the  contiguous  countries,  the  arts  are  in  a  backward  state. 
Chili  lies  south  of  Peru,  or  the  Desert  of  Atacama  ;  and  between 
the  Pacific  ocean  and  the  Andes.  The  islands  of  Chiloe,  on  the 
south,  and  Juan  Fernandez,  on  the  west,  belong  to  Chili.  Its  chief 
towns  are  Santiago,  the  capital,  in  the  interior;  and  Valparaiso,  near 
it,  on  the  coast.  The  climate  is  temperate,  and  Chili  produces  various 
grains,  with  cotton,  sugar,  oil,  and  wine.  It  has  some  mines  of  the 
precious  metals  ;  and  is  more  advanced  in  the  arts  than  the  preceding 
states.  The  southern  part  is  still  inhabited  by  the  Jlraucanian 
Indians  ;  a  brave  and  hardy  race. 

La  Plata,  or  the  Argentine  Republic,  called  also  Buenos  Jlyres, 
lies  east  of  Chili,  and  is  named  from  the  river  La  Plata,  which  runs 
through  its  eastern  part.  It  contains  also  the  Salado,  which  is  a 
branch  of  the  La  Plata ;  and,  in  its  southern  part,  the  rivers  Colorado 
and  Negro.  Its  chief  cities  are  Buenos  Ayres,  the  capital,  in  the 
east ;  and  Cordova  and  San  Juan,  more  central.  Among  the  animals 
of  La  Plata  are  the  rhea,  or  American  ostrich ;  and  wild  horses  and 
cattle ;  which  are  hunted  by  horsemen,  on  its  extensive  Pampas  or 
plains.  Paraguay,  north-east  of  La  Plata,  and  formerly  a  part  of  it, 
lies  between  the  rivers  Paraguay  and  Parana.  Assumption  is  its 
capital,  and  though  small,  its  largest  city.  Most  of  its  inhabitants 
are  Indians.  Its  government  is  an  absolute  monarchy,  under  a  self- 
constituted  Dictator  ;  and  its  religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic.  Uru- 
guay, or  Monte  Video,  formerly  called  the  Banda  Oriental,  lies 
east'of  La  Plata,  and  borders  on  the  river  Uruguay,  from  which  it  is 
named.  Montevideo  is  its  capital  and  chief  city.  In  productions  and 
characteristics,  it  resembles  La  Plata,  of  which  it  was  formerly  a  part. 


192  GEOGRAPHY. 

§  4.  Patagonia,  the  southern  division  of  South  America,  is  a  cold 
and  rather  barren  region,  sparsely  inhabited  by  Indians,  of  whom 
the  Puelches,  in  the  north,  and  Moluches,  in  the  south,  are  said  to  be 
the  principal  tribes.  The  islands  of  Terra  del  Fuego  are  included 
with  Patagonia  ;  but  the  Falkland  Islands  on  the  east  are  claimed  by 
Buenos  Ayres,  and  by  Great  Britain.  The  islands  of  South  Shet- 
land, South  Orkney,  and  Sandwich  Land,  farther  south,  discovered 
since  1819,  are  chiefly  visited  for  the  purpose  of  procuring  the  skins 
of  the  seals  in  which  they  abound. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

OCEANIC    GEOGRAPHY. 

THE  name  Oceanica,  was  introduced  by  Malte-Brun,  to  compre- 
hend New  Holland,  and  the  numerous  islands  of  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
which  together  form  the  sixth  grand  division  of  the  earth.  It  is 
usually  subdivided  into  Malaysia,  including  the  islands  north-west 
of  New  Holland  and  New  Guinea;  Australasia,  including  these  two 
islands,  and  the  range  eastward  of  them  ;  and  Polynesia ;  including 
the  numerous  other  groups  farther  eastward  and  northward  ;  excepting 
those  on  the  immediate  coast  of  America,  or  Asia.  Most  of  these 
islands  are  inhabited  by  savage  tribes,  imperfectly  known.  Java, 
and  Sumatra,  were  discovered  by  the  Portuguese,  in  1510  ;  Celebes, 
in  1512;  and  Borneo,  they  visited  in  1526.  The  discovery  of  New 
Holland,  has  been  attributed  to  Gonneville,  in  1503  ;  and  more  pro- 
bably to  Menezis,  a  Portuguese,  in  1527  ;  but  if  so,  it  was  redisco- 
vered by  Quiros,  a  Spaniard,  in  1606,  or  by  Dirk  Hartag,  or  Har- 
tigh,  a  Dutchman,  in  1616.  Van  Diemen's  Land,  and  New  Zealand, 
were  discovered  by  Tasman,  in  1642.  Lemaire  and  Schouten  were 
also  sent  out  by  the  Dutch  government ;  but  their  discoveries  were 
of  minor  importance. 

Most  of  the  other  discoveries  in  Oceanica,  have  been  made  by 
circumnavigators,  while  on  their  Voyages  around  the  World;  of 
which  this  seems  the  proper  place  to  speak.  The  first  of  these 
voyages  was  that  of  Fernando  Magellan,  (or  Magalhaens),  who 
sailed  from  Spain,  in  1519  ;  discovered  the  straits  bearing  his  name, 
in  1520;  and,  passing  through  them,  into  the  Pacific  ocean,  disco- 
vered the  Ladrones,  and  Philippine  Islands,  in  1521.  He  was  killed 
on  one  of  the  latter  islands,  in  the  same  year;  but  one  of  his  ships, 
after  discovering  Borneo,  returned  to  Spain,  in  1522.  Next  to  this, 
we  would  mention  the  voyage  of  Saavedra,  though  it  was  only 
across  the  Pacific  Ocean.  He  sailed  from  Mexico  around  South 
America,  in  1527;  and  is  said  to  have  discovered  New  Guinea,  and 
Gilolo,  in  1528.  The  second  voyage  around  the  world,  was  that  of 
Sir  Francis  Drake,  who  sailed  from  England,  in  1577 ;  discovered 
Cape  Horn,  and  visited  California,  in  1578;  and  returned  to  England, 
in  1580.  The  third  circumnavigator,  was  Sir  Thomas  Cavendish, 


OCEANIC. 


193 


in  1586-8;  and  the  fourth,  was  Oliver  Van  Noort,  who  performed 
the  first  Dutch  circumnavigation,  in  1598-1601.  Mendana  disco- 
vered the  Solomon  isles,  in  1595;  and  Quiros  discovered  the  Mar- 
quesas, in  the  same  year.  Quiros  also  discovered  the  New  Hebrides, 
in  1606;  and  named  them  Tierra  Australia  del  Espiritu  Santo;  but 
Bougainville  called  them  the  Great  Cyclades  ;  and  Capt.  Cook  gave 
them  their  present  name,  in  1774.  The  Caroline  Isles,  were  disco- 
vered by  the  Spaniards,  in  1686. 

Among  other  voyages  around  the  world,  are  those  of  Dampier, 
who  sailed  in  1683,  and  visited  Juan  Fernandez  ;  of  Jlnson,  in  1740, 
chiefly  for  warlike  purposes  ;  of  Byron,  in  1764,  who  discovered 
King  George's,  Prince  of  Wales',  and  other  islands  ;  that  of  Bou- 
gainville, who  visited  the  New  Hebrides,  in  1768  ;  and  of  Capt. 
Cook,  who  made  three  voyages  around  the  world,  beginning  in  1768, 
on  the  third  of  which  he  was  killed  at  Owyhee,  in  1779.  He  dis- 
covered the  Society  Islands,  in  1769,  the  Friendly  Islands,  in  1773, 
and  the  Sandwich  Islands,  in  1778  ;  and  first  surveyed  the  eastern 
coast  of  New  Holland,  in  1770.  Furneaux,  in  1773,  completed 
the  exploration  of  the  coast  of  New  Holland,  by  connecting  Tas- 
man's  discoveries,  with  those  of  Cook.  The  unhappy  voyage  of 
Laperouse  ;  both  of  whose  vessels  were  lost,  in  1788  ;  and  the  later 
voyages  around  the  world,  by  Krusenstern,  Kotzebue,  and  others,  we 
have  no  room  here  to  describe. 

The  following  table  gives  the  extent  and  population  of  Oceanica, 
as  nearly  as  we  can  ascertain  them. 

Islands.  Sq.  Miles. 

Sunda  Islands  ____  245,000. 

Celebes    and  7 
Moluccas    5 
Borneo  ..........  360,000. 

Philippine  Islands  .  105,000. 


Inhabitants. 

Islands. 

Sq.  Mies. 

Inhabitants. 

.  10,000,000 

New  Guinea,  7 

.275,000. 

.  .  .  500,000 

..2,000,000 
..3,000,000 

or  Papua       £ 
New  British  ? 
Range         3  ' 

..70,000. 

.  .  .  300,000 

..2,300,000 

West  Polynesia  . 

..25,000. 

...  150,000 

..2,000,000 

Central  Polynesia 
East  Polynesia  . 

,..40,000. 
..65,000. 

.  .  .  300,000 
.  .  .  250,000 

.  .  .  300,000 

TOTAL 

4,365,000. 

.21,100,000 

New  Zealand  ......  90,000. 


We  proceed  to  treat  of  these  islands,  in  the  order  above  named. 

§  1.  The  name  Malaysia,  is  applied  to  the  group  of  the  Sunda 
Islands,  Celebes,  and  the  Moluccas,  Borneo,  and  the  Philippine 
Islands  ;  from  their  being  inhabited  chiefly  by  the  Malay  race,  and 
lying  near  Asia.  They  are  sometimes  called  the  Indian  Archipelago  ; 
being  regarded  as  a  part  of  the  East  Indies.  They  abound  in  the 
richest  tropical  productions  ;  and  have  an  extensive  commerce  ;  but 
the  inhabitants  are  generally  pagans,  living  in  tribes,  and  in  a  half 
civilized  or  barbarous  state. 

The  Sunda  Islands,  include  Sumatra,  and,  south-east  of  it,  Java, 
and  Sumbawa  ;  to  which  we  would  add  Floris,  and  Timor,  more 
eastward,  in  the  same  range.  These  islands  contain  several  volca- 
noes, some  of  which  are  almost  continually  in  action.  Their  chief 
cities,  are,  in  Sumatra,  Palcmbans?  ;  and  in  Java,  Batavia,  the 
Dutch  capital,  and  Samarang.  The  small  island  of  Banca,  east  of 
Sumatra,  has  valuable  mines  of  tin,  wrought  by  the  Chinese.  These 
islands,  however,  belong  principally  to  the  Dutch  ;  and  trade  in  rice, 
25  R 


194  GEOGRAPHY. 

sugar,  coffee,  pepper,  and  other  tropical  productions.  The  Moluccas, 
or  Spice  Islands,  are  the  small  islands  east  of  Celebes,  which  island 
we  would  include  in  the  same  group,  from  its  contiguity,  and  the  simi- 
larity of  its  productions.  Gilolo,  Bouro,  and  Ceram,  are  the  largest 
of  the  Spice  Islands  ;  and  the  smaller  islands  west  of  Gilolo,  are  the 
only  places  where  the  clove  tree  is  indigenous.  These  islands 
belong  mostly  to  the  Dutch ;  who  possess  the  town  of  Macassar, 
on  the  Island  of  Celebes. 

Borneo,  is,  next  to  Australia,  the  largest  island  in  the  world ;  and 
like  the  preceding  islands,  belongs  chiefly  to  the  Dutch.  Its  capital 
is  the  town  of  Borneo,  in  the  northern  part.  The  inhabitants  are 
partly  savage  native  tribes,  and  partly  Malays,  professing  the  Moha- 
medan  religion.  Borneo  is  the  home  of  the  ourang-outang,  and  is 
rich  in  gold  and  diamonds.  The  Philippine  Islands,  more  than 
1000  in  number,  belong  to  the  Spaniards.  The  largest  islands,  are 
Luzon,  or  Luconia ;  and  Mindanao,  or  Magindanao  ;  next  to  which, 
in  size,  are  Palawan,  and  Samar.  The  chief  city  and  capital,  is 
Manilla,  on  the  island  of  Luzon. 

§  2.  Australasia  comprehends  Australia,  Tasmania,  New  Zealand, 
New  Guinea,  and  what  may  be  termed  the  New  British  Range,  or 
the  Solomon  Islands  and  New  Hebrides.  The  inhabitants  of  these 
islands,  excepting  New  Zealand,  are  chiefly  a  peculiar  black  race, 
called  Papuan  Negroes,  in  a  very  savage  state. 

Australia  was  formerly  called  New  Holland;  but  the  latter  name 
is  now  restricted  to  the  western  part  of  this  wide  region  ;  the  eastern 
being  called  New  South  Wales.  The  British  have  colonized  the 
south-eastern  portion,  called  Botany  Bay  ;  and  still  send  criminals 
thither  as  temporary  slaves.  Sidney  is  its  capital  and  chief  town. 
Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemerfs  Land,  an  island  south  of  Australia,  is 
also  colonized  by  the  British ;  Hobart  Town  being  its  capital ;  and 
more  recently  a  colony  has  been  established  in  the  south-western 
part  of  Australia,  on  the  Swan  River.  New  Zealand,  comprises 
two  large  islands,  Eahei  and  Tavai,  south-east  of  Australia,  inhabited 
by  native  tribes  of  the  Malay  race,  of  a  very  ferocious  character. 
These  islands  have  also  been  colonized  by  the  British  ;  and  there  is 
here  a  confederation  of  native  chiefs,  under  British  protection.  The 
Bay  of  Islands,  in  Eahei,  the  more  northern  island  of  this  group, 
is  a  favorite  resort  for  whale  ships. 

New  Guinea  or  Papua,  north  of  Australia,  is  said  to  be  a  fertile 
island,  of  which  little  is  known.  We  would  designate  as  the  New 
British  Range,  the  islands  of  Louisiade,  New  Britain,  New  Ireland, 
New  Georgia,  and  the  other  Solomon  Islands  east  of  Papua ;  and 
the  New  Hebrides,  and  New  Caledonia,  farther  south ;  all  of  which 
islands  are  very  imperfectly  known.  Their  names,  it  will  be  ob- 
served, mostly  commence  with  the  word  new,  and  several  of  them 
allude  to  the  British  Islands ;  which  analogy  has  suggested  the  appel- 
lation above  proposed. 

§  3.  The  name  of  Polynesia,  is  applied  to  the  numerous  islands 
of  the  Pacific,  east  of  the  preceding  divisions,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
native  tribes  of  the  Indian  or  Malay  races,  and  abounding  in  tropical 
productions. 


OCEANIC.  195 

We  would  apply  the  name  Western  Polynesia  to  the  Caroline 
Islands ;  the  Ladrones,  north  of  them ;  Magellan's  Archipelago, 
still  farther  north ;  and  Ansorfs  Archipelago,  east  of  Magellan's. 
The  first  two  of  these  groups  are  subject  to  the  Spaniards ;  who 
have  treated  the  natives  with  great  cruelty.  In  Central  Polynesia, 
we  would  comprehend  the  Central  Archipelago,  including  Mulgrave's, 
Gilbert's,  Taswell's,  Byron's,  and  other  islands;  together  with  the 
Friendly  Islands,  and  the  neighboring  groups,  the  Navigator's,  on 
the  north-east,  the  Feejee,  on  the  west,  and  the  Tonga  islands,  on  the 
south,  which  together  might  be  termed  the  Friendly  Archipelago. 
Many  of  the  Friendly  islanders  are  already  converted  to  Christianity. 

Finally,  in  Eastern  Polynesia,  we  would  comprehend  the  Sandwich 
Islands;  Christmas  Island  and  the  contiguous  group;  Mendana's 
Archipelago,  including  the  Marquesas  and  Washington  islands ;  and 
the  Society  Archipelago,  including  the  Society  Islands ;  King  George's 
and  Prince  of  Wales'  Islands,  north-east  of  them  ;  Palliser  and  Pearl 
Islands,  on  the  east ;  Gambier  Islands,  and  Pitcairn's  Island,  farther 
south  and  east ;  Austral  Islands,  on  the  south  ;  and  Cook's  or  Hervey's 
Islands,  on  the  south-west.  The  Sandwich  islands,  including  Owy- 
hee,  and  the  Society  islands,  including  Otaheite,  have  been  recently 
converted  to  Christianity,  by  the  labors  of  protestant  missionaries : 
but  a  wide  field  of  labor  yet  remains,  in  this  part  of  the  globe,  for  the 
friends  of  religion  and  humanity. 


VI.  DEPARTMENT: 

CHRONOGRAPHY. 


IN  the  department  of  Chronography,  we  include  the  Civil  or 
Political  History  of  all  nations,  from  the  most  ancient  times  ;  and 
their  Archaeology,  or  the  study  of  their  antiquities,  so  far  as  this 
subject  is  properly  treated  in  connection  with  history,  or  in  an  histori- 
cal manner.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  zpovos,  time  ;  and 
ypa$?7,  a  description ;  literally  signifying  a  description  of  times,  or 
events.  We  prefer  this  name  for  the  present  department,  both  from 
its  symmetry,  and  because  the  term  History,  from  the  Greek,  tctopia, 
originally  signified,  and  was  used  by  Lord  Bacon  to  include,  all 
knowledge  of  facts,  depending  on  memory  or  records.  Hence  the 
term  Natural  History  was  applied  to  the  study  of  animated  and 
inanimate  nature  ;  which  has  but  slight  relations  to  the  studies  here 
embraced.  Or,  if  History  be  restricted  to  a  narration  of  past  events, 
every  branch  of  knowledge  has  its  own  history ;  and  the  term  would 
still  be  too  comprehensive  for  the  present  department  of  Human 
Knowledge. 

By  Civil  or  Political  History,  is  meant  the  study  or  record  of 
such  past  events,  as  had  a  national  character  or  influence  ;  with  philo- 
sophical views  of  their  causes  and  consequences.  Sacred  History,  is 
that  which  is  contained  in  the  Bible ;  all  other  being  called  Profane, 
or  more  properly  Secular  History.  Of  Ecclesiastical  History,  or 
that  of  the  Christian  Church,  we  have  already  spoken,  as  far  as  our 
present  limits  would  allow,  (p.  145).  Particular  History,  is  confined 
to  some  one  state  or  division  of  the  earth  ;  or  to  some  limited  period  ; 
but  General  or  Universal  History,  treats  of  all  nations,  in  all  ages, 
with  due  reference  to  their  connections  and  relations.  General 
History  is  usually  subdivided  into  Chronological  Periods,  more  or 
less  numerous ;  but  most  frequently  into  Ancient,  Mediaeval  or 
Middle,  and  Modern  History :  the  first  extending  to  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  in  Italy,  A.  D.  476  ;  the  second  to  the  discovery  of 
America,  in  1492;  and  the  third,  to  the  present  time.  Most  works 
on  General  History  are  arranged  in  Chronological  order  ;  giving  the 
History  of  several  nations  in  connection,  at  least  for  brief  periods : 
but  we  shall  here  adopt  the  Ethnographical  order;  and  trace  the 
History  of  each  nation  from  its  origin  to  its  downfall ;  except  in 
making  a  distinct  branch  of  Ancient  History,  in  conformity  to  general 
usage. 

Of  the  uses  of  History,  as  a  discipline  of  memory,  and  reason  ;  as 
auxiliary  to  the  studies  of  Government  and  Religion  ;  as  a  magazine 
of  valuable  information  ;  and  as  a  fruitful  source  of  practical  philoso- 
phy, we  have  no  room  farther  to  speak  ;  but  would  add,  that  even  as 

196 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  197 

an  object  of  amusement,  History  may  vie  with  poetry  and  romance ; 
since  facts  are  often  more  wonderful,  than  the  fictions  which  they 
suggest.  But  in  order  to  develope  its  full  utility,  Civil  History 
should  contain  something  more  than  a  record  of  wars  and  battles, 
the  intrigues  of  courts,  and  the  crimes  or  exploits  of  princes  and 
heroes.  It  should  imbody  the  form  and  spirit  of  each  succeeding 
age ;  portraying  its  moral  and  social  features,  in  the  walks  of  com- 
mon life  ;  and  exhibiting  its  progress  in  those  arts  and  sciences  which 
have  so  much  improved  the  condition  of  the  human  race.  This 
study  cannot  be  fully  appreciated,  and  enjoyed,  without  an  adequate 
knowledge  of  Geography  ;  nor  unless  accompanied  by  the  study  of 
Chronology  and  Antiquities ;  by  the  aid  of  which  the  reader  is 
transported  in  imagination  to  the  very  time  and  place  of  the  scenes  or 
events  described. 

The  progress  of  Historical  knowledge,  has  naturally  been  coex- 
tensive with  that  of  the  means  of  recording  and  transmitting  informa- 
tion. Next  to  the  books  of  Moses,  and  the  Egyptian  Hieroglyphics, 
the  oldest  historical  work,  of  which  some  fragments  are  still  pre- 
served, is  that  attributed  to  Sanchoniathon,  of  Phoenicia,  who  is  sup- 
posed to  have  lived  some  time  before  the  Trojan  war.  For  a  long^ 
period  after  this  date,  the  chief  sources  of  History,  were  poetical  or 
oral  traditions  ;  monuments  and  brief  inscriptions ;  and  festivals  or 
ceremonies,  in  commemoration  of  great  events.  The  poems  of 
Homer,  are  an  example  of  the  first  class ;  the  chronicle  of  Paros,  or 
Arundelian  marbles,  of  the  second ;  and  the  Grecian  games,  may  be 
cited  as  an  example  of  the  third.  Pherecydes,  of  Leros,  and  the 
three  Milesians,  Dionysius,  Cadmus,  and  Hecatseus,  all  of  whom 
lived  between  550  and  500  B.  C.,  are  mentioned  as  the  earliest 
writers  of  History  in  prose ;  but  their  works  are  mostly  lost.  From 
this  period  History  began  to  assume  a  more  accurate  form,  in  the 
hands  of  the  classic  writers,  who  will  be  mentioned  in  their  due 
place. 

Archaeology,  is  that  branch  of  knowledge  which  treats  of  anti- 
quities, or  the  memorials  and  relics  of  ancient  times.  The  name  is 
radically  derived  from  the  Greek  ap^cuoj,  ancient;  corresponding  to 
the  Latin  antiquus,  of  the  same  signification.  Antiquities  were 
termed,  by  Lord  Bacon,  "  the  wrecks  of  history ;"  and  certainly 
they  are  so  interwoven  with  it,  that  their  study  may  to  a  certain 
extent  be  regarded  as  a  part  of  it,  and  comprehended  in  the  same 
department  of  knowledge.  Archeology  relates  not  only  to  the  re- 
mains of  ancient  art,  such  as  buildings,  monuments,  statues,  coins, 
inscriptions,  books,  manuscripts,  vessels,  weapons,  and  utensils  ;  but 
also  to  the  manners  and  customs,  politics  and  religion,  sciences  and 
arts,  of  past  ages.  Thus,  each  country  has  its  own  antiquities ; 
which  serve  to  illustrate  and  enliven  its  history.  Each  of  the  arts  has 
also  its  own  antiquities,  to  which  we  shall  refer  in  their  place.  An- 
tiquities have  been  subdivided  into  theological,  political,  literary; 
technical,  domestic,  and  military ;  but  we  think  that  those  of  each 
nation,  and  especially  those  of  each  departrnen^of  knowledge,  merit 
a  separate  consideration.  Instead,  therefore,  of  devoting  a  distinct 

R2 


198  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

chapter  to  antiquities,  we  shall,  in  this  work,  distribute  them,  on  the 
principle  just  explained. 

Numismatics,  or  Numismatology,  is  that  portion  of  Archaeology 
which  relates  to  coins  and  medals,  with  their  devices,  dates  and  in- 
scriptions ;  which  often  serve  to  verify  facts  of  History,  Chronology, 
or  Biography.  Coins,  are  usually  pieces  of  metal,  stamped  by  pub- 
lic authority,  and  designed  to  circulate  as  a  medium  of  exchange. 
Medals,  are  pieces  stamped  in  honor  of  some  person,  or  in  com- 
memoration of  some  event,  but  not  designed  to  circulate  as  money. 
Coins  are  usually  made  of  gold,  silver,  copper,  or  brass ;  but  wooden 
money  is  mentioned  among  the  Romans  ;  iron  was  coined  by  the 
Spartans ;  and  shells  are  still  used  as  money  by  various  savage  tribes. 
The  number  of  different  ancient  coins  and  medals,  is  estimated,  by 
Millin,  at  70,000.  The  earliest  extant,  having  the  stamp  of  any  in- 
dividual, are  those  of  Alexander  I.,  of  Macedon,  about  500  B.  C. ; 
but  there  are  coins  of  particular  cities  or  towns,  still  more  ancient.* 
The  term  Epigraphies,  has  been  applied  to  the  study  of  inscriptions, 
whether  on  coins,  gems,  monuments,  buildings,  or  elsewhere  ;  which 
study  is  merely  a  subdivision  of  Archaeology.  Sphragistics,  or  the 
study  of  seals,  and  Autographies,  or  that  of  signatures,  belong  more 
properly  to  the  next  department,  that  of  Biography. 

Chronology,  is  that  division  of  Historical  science,  which  treats  of 
the  dates  of  events,  and  the  modes  of  ascertaining  them.  The  name 
is  from  the  Greek  ;tptw>$,  time ;  and  it  is  sometimes  subdivided  into 
Mathematical  Chronology,  or  the  ascertainment  and  comparison  of 
epochs  and  eras  ;  Astronomical,  or  the  fixing  of  particular  dates,  by 
their  relation  to  celestial  phenomena ;  and  Historical,  or  the  fixing 
of  dates  by  inscriptions,  and  other  means.  An  era,  is  a  point  of 
time  fixed  upon  by  some  nation  or  body  of  men,  from  which  to 
reckon  dates ;  and  an  epoch,  is  a  like  point  of  time  agreed  upon  by 
historians  and  chronologists.  The  Greeks  reckoned  time  by  Olym- 
piads, or  periods  of  four  years  each  ;  commencing  776  years  before 
the  Christian  Era:  this  being  the  date  of  the  triumph  of  Choraebus, 
at  the  Olympic  games ;  which  were  celebrated  once  in  four  years. 
The  Romans  reckoned  time  from  the  founding  of  Rome,  753  years 
before  the  Christian  Era,  or  754  B.  C.  Dates  reckoned  from  this  era, 
are  designated  by  the  initials  A.  U.  C.,  signifying  ab  urbe  condita, 
that  is,  from  the  building  of  the  city.  The  era  of  Nabonassar,  747 
B.  C.,  and  that  of  the  Seleucidse,  312  B.  C.,  were  somewhat  used 
in  the  east.  The  Mohamedans  reckon  time  from  the  Hegira,  or 
flight  of  Mohamed  from  Mecca  to  Medina,  A.  D.  622  :  but  they  use 
the  lunar  year  of  354  days  ;  making  a  difference  of  one  year  in  33 
of  ours.  The  Persian  era  of  Yezdegird  III.,  commenced  10  years 
later,  or  A.  D.  632. 

The  Christian  Era,  now  in  use  among  all  Christian  nations,  was 
introduced  by  Dionysius  the  Little,  a  Scythian  Monk,  A.  D.  526. 
Following  the  statement  of  St.  Luke,  that  John  the  Baptist  com- 
menced preaching  in  the  fifteenth  year  of  the  reign  of  Tiberius,  and 
reckoning  this  reiga  from  the  death  of  Augustus,  A.  U.  C.  767, 

The  value  of  some  of  the  principal  modern  coins,  will  be  stated  under  the 
branch  of  Commerce. 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  199 

Dionysius  supposed  John's  preaching  to  have  commenced  A.  U.  C. 
783  ;  and  as  Jesus,  when  baptized,  in  the  following  year,  was  about 
thirty  years  of  age,  his  birth  was  supposed  to  have  taken  place, 

A.  U.  C.  754,  which  is  the  common  or  vulgar  Christian  Era.     But 
this  disagrees  with  the  well  ascertained  fact  that  Herod,  the  infanticide, 
died  A.  U.  C.  750;  and  that  our  Saviour  was  born  a  year  or  two 
before  his  death.     Hence  it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  Nativity, 
or  birth  of  our  Saviour,  took  place  four  years  before  the  Christian 
Era,  or  in  the  year  4  B.  C. ;  and  that  St.  Luke  reckoned  the  reign 
of  Tiberius  as  commencing  A.  U.  C.  764,  when  he  was  admitted 
to  share  the  imperial  dignity  with  Augustus.     This  reconciles  the 
difference,  without  doing  violence  to  either  Sacred  history,  or  secular. 
Dates  reckoned  backward  from  the  Christian  Era,  are  usually  marked 

B.  C.  or  before  Christ ;  but  those  reckoned  forward,  are  usually  dis- 
tinguished by  the  prefix  A.  D.,  signifying  jSnno  Domini,  or  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord.     The  initials  A.  C.,  sometimes  used  for  after 
Christ,  are  ambiguous ;  as  they  may  also  stand  for  ante  Christum, 
that  is  before  Christ. 

The  Jews  profess  to  reckon  time  from  the  creation  of  the  world  : 
which  they  date  3760  B.  C.  But  this  date  rests  solely  on  the  authority 
of  the  Bible ;  of  which  the  Hebrew,  Samaritan,  and  Septuagint  ver- 
sions materially  differ  on  this  point.  Archbishop  Usher,  following 
the  Hebrew  text,  dates  the  Creation  4004  B.  C.,  and  the  Deluge 
2348  B.  C.;  which  are  the  dates  usually  given.  But  Dr.  Hales 
believes  that  the  Jews  falsified  their  chronology,  to  prevent  the 
application  of  their  traditions  to  our  Saviour;  and,  on  the  authority 
of  Josephus,  he  dates  the  Creation  5411  B.  C.  ;  and  the  Deluge  3155 
B.  C. :  this  latter  date  agreeing  very  nearly  with  that  of  the  Kali- 
Yug,  (Cali-Yug),  or  last  deluge  of  the  Hindoos,  which  they  date 
3102  B.  C.  Miiller,  following  more  closely  the  Septuagint,  dates 
the  Creation  5722  B.  C.;  but  we  incline  to  the  opinion  that  the  truth 
lies  between  the  Chronology  of  Hales  and  that  of  Usher. 

It  may  be  here  remarked  that  the  modern  discoveries  in  Geology 
by  no  means  disprove  either  of  these  dates,  as  the  period  when  man 
was  created  ;  though  the  earth  itself  is  doubtless  much  older.  Some 
learned  men  believe  that  the  six  days  of  creation  were  so  many  long 
periods  of  the  earth's  progressive  changes,  before  the  creation  of 
mankind  :  an  opinion  which  we  think  highly  probable.  The  ancient 
oriental  writers  also  used  the  word  which  we  translate  year,  to  signify 
a  day,  or  a  lunar  month,  or  a  half  year.  Thus  Epigenes  states 
that  astronomical  observations  were  made  at  Babylon,  720,000  years 
before  its  conquest  by  Alexander ;  but  calling  these  so  many  days, 
they  make  the  time  nearly  as  stated  by  Callisthenes,  or  about  1900 
years.  In  like  manner  the  Egyptian  period  of  30,000  years,  called 
the  reign  of  the  sun,  may  be  reduced  to  the  82  years  of  Joseph's 
administration,  according  to  the  Scripture. 

Time  is  naturally  divided  into  days,  months,  and  years  ;  but  its 
division  into  weeks,  is  arbitrary,  and  must  be  traced  back  to  a  divine 
ordinance.  Our  names  of  the  days  are  derived  from  the  mythology 
of  our  Saxon  ancestors;  Sunday,  from  the  Sun;  Monday,  from  the 
Moon;  Tuesday,  from  Tuisco,  an  ancient  hero;  Wednesday,  from 


200  CHRONOGRAPHS'. 

Woden,  their  god  of  battle :  Thursday,  from  Thor,  god  of  winds 
and  weather;  Friday,  from  Friga,  goddess  of  peace  and  plenty; 
and  Saturday,  from  Seator,  their  god  of  freedom.  The  term  month, 
was  originally  applied  to  the  time  from  one  new  or  full  moon,  to  the 
next.  The  lunar  monfh,  thus  denned,  lias  an  average  length  of  29 
days,  12  hours,  44  minutes,  and  3  seconds  ;  but  the  calendar  months 
vary  in  length,  as  shown  by  the  Almanac.  The  names  of  the 
calendar  months,  are  derived  from  the  Latin ;  as  follows :  January, 
from  Janus,  the  god  who  rules  the  year ;  February,  from  Februa, 
the  goddess  of  purification ;  March,  from  Mars,  the  god  of  war ; 
ApriT,  from  Aphrodite,  the  goddess  of  love,  (or  from  aperire, 
to  open  or  blossom) ;  May,  from  Maia,  the  mother  of  Mercury ; 
June,  from  Juno,  the  queen  of  heaven ;  July,  from  Julius  Csesar  ; 
August,  from  Augustus  ;  September  from  septem,  seven ;  October, 
from  octo,  eight ;  November,  from  novem,  nine  ;  and  December, 
from  decem,  ten ;  these  latter  being  the  seventh,  eighth,  ninth,  and 
tenth  months  of  the  old  Roman  year  ;  which  previous  to  the  time  of 
Numa,  consisted  of  only  ten  months,  beginning  with  March. 

The  year  is  naturally  regulated  by  the  seasons,  as  these  are,  by  the 
return  of  the  sun  to  the  tropics  or  equator.  The  solar,  tropical  or 
equinoctial  year,  thus  defined,  contains  365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes, 
and  48  seconds  ;  though  the  ordinary  civil  year  consists  of  365  days. 
The  Julian  Calendar,  so  called  because  reformed  by  Julius  Csesar, 
with  the  aid  of  Sosigenes  of  Alexandria,  allowed  one  additional  day 
in  every  fourth  year,  which  hence  was  called  Bissextile  or  Leap  year, 
making  the  average  length  of  the  year  365  days  and  6  hours.  The 
error  thus  committed  of  making  the  year  11  minutes  and  11  seconds 
too  long,  was  rectified  under  Pope  Gregory  XIII.,  in  1582  ;  by  drop- 
ping ten  days  from  the  month  of  October  in  that  year,  and  omitting 
one  day  in  every  400  years  thereafter.  The  Calendar  thus  reformed, 
is  hence  called  the  Gregorian  Calendar ;  the  same  which  we  now 
use.  It  was  not  introduced  into  England  until  1752  ;  when,  by  an 
act  of  Parliament,  1 1  days  were  dropped  from  that  year,  by  calling 
the  third  of  September,  the  fourteenth.  This  change  constitutes  the 
difference  between  Old  and  New  Style. 

The  Solar  Cycle,  is  a  period  of  28  years,  at  the  end  of  which, 
according  to  the  Julian  Calendar,  the  days  of  the  week  return  to  the 
same  days  of  the  month  on  which  they  were  at  its  commencement. 
The  Lunar  Cycle,  invented  by  Meton,  and  hence  sometimes  called 
the  Metonic  Cycle,  is  a  period  of  19  years;  at  the  end  of  which 
the  new  and  full  moon  return  on  the  same  days  of  the  year  as  at  its 
beginning ;  at  least  for  a  long  period.  As  the  Grecian  festivals  were 
regulated  by  this  cycle,  the  current  year  of  it  was  incribed  on  a  mar- 
ble pillar,  in  letters  of  gold ;  and  hence  called  the  golden  number. 
The  Cycle  of  the  Indiction,  was  a  period  of  fifteen  years,  arbitrarily 
established  by  the  Roman  emperors,  in  reference  to  certain  judicial 
acts.  And  the  Julian  Period,  designed  to  fix  an  epoch  from  which 
to  reckon  time,  was  formed  by  multiplying  together  the  numbers  for 
the  three  preceding  cycles,  28,  19,  and  15;  making  a  product  of 
7980  years;  which  were  made  to  commence  4714  B.  C.,  or  nearly 
at  the  Samaritan  date  of  the  Creation. 


EUCLASSIC.  201 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Civil  History  and  Antiquities,  under  the 
branches  of  Euclassic,  Oriental,  European,  and  American  Chrono- 
graphy ;  extending  the  term  Oriental  to  the  History  of  the  Moham- 
edan  parts  of  Africa ;  the  only  parts  whose  history  is  much  known ; 
and  restricting  the  term  European,  to  the  History  of  Europe  in  the 
middle  ages,  and  in  modern  times. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EUCLASSIC    CHRONOGRAPHY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Euclassic  Chronography,  we  would  treat  of  the 
History  and  Antiquities  of  those  nations  which  were  known  to  the 
ancient  Greeks  and  Romans.  It  comprehends  therefore  the  greater 
part  of  Ancient  History  ;  excluding  only  that  of  India  and  China, 
which  have  so  little  connection  with  the  rest,  that  they  are  reserved 
for  the  branch  of  Oriental  Chronography.  The  name  classic,  is  de- 
rived from  the  Latin,  classis,  a  form,  or  bench  in  a  school :  and  it  was 
applied  to  those  studies  which  were  taught  in  the  schools  of  Rome, 
in  the  Greek  and  Latin  languages.  But  as  it  is  now  extended  to  the 
best  writings  in  the  modern  languages,  we  have  here  adopted  the 
term  Euclassic ;  adding  the  Greek  sv,  an  emphatic  prefix,  to  distinguish 
the  ancient  classics  from  the  modern. 

Jlncient  History,  commences  of  course,  with  the  Creation  of  the 
World;  according  to  Hales,  5411  B.  C.;  but  according  to  Usher, 
4004.  Of  this,  and  of  the  succeeding  events,  down  to  the  found- 
ing of  the  ancient  empires,  our  only  record  is  that  found  in  the 
Bible  ;  the  first  books  of  which  we  may  consider  as  introductory  to 
Secular  History.  The  book  of  Genesis,  written  by  Moses,  according 
to  Hales,  about  1610,  or  as  usually  stated,  about  1452  B.  C.,  (p.  141), 
is  referred  to  as  authentic,  by  the  earliest  writers  who  had  access  to 
it,  both  sacred  and  secular.  Its  statements  concerning  the  Creation, 
and  the  Deluge,  are  consistent  with,  and  even  corroborated  by,  the 
discoveries  of  modern  Geology ;  as  we  shall  endeavor  to  explain, 
when  treating  of  that  science.  The  Noachian  Deluge,  or  Noah's 
Flood,  took  place,  according  to  Hales,  3155  B.  C. ;  but  according  to 
Usher,  2348 ;  when  the  race  of  men,  grown  impious  through 
longevity  and  luxury,  were  all  destroyed,  except  Noah  and  his 
family,  by  whom  the  earth  was  repeopled.  It  is  believed  that  the 
Jews  and  eastern  Asiatics,  and  probably  the  American  Indians,  are 
descended  from  Shem ;  the  Canaanites  and  Africans  from  Ham; 
and  the  Europeans,  with  the  north-western  Asiatics,  from  Japhet. 
The  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel,  interrupted,  according  to 
Hales,  2614;  but  according  to  Usher,  2247  B.  C.,  probably  gave 
rise  to  the  fable  of  the  wars  of  the  giants  against  the  gods  :  and  the 
ruins  of  that  tower  are  believed  still  to  exist,  in  the  Sirs  Nimrood, 
a  vast  heap  or  pile,  on  the  supposed  site  of  ancient  Babylon. 

From  this  period  we  may  commence  the  History  of  Nations:  as 
the  earliest  empires  originated  then,  or  soon  after  ;  and  possibly  even 
26 


202  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

before  the  last  named  event.  Greece  and  Rome  emerged  from  bar- 
barism, at  a  much  later  period  ;  but  to  them  more  than  to  any  other 
nations,  belongs  the  proud  boast  of  having  attained  to  universal  empire. 
We  shall  here  treat  first  of  Jewish  history,  on  account  of  its  authen- 
ticity and  sacred  character;  and  next  take  that  of  its  neighbors, 
Egypt  and  Babylon.  The  history  of  Persia  will  follow  that  of 
Babylon  ;  and  lead  to  those  of  Greece  and  Rome.  The  minor  na- 
tions will  be  referred  to  in  connection  with  those  here  named ;  and 
we  shall,  in  this  chapter,  continue  the  history  of  Rome  to  the  downfall 
of  the  Western  Empire,  A.  D.  476 ;  and  that  of  Greece  to  the  fall 
of  the  Byzantine  or  Greek  empire,  A.  D.  1453. 

§  1.  The  History  of  the  Jews,  a  nation  professedly  devoted  to 
the  worship  of  the  true  God,  while  the  surrounding  nations  were 
merged  in  idolatry,  and  who  still,  after  their  dispersion  and  persecu- 
tions, remain  a  distinct  people,  is  perhaps  the  most  remarkable  which 
the  world  has  ever  witnessed.  Of  their  ancestry  and  early  history, 
down  to  the  Conquest  of  Canaan,  by  Joshua,  1446,  or  according 
to  Hales,  1602,  B.  C.>  we  have  already  spoken,  under  the  History 
of  Judaism,  (p.  140).  From  this  period,  the  Jews,  governed  by  the 
Divine  Law,  had  no  other  temporal  rulers  than  the  Judges,  so  called, 
or  leaders  in  their  wars  against  the  surrounding  tribes ;  until,  at  their 
urgent  desire,  Saul  was  anointed  king  of  Israel,  1095,  (or  1110), 
B.  C.  He  was  succeeded  by  David,  the  shepherd  king  and  psalmist ; 
whose  son  Solomon  built  the  splendid  Temple  at  Jerusalem,  and 
dedicated  it  to  the  one  true  God,  1004,  (or  1020),  B.  0. 

In  the  reign  of  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon,  ten  of  the  tribes 
revolted,  and  selected  Jeroboam  as  their  king,  975,  (or  990),  B.  C. ; 
thus  establishing  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  with  Samaria  for  its  capital; 
in  opposition  to  the  two  tribes  under  Rehoboam,  or  the  kingdom  of 
Judah.  Jerusalem  was  soon  after  plundered  by  Shishak,  king  of 
Egypt,  about  980,  B.  C.;  and  Samaria  was  besieged,  but  in  vain,  by 
Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  892,  (or  900),  B.  C.  After  these  events, 
both  kingdoms,  on  account  of  their  disobedience  and  idolatry,  were 
abandoned  by  the  divine  favor.  Pul,  king  of  Assyria,  tributized 
Menahem,  king  of  Israel,  770  B.  C.;  and  the  Assyrian  Shalmaneser 
conquered  Israel,  carried  away  the  ten  Tribes,  and  dispersed  them  in 
central  Asia,  720  B.  C.;  since  which  event,  their  fate  is  unknown. 
The  kingdom  of  Judah  was  assailed  in  vain  by  Sennacherib,  in  the 
reign  of  the  good  Hezekiah,  713,  (or  715),  B.  C.;  but  Esarhaddon 
rendered  it  tributary,  and  carried  its  king,  Manasseh,  a  captive  to 
Babylon,  676  B.  C.  Nebuchadnezzar,  at  length  carried  all  the 
remaining  Jews  into  Babylonian  Captivity,  588,  (or  586),  B.  C., 
destroying  Jerusalem,  and  Solomon's  Temple.  The  captives  were 
at  length  partially  restored,  by  the  favor  of  Cyrus,  the  Persian 
conqueror;  and  permitted  to  rebuild  the  temple,  which  was  dedicated 
515  B.  C.  With  the  succeeding  administration  of  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah,  the  Old  Testament  history  closes,  about  420  B.  C. 

Judea  continued  to  be  a  Persian  province,  till  the  triumphs  of 
Alexander  the  Great;  who  visited  Jerusalem  courteously,  332  B.  C. 
After  his  death,  Judea  was  connected  with  Egypt,  under  the  Ptole- 
mies, till  it  revolted  and  submitted  to  Antiochus  the  Great,  of  Syria, 


EUCLASSIC.  203 

about  200  B.  C.  Under  the  Maccabees,  sons  of  the  priest  Matthias, 
it  became  independent  about  163  B.  C.,  and  so  continued  till  it  was 
subdued  by  the  Romans,  63  B.  C.,  under  Pompey  the  Great.  After 
the  persecution  and  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour,  and  in  the  midst  of 
civil  dissension  and  bloodshed,  Jerusalem  was  taken  and  utterly 
destroyed  by  the  Romans,  under  Titus,  A.  D.  70.  During  the  siege, 
1,100,000  Jews  perished,  and  the  rest  were  subdued  or  dispersed ; 
so  that  after  some  struggles  for  independence,  down  to  A.  D.  135, 
they  ceased  to  have  any  longer  a  national  existence. 

§  2.  The  Ancient  History  of  Egypt,  like  that  of  all  the  remaining 
ancient  nations,  is  involved  in  obscurity  and  uncertainty.  The  frag- 
ments of  it,  preserved  by  Herodotus,  Manetho,  and  others,  often  disa- 
gree with  each  other  and  with  the  monumental  inscriptions  ;  though 
they  are  still  deserving  of  some  consideration.  The  results  deduced 
from  all  these  sources  by  Champollion,  Rossellini,  Wilkinson,  and 
Hales,  are  those  on  which  we  would  mostly  rely.  Egypt  was  probably 
first  settled  by  Mizraim,  the  son  of  Ham,  who  built  No-Ammon, 
or  Thebes,  according  to  Hales,  2600  B.  C.;  though  others  suppose 
him  to  be  the  same  as  Menes,  (Menai  or  Minseus),  who  built  Mem- 
phis, about  2400,  (or  according  to  Usher,  2188),  B.  C.  Tanis, 
(Zan  or  Zoan),  in  the  Delta,  is  supposed  to  have  been  built  2146 
B.  C.  The  earliest  period  of  Egyptian  History,  including  the  times 
of  Busiris,  Suphis,  Phiops  or  Apappus,  and  Nitocris,  down  to  the 
18th  dynasty  of  Manetho,  is  utterly  confused  and  uncertain.  It 
includes  the  invasion  and  rule  of  the  Hyc-sos,  or  Shepherd  Kings, 
who  probably  reigned  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  but  were  expelled 
before  the  time  of  Joseph :  though  some  suppose  these  shepherds  to 
have  been  the  Israelites  themselves. 

Among  the  oldest  monuments  of  Egypt,  are  the  Pyramids,  near 
Memphis,  begun,  according  to  Manetho  and  Wilkinson,  by  Suphis,  (or 
Saophis),  about  2100  B.  C.  Herodotus  attributes  them  to  Cheops, 
Cephren,  and  Mycerinus,  about  1000  B.  C. ;  but  it  seems  more  pro- 
bable that  they  merely  received  names  from  these  kings,  and  were 
built  at  an  earlier  period.  Commencing  with  Manetho's  18th  dynasty, 
1822,  or  according  to  Wilkinson,  1575  B.  C.,  we  have  a  consistent 
series  of  reigns,  down  to  the  Persian  and  Grecian  conquests  :  and  on 
this  series  we  would  place  some  reliance.  It  was  probably  near  the 
beginning  or  middle  of  the  18th  dynasty,  that  the  Israelites  departed 
from  Egypt :  and  among  its  kings,  were  Thoutmosis,  or  Miphres, 
probably  the  Moeris  of  Herodotus  ;  Amenophis,  probably  the  Mem- 
non  of  the  vocal  statue ;  and  Ramses  Meiamoun,  probably  the 
renowned  Osymamlias ;  or,  as  some  suppose,  the  Sesostris  of  the 
Greeks,  whose  conquests  extended  to  India  ;  though  it  seems  more 
probable  that  Sesostris  was  the  Sethos  of  Manetho's  next  dynast)^, 
about  1400  B.  C. 

From  this  period,  in  which  many  of  the  temples  and  tombs  appear 
to  have  been  built,  little  occurs  of  interest  till  the  age  of  the  Trojan 
war ;  when  Thuoris,  or,  according  to  others,  Proteus  or  Cetes,  ruled 
in  Egypt,  1184  B.  C.  Here  a  chasrn  of  150  years  occurs  in  Mane- 
tho's list,  which  we  think  may  be  rilled  by  the  names  of  Proteus. 
Cheops,  and  others  of  Herodotus,  down  to  about  1100  B.  C.  Shi- 


204  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

shak,  who  invaded  Judea,  was  doubtless  the  Sesonchis  of  Manetho. 
Egypt  was  afterwards  conquered  by  the  Ethiopians  or  Cushites,  and 
divided  into  12  'nomes  or  provinces,  till  it  was  again  united  under 
Psammetichus,  about  664  B.  C.  Necho  II.  began  the  Canal  from 
the  Red  sea  to  the  Nile,  about  610  B.  C. ;  but  was  defeated  by  Nebu- 
chadnezzar; and  Psammenitus,  was  subjugated  by  Cambyses,  of 
Persia,  525  B.  C.  Egypt  recovered  its  freedom  again,  under  Amyr- 
teus  of  Sais,  about  414  B.  C.;  but  was  reconquered  by  the  Persian 
Ochus,  (Artaxerxes  III.),  and  fell  with  Persia  under  the  power  of 
Alexander  the  Great,  332  B.  C.  After  his  death  it  was  ruled  by  the 
Ptolemies,  till  the  battle  of  Actium,  and  death  of  Cleopatra,  31  B.  C. ; 
when  Egypt  became  a  Roman  province. 

§  3.  The  History  of  Assyria,  and  of  the  adjacent  regions,  includ- 
ing Babylon,  is  also  very  confused  and  uncertain,  down  to  the  times 
of  the  Jewish  monarchy.  It  commences  with  the  founding  of  Baby- 
lon, by  Nimrod  ;  according  to  Hales  2547,  but,  as  usually  stated, 
2234  B.  C.  Nimrod  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  Belus  of  the 
Greek  historians;  the  name  Bel,  or  Baal,  in  Chaldee,  signifying 
lord,  or  ruler.  The  city  of  Nineveh  was  built  soon  after  Babylon  ; 
but  whether  by  Ashur,  who  was  the  son  of  Shem,  and  gave  name  to 
Assyria,  or  by  Nimrod  himself,  is  uncertain ;  for  translators  differ 
concerning  the  meaning  of  the  original  Scripture,  on  this  point.  It 
seems  that  Nineveh  and  Babylon  were  both  united,  under  the  sway 
of  Nimrod,  forming  what  is  called  the  first  Assyrian  Empire. 
Callisthenes  states  that  Alexander  the  Great  found,  in  Babylon,  a 
record  of  astronomical  observations,  extending  back  to  2234  B.  C. ; 
from  which  it  is  probable  that  the  city  was  built  at  an  earlier  date. 

The  subsequent  reigns  of  Ninus,  Queen  Semiramis,  and  Ninias, 
are  involved  in.  fable  ;  nor  is  it  certain  whether  they  immediately 
succeeded  Nimrod,  or  lived  at  a  much  later  period.  A  long  chasm 
occurs  in  this  history,  filled  only  by  the  names  of  kings  recorded  by 
Ctesias,  and  by  the  invasion  of  Sesostris,  till  the  time  of  the  effemi- 
nate Sardanapalus  ;  when  Arbaces,  governor  of  Media,  and  Belesis, 
governor  of  Babylon,  revolted,  and  founded  the  kingdoms  of  Media 
and  Babylon,  about  820  B.  C.  The  latter  of  these  is  known  as  the 
second  Assyrian  empire :  but  after  the  reign  of  Pul,  Babylon  and 
Nineveh  were  again  separated,  747  B.  C. ;  the  former  under  Nabo- 
nassar,  and  the  latter  under  Tiglath-Pileser.  The  successors  of  the 
latter,  at  Nineveh,  were  Shalmaneser ;  Sennacherib;  Esarhaddon, 
who  regained  Babylon  about  680  B.  C.  ;  Saosduchinus ;  Nabucho- 
donosor ;  Chiniladon ;  and  Sarac  or  Sardanapalus  II. ;  in  whose 
reign  Nabopolassar,  of  Babylon,  forming  a  league  with  Cyaxares, 
king  of  Media,  made  himself  master  of  Assyria,  612  B.  C.  Thus 
ended  the  second  Assyrian,  and  commenced  the  Babylonian  Empire, 
distinctively  so  called.  The  next  king  was  Nabuchadonosor  II.,  or 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  destroyed  Jerusalem  :  and  this  dynasty  closed 
with  Belshazzar  ;  when  Babylon  was  taken  by  Cyrus,  the  Persian, 
538  B.  C. 

On  the  death  of  his  uncle,  Cyaxares  II.,  (called  in  Scripture 
Darius  the  Mede),  Cyrus  united  Media  and  Babylon  with  Persia, 


EUCLASSIC.  205 

and  thus  founded  the  great  Persian  (or  Medo-Persian)  empire,  536 
B.  C.*  The  immediate  successors  of  Cyrus  were  Cambyses, 
who  conquered  Egypt;  Darius  Hystaspes,  who  invaded  Scythia, 
India,  and  Greece,  but  was  defeated  at  Marathon,  490  B.  C.;  and 
Xerxes  I.,  or  the  Great,  who  also  invaded  Greece,  but  was  checked 
at  Thermopylae,  480  B.  C.,  and  his  forces  defeated  at  Salamis,  Pla- 
taea,  and  Mycale.  The  reign  of  Jlrtaxerxes  II.,  was  marked  by 
the  ineffectual  revolt  of  his  brother  Cyrus,  and  the  retreat  of  the  ten 
thousand  Greeks,  sent  to  assist  him,  401  B.  C.  The  last  of  these 
kings,  Darius  Codomanus,  was  defeated  by  Alexander  the  Great,  at 
Issus  and  Arbela,  and  was  slain  330  B.  C. ;  when  Persia  became  a 
part  of  the  Grecian  empire.  After  the  death  of  Alexander,  Persia, 
with  Syria,  fell  to  the  lot  of  Seleucus,  who  commenced  the  dynasty 
of  the  Seleucidae,  312  B.  C.  That  dynasty  lost  possession  of  Per- 
sia, by  the  revolt  of  Jlrsaces,  who  founded  the  Parthian  empire,  or 
dynasty  of  the  Arsacidae,  250  B.  C.:  and  this  empire  continued  till 

A.  D.  229  ;  when  Jlrdshir  (Artaxerxes)  obtained  the  sovereignty, 
and  left  it  to  his  descendants,  the  Sassanides,  including  Sapor,  the 
warrior,  Nourshivan  or  Nousheerwan,  the  Just,  Chosroes  or  Khoos- 
roo,  and  others  ;  with  whom  we  close  the  ancient  history  of  Assyria 
and  Persia. 

§  4.  Of  the  ancient  history  of  Western  *flsia,  and  Carthage,  we 
must  speak  very  briefly.  Syria,  the  ancient  Aram,  became  a  pro- 
vince of  the  Assyrian  empire,  about  750  B.  C.,  and  shared  its  fate, 
till  after  the  death  of  Alexander  the  Great,  when  it  fell  to  the  lot  of 
Seleucus  Nicator,  and  became  the  seat  of  empire  of  the  Seleucida?, 
312  B.  C.  The  last  king  of  this  dynasty,  Jintioclms  jlsiaticus,  was 
dethroned  by  Pompey,  65  B.  C.,  when  Syria  became  a  Roman  pro- 
vince. The  land  of  Canaan  was  inhabited  by  small  tribes,  at  a  very 
early  period :  Hebron  or  Kirjath  Arba  having  been  built,  according 
to  Hales,  about  2153  B.  C.;  and  Sodom  destroyed,  2054,  or  accord- 
ing to  Usher,  1897  B.  C.  Among  the  tribes  extirpated  by  the  Jews, 
(p.  141),  were  the  Ammonites,  Moabites,  Jebusites,  Hivites,  and 
Philistines.  Phoenicia  was  very  anciently  a  distinct  state;  Tyre 
having  been  built,  according  to  Hales,  2267  B.  C.  The  Tyrians 
were  generally  friendly  to  the  Jews ;  but  little  is  known  of  them, 
until  the  cruelty  of  their  king,  Pygmalion,  caused  his  sister  Dido 
to  flee  and  found  a  new  state,  878  B.  C.  Tyre  was  first  taken  by 
Nebuchadnezzar,  572  B.  C.,  when  Ithobal  was  its  king;  and  finally 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  332  B.  C.,  who  totally  destroyed  the  city ; 
after  which  Pho3nicia  became  a  part  of  Syria. 

Carthage,  was  founded  by  Dido,  with  a  Phcenician  colony,  878 

B.  C.     It  gained  possession  of  most  of  northern  Africa;  and  then 
extended  its  conquests  to  Sicily.     The  Carthaginians,  in  league  with 
Xerxes,  were  defeated  by  Gelon,  king  of  Syracuse,  at  Himera,  480 
B.  C.;  but  from  Hiero,  the  successor  of  Gelon,  they  took  several 
cities.     They  were  expelled  from  these,  by  the  Romans,  in  the  first 

*  Persia,  under  the  Knjanides,  had  been  a  distinct  kingdom,  long  before  the  time 
of  Cyrus  ;  and  Jemsheed  (Dschemschid  or  Giamschid)  is  said  to  have  reigned  there, 
and  founded  Istakhar  or  Persepolis,  about  800  B.  C.  Kaiumarath  is  mentioned  as 
the  first  king  of  Persia  or  Elam,  according  to  Hales,  2190  B.  C. 

s 


206  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

Punic  war:  but  in  return,  their  leader,  Hamilcar,  commenced  the 
conquest  of  Spain,  237  B.  C.  This  led  to  the  second  Punic  war, 
and  the  fatal  battle  of  Zama,  lost  by  Hannibal,  202  B.  C.;  after 
which,  Spain  was  ceded  to  the  Romans.  The  third  Punic  war  termi- 
nated in  the  final  destruction  of  Carthage  by  the  Romans,  146  B.  C. 

Among  the  kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor,  were  Troy,  Lydia,  Caria, 
Phrygia,  Bithynia,  Cappadocia,  and  Pontus.  Troy,  was  built  by 
Dardanus,  the  grandson  of  Scamander,  about  1480  B.  C.,  and  named 
from  Tros,  one  of  his  successors ;  from  another  of  whom,  Ilus,  it 
was  also  called  Jlion.  Little  is  known  of  its  history,  except  the 
account  which  Homer  gives  of  its  destruction,  after  a  ten  years'  siege, 
by  the  allied  Greeks,  1184  B.  C.  Priam  was  its  last  king.  Lydia 
became  a  distinct  kingdom  under  the  Atyada?,  about  1400  B.  C. 
These  were  succeeded  by  the  Heraclidae,  about  the  time  of  the 
Trojan  war,  ending  with  Candaules,  718  B,  C. :  and  Croesus,  the 
last  of  the  Mermnadae,  was  conquered  by  Cyrus,  548  B.  C. ;  when 
Lydia  became  a  Persian  province.  Of  Caria,  we  can  only  mention 
Mausolus  and  his  queen  Artemisia,  353  B.  C.,  (some  say  554) ;  and 
of  Phrygia,  we  would  mention  Gorgius,  about  1370  B.  C.,  and 
Midas  ;  both  belonging  to  the  fabulous  age.  Asia  Minor  was  suc- 
cessively conquered  by  the  Persians  under  Cyrus  ;  the  Greeks,  under 
Alexander :  and  the  Romans,  under  Pompey  and  other  generals. 
Mithridates  VI.,  the  last  king  of  Pontus,  long  resisted  the  Roman 
power ;  but  at  length  yielded  his  kingdom  and  his  life,  66  B.  C. 

§  5.  The  early  History  of  Greece,  is  involved  in  fable  and  obscu- 
rity ;  but  of  the  later  times  we  have  full  accounts  by  Herodotus, 
Thucydides,  Xenophon,  and  other  historians.  The  first  settlement 
in  Greece,  was  probably  Sicyon ;  which  was  founded  by  ^Egialus, 
about  2089  B.  C.;  and  which  long  remained  a  distinct  kingdom. 
Inachus  next  founded  the  kingdom  of  Argos,  1856  B.  C. ;  and 
from  Pelasgus,  one  of  his  successors,  the  ancient  Greeks  are  said  to 
have  received  the  name  of  Pelasgians.*  Ogyges  is  mentioned 
as  the  most  ancient  ruler  of  Attica,  about  1775  B.  C.;  in  whose 
time  a  deluge  is  said  to  have  occurred,  which  desolated  that 
region,  till  the  arrival  of  Cecrops  from  Egypt,  who  founded  the 
city  of  Athens,  1556  B.  C.  Sparta  was  founded  by  Lelex,  about 
1516  B.  C. ;  and  the  deluge  of  Deucalion,  in  Thessaly,  is  said 
to  have  happened  in  1504;  caused  probably  by  an  earthquake, 
like  several  others  recorded  by  the  Greeks.  Amphictyon,  of 
Athens,  first  united  the  Grecian  states  in  the  Amphictyonic  coun- 
cil, 1497  B.  C.  Cadmus,  the  Phoenician,  is  said  to  have  intro- 
duced letters  into  Greece,  about  1490  B.  C.;  and  Minos,  king 
of  Crete,  celebrated  for  his  wise  laws,  reigned  about  1406..  Co- 
rinth, though  founded  previously,  became  a  distinct  monarchy  under 
Sisyphus,  about  1380  B.  C.  The  Argonautic  expedition,  by 
Jason,  in  the  ship  Argo,  to  Colchis,  after  the  fabulous  golden  fleece, 
is  usually  dated  1263  B.  C. 

The  Trojan  War,  in  which  Troy  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  the 
united  Greeks,  led  by  Achilles,  1184  B.  C.,  was  referred  to  in  the 
preceding  section.  The  wars  of  the  Heraclidae,  or  descendants  of 
*  Perseus  removed  his  capital  from  Argos  to  Mycenae,  about  1300  B.  C. 


EUCLASSIC.  207 

Hercules,  who  became  sovereigns  of  the  Peloponnesian  states,  1104 
B.  C.;  and  the  self-sacrifice  of  Codrus,  the  last  king  of  Athens,  to 
secure  his  country  the  victory,  1070  B.  C.,  we  can  only  thus  briefly 
mention.  The  Laws  of  Lycurgus,  were  promulgated  in  Sparta, 
884  B.  C.;  and  those  of  Solon,  in  Athens,  594  B.  C.;  the  era  of 
the  Olympic  games  intervening.  The  Wars  with  Persia,  com- 
menced with  the  burning  of  Sardis,  a  Greek  city,  by  Darius  Hys- 
taspes ;  whose  forces  were  defeated  by  Miltiades,  at  Marathon,  490 
B.  C.  The  renewal  of  the  war  by  Xerxes,  and  his  invasion  of 
Greece,  led  to  the  self-immolation  of  Leonidas,  at  Thermopylae,  480 
B.  C.;  the  naval  victory  of  Aristides  and  Themistocles,  at  Salamis, 
the  same  year;  and  the  battles  of  Platsca,  gained  by  Aristides  and 
Pausanias,  and  Mycale,  gained  by  Cimon,  in  the  year  following. 
The  Peloponnesian  Pfrar,  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  began  431 
B.  C.,  and  continued  27  years,  when,  after  the  death  of  Pericles,  by 
the  great  Plague,  Athens  was  completely  humbled,  and  subjected  to 
the  thirty  tyrants,  appointed  over  it  by  Ly  sunder  of  Sparta.  The 
retreat  of  Xenophon,  and  the  10,000  Greeks,  who  were  subsidized  by 
Cyrus  of  Persia,  took  place  401  B.  C. 

The  kingdom  of  Macedonia,  was  founded  by  Caranus,  814  B.  C. 
Under  Philip,  it  aspired  to  universal  empire ;  and  his  designs  were 
completed  by  Alexander  the  Great,  his  son  and  successor.  Alexan- 
der became  master  of  all  Greece,  336  B.  C. ;  gained  his  first  victory 
over  the  Persians,  at  the  river  Granicus,  two  years  after  ;  and  having 
extended  his  conquests  from  Egypt  to  India,  died  in  Babylon,  323 
B.  C.  He  was  succeeded  in  Macedonia  by  Antipater,  and  soon 
after  by  Cassander  ;  but  the  Peloponnesian  states  resumed  their 
independence,  and  formed  the  Achaean  League,  284  B.  C.  Greece 
first  became  obnoxious  to  Rome,  when  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus, 
led  an  army  to  aid  the  Tarentines  against  the  Romans,  280  B.  C. 
Greece  was  invaded  in  its  turn;  Philip  of  Macedon  was  defeated  by 
the  Romans,  at  Cynocephalx,  197  B.  C.,  and  subjugated  by  them  at 
the  battle  of  Pydna,  168  B.  C.  The  .Achaean  League,  was  next 
defeated  by  Metellus,  147  B.  C. ;  and  in  the  following  year,  Mum- 
mius  destroyed  Corinth;  when  Greece  became  entirely  subject  to 
the  Romans,  146  B.  C. 

§  6.  The  History  of  Rome,  naturally  succeeds  the  more  ancient 
history  of  Italy.  The  earliest  settlers  in  Italy  appear  to  have  been 
the  Pelasgi,  probably  from  Asia,  1700  B.  C. ;  and  the  Sabines  and 
Etrusci,  or  Etrurians,  next  in  antiquity,  were  perhaps  of  the  same 
race.  Evander  is  said  to  have  led  a  colony  from  Arcadia  to  Italy, 
1243  B.  C. ;  and  the  Ausones,  and  (Enotri,  probably  migrated  thither 
from  Greece,  after  the  escape  of  ^Eneas  from  Troy,  and  his  arrival 
in  Latium,  1182  B.  C.,  as  immortalized  in  the  ^Eneid  of  Virgil. 
Rome  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  Romulus,  a  reputed  descend- 
ant of  ^Eneas,  754  B.  C. ;  it  being  at  first  a  small  castle  on  mount 
Palatine.  The  seizure  of  the  Sabine  women,  involved  Romulus  in 
a  war;  which  ended  in  a  temporary  alliance  of  most  of  the  Sabines 
with  the  Romans,  750  B.  C.  Numa  Pompilius,  the  second  king, 
founded  the  religious  system  of  the  Romans ;  and  Tullus  Hostilius 
conquered  the  Albans,  by  the  victory  of  the  Horatii  over  the  Curiatii, 


208  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

667  B.  C.  Jlncus  Martins  prevailed  against  the  Latins  and  Sabines; 
and  Tarquinius  Priscus,  successful  in  war,  employed  the  spoils  in 
improving  the  city.  Servius  Tullius,  who  began  to  reign  576  B.  C., 
divided  the  people  into  thirty  tribes,  and  enlarged  the  city  ;  but  Tar- 
quinius Superbus,  the  seventh  and  last  king,  was  expelled  from 
Rome.,  with  his  family,  on  account  of  the  outrage  against  Lucretia, 
by  his  son  Sextus,  509  B.  C.* 

From  this  period,  Rome  was  governed  by  Consuls ;  commencing 
with  Junius  Brutus  and  Collatinus  ;  until  it  became  an  empire.  The 
Tarquins  engaged  the  Etruscans,  under  Porsenna,  in  a  war  with  Rome ; 
and  also  enlisted  the  Latins  in  their  behalf:  on  which  occasion,  Lar- 
tius  was  made  the  first  dictator,  498  B.  C.  The  oppression  of  the 
plebeians  by  the  nobles,  and  their  withdrawal  to  Mt.  Sacer,  led  to 
the  appointment  of  Tribunes  of  the  people,  493  B.  C.  The  war 
with  the  Volsci,  and  banishment  of  Coriolanus  soon  followed ;  and 
in  another  war  with  the  Volsci  and^Equi,  Cincinnatus  was  made  dic- 
tator, 456  B.  C.  The  laws  of  the  Twelve  Tables,  were  prepared 
by  the  decemvirs,  who  were  deposed  in  consequence  of  the  abuse  of 
Virginia,  by  Appius  Claudius,  450  B.  C.  Rome  was  first  taken  by 
the  Gauls,  under  Brennus,  390  B.  C. ;  but  they  were  expelled  by 
Camillus,  as  dictator ;  who  also  took  Veii  soon  after.  The  Latins, 
long  allied  to  the  Romans,  were  at  length  subdued  by  them,  338 
B.  C.,  when  the  consul  Decius  fell;  and  the  subjugation  of  the 
Tarentines  and  Samnites,  made  Rome  the  mistress  of  Italy,  272  B.  C. 

The  first  Punic  war,  commenced  in  Sicily,  264  B.  C.,  and  lasted 
23  years ;  in  which  Regulus  was  taken  prisoner  by  the  Carthagi- 
nians ;  but  the  latter  were  expelled  from  Sicily.  The  second  Punic 
war,  began  218  B.  C.,  and  lasted  17  years:  memorable  for  the 
victories  of  Hannibal  over  the  Romans ;  till  he  was  recalled,  and 
defeated  at  Zama,  by  Scipio  Jlfricanus.  Rome  next  carried  its 
arms  into  the  east;  defeating  Philip  of  Macedon,  at  CynocephalcB, 
197  B.  C.,  and  Antiochus  the  Great,  at  Magnesia,  190  B.  C.  The 
third  Punic  war,  lasted  only  three  years  ;  at  the  end  of  which  Car- 
thage was  totally  destroyed  by  Scipio  Jlfricanus  the  younger,  146 
B.  C.  In  the  same  year  the  subjugation  of  Greece  was  completed, 
and  Rome  ruled  from  Spain  to  Thrace,  inclusive. 

The  victories  of  Marius  over  the  Teutones  and  Cimbri,  occurred 
101  B.  C. ;  but  the  civil  wars  between  him  and  Sylla,  ended  only  in 
his  death,  and  the  dictatorship  of  Sylla,  86  B.  C.  A  war  with 
Mithridates,  king  of  Pontus,  resulted  in  the  conquest  of  Asia  Minor 
and  Syria,  by  Pompey,  64  B.  C. ;  the  year  before  Cat  aline'1  s  con- 
spiracy. The  first  Triumvirate,  was  formed  by  Crassus,  Pompey, 
and  Caesar,  60  B.  C. :  but  Crassus  fell  in  Parthia ;  and  Pompey, 
venturing  to  war  with  Caesar,  was  defeated  at  Pharsalia,  48  B.  C. 
Four  years  after  this,  Csesar  was  slain  by  the  Roman  senator?,  and  a 
second  Triumvirate  was  formed  by  Anthony,  Lepidus,  and  Octavius, 
43  B.  C.  By  them  Brutus  and  Cassius  were  defeated  at  Philippi, 
42  B.  C. ;  after  which,  Anthony,  joining  Cleopatra,  was  defeated  at 
Jlctium,  31  B.  C. ;  and  Lepidus  having  been  exiled,  Octavius  became 

*  It  should  be  mentioned  that  all  this  part  of  the  Roman  history  has  been  called 
in  question,  by  Niebuhr,  and  other  historians. 


EUCLASSIC.  209 

sole  emperor  of  Rome,  under  the  title  of  Augustus  Caesar.  His 
reign  extended  to  the  advent,  but  not  to  the  crucifixion,  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour,  JESUS  CHRIST  ;  with  whose  birth,  erroneously  dated, 
commences  the  Christian  Era. 

Among  the  events  which  succeeded  this  great  era,  were  the  de- 
struction of  Jerusalem  by  Titus,  A.  D.  70 ;  the  overwhelming  of 
Herculaneum  and  Pompeii  by  an  eruption  of  Vesuvius,  A.  D.  79 ; 
the  expedition  of  Trajan  against  Parthia,  A.  D.  106 ;  the  building 
of  the  defensive  walls  in  Britain,  by  Adrian,  Antonine,  and  Septi- 
mius  Severus ;  the  defeat  of  the  Persians  by  Alexander  Seventy 
A.  D.  234  ;  the  seizure  of  the  emperor  Valerian,  by  Sapor,  king  of 
Persia,  A.  D.  260 ;  the  defeat  of  the  Goths,  by  Claudius,  269  ;  and- 
the  conversion  of  Constantine  the  Great,  a  short  time  before  the 
general  Council  of  Nice,  A.  D.  325.  Constantinople  was  made  the 
Roman  capital,  A.  D.  330  ;  and  on  the  death  of  Theodosius,  the 
empire  was  finally  divided,  A.  D.  395,  between  his  two  sons,  Area- 
dius,  in  the  East,  and  Honorius,  in  the  West.  After  the  sacking  of 
Rome,  by  Jllaric,  the  Visigoth,  A.  D.  410  ;  the  ravaging  of  Italy,  by 
Attila,  the  Hun,  in  450  ;  and  the  taking  of  Rome,  by  Genseric,  the 
Vandal,  in  455;  the  Western  Empire  was  finally  overthrown  by 
Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli,  who  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy, 
A.  D.  476. 

§  7.  On  the  History  of  the  Byzantine  or  Greek  Empire,  the  East- 
ern Empire  of  the  Romans,  we  must  here  be  very  brief.  The  first 
division  of  the  Roman  Empire  was  made  A.  D.  364  ;  Valens  ruling 
the  Eastern,  and  Valentinian,  the  Western;  but  the  permanent 
division  commenced  A.  D.  395,  as  above  mentioned.  The  most 
celebrated  of  the  Byzantine  emperors  was  Justinian,  whose  code  of 
Laws,  published  A.  D.  533,  is  still  studied  ;  and  whose  general, 
BeUsarius,  reconquered  Italy,  Spain,  and  Africa ;  then  died  of 
neglect  and  want.  Constantinople  was  besieged  by  the  Persians 
and  Arabs,  A.  D.  626  ;  and  afterwards  by  the  Saracens  ;  whose  fleet 
was  destroyed  by  the  Greek  fire,  A.  D.  673  ;  and  who  were  again 
repulsed  in  717.  Alexius  Commenus  was  on  the  throne,  at  the  time 
of  the  first  Crusade,  A.  D.  1096.  In  the  fourth  Crusade  the  Latins 
took  Constantinople,  and  placed  Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  on  the 
throne,  A.  D.  1204 ;  but  it  was  regained  by  Michael  Paleologus,. 
emperor  of  Nice,  in  1261.  In  the  reign  of  John  Cantacuzene,  the 
Turks  first  obtained  a  firm  footing  in  Europe,  and  took  Gallipolis, 
in  1357.  The  empire  thenceforward  rapidly  declined,  till  Constanti- 
nople was  taken  by  Mohamed  II.,  who  slew  Constantine,  the  last 
emperor,  and  founded  the  Turkish  empire,  on  the  ruins  of  the 
Byzantine,  A.  D.  1453. 


27  s  2 


210  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER  II. 

ORIENTAL    CHRONOGRAPHY. 

UNDER  the  head  of  Oriental  Chronography,  we  would  include  the 
remaining  History  and  Antiquities  of  the  Eastern  World ;  that  is 
of  those  countries  which  were  unknown  to  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  ;  and  of  all  the  eastern  nations  down  to  the  present  time. 
It  comprehends  of  course  the  whole  of  Mohamedan  History,  includ- 
ing that  of  northern  Africa ;  the  only  part  of  Africa  whose  history 
has  been  preserved.  We  thus  draw  a  dividing  line  around  a  large 
portion  of  History  partly  ancient  and  partly  modern  ;  but  which  we 
think  so  distinct,  and  united,  as  to  deserve  a  separate  position  in  the 
arrangement  of  this  wide  department  of  knowledge. 

The  most  prominent  feature  in  this  branch,  is  doubtless  the  rise 
and  spread  of  the  Mohamedan  power,  in  connection  with  the  Mo- 
hamedan religion.  Its  inroads  were  marked  with  devastation  and 
bloodshed;  till  it  grasped  the  wide  region  from  Spain  and  Morocco 
to  Turkestan  and  India ;  and  then,  like  the  preceding  empires  of  the 
ancient  world,  fell  in  pieces  by  its  own  unwieldiness.  In  order  to 
treat  successively  of  the  different  Mohamedan  nations,  we  shall  com- 
mence with  Arabia,  as  the  source  of  their  doctrines  and  power;  next 
glance  over  Northern  Africa ;  and  then  proceed  with  the  nations  of 
Asia,  in  geographical  order,  commencing  with  Turkey,  and  proceed- 
ing to  the  more  detached  states  of  India  and  China.  We  shall  con- 
clude this  branch  with  a  glance  atOceanica,  and  central  and  southern 
Africa ;  whose  history  will  henceforward  increase  in  importance  to 
the  civilized  world. 

§  1.  The  History  of  the  Arabians,  before  the  time  of  Mohamed, 
is  obscure,  and  of  minor  interest.  They  are  called  Saracens,  by 
the  western  Mohamedans,  from  the  circumstance  of  their  living  in 
the  east.  They  have  never  been  completely  subdued  ;  and  though 
partially  conquered  by  Alexander  the  Great,  they  became  inde- 
pendent soon  after  his  death.  In  the  times  of  the  Roman  emperors, 
Arabia  became  a  refuge  for  the  Jews  and  Christians.  Yusof  Dhu 
Nowas,  the  last  king  of  the  Hamyarate  or  Homerite  dynasty,  was  a 
Jew,  and  persecuted  the  Christians ;  for  which  he  was  dethroned  by 
Elesbaan,  the  Christian  king  of  Abyssinia  or  Ethiopia,  A.  D.  524. 
The  war  of  the  Elephant,  between  the  Yemenites,  and  the  Koreish, 
took  place  A.  D.  579,  ten  years  after  the  birth  of  Mohamed. 

Of  Mohamad's  romantic  career ;  his  flight  from  Mecca  to  Medina, 
A.  D.  622  ;  and  his  subsequent  success  till  his  death  in  632 ;  we 
have  already  spoken,  in  treating  of  Mohamedanism.  (p.  137).  His 
successors  were  called  caliphs,  or  vicegerents ;  of  whom  Jlbubekir 
(Aboo-Beker;  was  the  first.  Omar  completed  the  conquest  of  Syria, 
A.  D.  637 ;  of  Asia  Minor  in  the  following  year ;  and  that  of  Egypt 
in  639.  Othman  (or  Osman)  saw  the  conquest  of  Persia  completed 
in  651.  He  was  succeeded  by  Jlli,  whom  the  Sheeahs  or  Shiites, 


ORIENTAL,  211 

including  the  Persians,  regard  as  the  first  caliph,  A.  D.  656.  (Page 
139).  All  was  assassinated;  and  Moawiyah,  soon  after,  founded 
the  dynasty  of  the  Ommiades  ;  transferring  the  capital  from  Cufa  to 
Damascus,  A.  D.  673.  Under  Walid,  the  son  of  Abdalmelek,  the 
rest  of  northern  Africa,  and  the  greater  part  of  Spain,  were  subdued 
by  the  Saracen  arms.  At  length,  Mervan  II.  (or  Merwan)  was  op- 
posed, defeated,  and  slain,  by  the  family  of  Abbas  ;  and  the  dynasty 
of  the  Jlbassides  commenced  with  Sqffah,  A.  D.  750.  Abderrah- 
man  fled  to  Spain,  and  there  perpetuated  the  dynasty  of  the  Ommi- 
ades, as  an  independent  sovereignty.  The  caliph  M-mansor  (or 
Abu-Giafar)  founded  Bagdad,  A.  D.  762,  making  it  his  capital;  and 
from  this  period,  the  history  of  Arabia,  merged  in  that  of  Persia, 
becomes  of  minor  importance. 

§  2.  The  History  of  Northern  Africa,  may  properly  be  completed 
here,  in  connection  with  that  of  Arabia.  Egypt,  when  the  Roman 
power  was  divided,  became  a  part  of  the  Eastern,  or  Byzantine  Em- 
pire, and  remained  so,  until  it  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  (or 
Arabs),  under  Jlmru,  (Amroo),  the  general  of  the  caliph  Omar, 
A.  D.  640;  when  the  Alexandrian  Library  was  finally  destroyed. 
Its  history  thenceforward  is  merged  in  that  of  Arabia,  till  Jlchmet 
Ben  Tulun,  (or  Tooloon),  governor  of  Egypt,  threw  off  the  Saracen 
yoke,  and  founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Tulunides,  A.  D.  877.  Egypt 
was  regained  by  the  Saracens,  under  Moktador  Billah,  A.  D.  909 ; 
but  was  again  independent,  under  Mschid,  till  969 ;  when  Morz 
Ledinillah,  (or  Moez  Ladinallah),  then  caliph  of  Tunis,  conquered 
Cairo,  and  established  the  Fatimite  dynasty.  This  was  overthrown 
by  Saladin,  (or  Salaheddin) ;  who,  being  sent  by  the  sultan  of  Bag- 
dad, against  Egypt,  usurped  the  government,  A.  D.  1170;  and  be- 
coming master  of  Syria,  fought  against  the  Christians,  in  the  early 
Crusades.  His  successors,  the  Jlyoubites,  were  dethroned  by  the 
Mamelukes,  or  Turkish  slaves  in  Egypt,  A.  D.  1250.  These  were 
conquered  in  their  turn  by  Selim  I.,  sultan  of  the  Turks;  who 
stormed  Cairo,  in  1517;  when  Egypt  became  a  Turkish  province, 
under  governors  styled  Beys.  Such  it  continued,  excepting  the 
revolt  of  Mi  Bey,  in  1756-66;  and  the  French  invasion,  in  1798; 
till  Mehemet  Mi  succeeded  the  beys,  Jby  a  stratagem,  in  1811,  and, 
soon  after,  threw  off  the  Turkish  yoke,  in  fact,  if  not  in  name,  Egypt 
was  recognized  in  1839,  by  the  young  sultan  of  Turkey,  as  an  inde- 
pendent state. 

The  remainder  of  Northern  Africa,  including  the  present  Bar- 
bary  States,  belonged  to  Rome,  until  it  was  invaded  by  the  Saracens, 
A.  D.  647;  and  its  conquest  completed  by  them,  in  709.  Fez 
became  independent,  in  789,  under  Edris,  a  descendant  of  Fatema. 
Tunis  next  became  independent,  under  Jlglab,  the  first  of  the  Agla- 
bites,  or  Agladides,  in  805.  Ze'iri  built  Algiers,  in  944  ;  and  ruled 
over  Tunis  and  Fez,  which  were  ceded  to  him  by  Morz  Ledinillah : 
and  his  successors,  the  Ze'irides,  ruled  this  coast  until  Roger,  king 
of  Sicily,  deprived  them  of  Tripoli,  and  of  most  of  their  territory, 
in  1148.  Morocco  was  founded  by  Yoossef,  (Yussef  or  Joseph),  in 
1069;  and  became  powerful  under  his  successors,  the  Moravides, 
(or  Almoravites) :  but  in  1269  their  empire  was  divided;  and 


212  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

Algiers,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli,  became  independent  soon  after.  These 
states  were  subdued  by  Ferdinand,  of  Spain,  in  1509;  but  threw 
off  his  yoke,  by  calling  in  the  aid  of  the  Turkish  pirates,  Horuc  (or 
Aruch)  Barbaroasa,  and  his  brother  Hayradin,  (or  Khayr  Eddin) ; 
the  latter  of  whom  surviving,  yielded  allegiance  to  the  sultan  of  Tur- 
key, in  1519. 

Charles  V.  of  Spain  took  Tunis  in  1535,  ami  was  prevented  from 
taking  Algiers  only  by  the  loss  of  his  fleet  in  a  severe  storm.  Tunis 
was  regained  by  the  Turks,  and  united  with  Algiers,  till  1586;  when 
a  bashaw  of  Tunis  was  appointed  by  the  Grand  Seignor :  but  it  is  at 
present  governed  by  a  Bey,  tributary  to  Turkey.  Algiers,  under  its 
Deys,  always  piratical,  and  cruel  to  Christian  prisoners,  was  humbled 
by  the  French,  in  1682;  again  by  the  British  and  Dutch,  in  1816; 
and  finally  subjugated  by  the  French,  in  1830.  Morocco,  in  1557, 
became  subject  to  Mehemed,  a  sherif  or  descendant  of  the  prophet ; 
and  his  family  still  occupy  the  Moorish  throne. 

§  3.  The  History  of  the  Turks  or  Turcomans,  commences  about 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  ;  when  they  revolted  from  the  Geougen 
Tartars,  and  soon  formed  a  powerful  nation,  of  which  Turkestan  was 
the  seat ;  but  they  were  divided  under  rival  princes,  before  they  con- 
quered Persia.  Togrul  Beg,  who  founded  their  second  Persian 
dynasty,  was  the  grandson  of  Seljook;  and  hence  his  tribe  were 
called  Seljooks  by  way  of  distinction.  Malek  Shah,  of  this  dynasty, 
wrested  Asia  Minor  from  the  Byzantine  empire,  about  A.  D.  1074; 
but  after  his  death  it  became  a  distinct  kingdom,  under  Solyman,  his 
general;  and  it  then  look  the  name  of  Roum,  Natolia,  or  Anatolia. 
This  region  was  again  overrun  by  Genghis  Khan,  the  Mongul 
Tartar,  A.  D.  1220  ;  but  after  his  death,  it  was  divided  among  several 
Emirs ;  one  of  whom,  Othman  I.,  (or  Osman),  of  the  Turcoman  race, 
commenced  the  Ottoman  or  modern  Turkish  Empire,  in  1299. 

Orchan,  his  son  and  successor,  took  part  in  the  civil  wars  of  the 
Byzantine  empire ;  and  became  son-in-law  to  John  Cantacuzene. 
Soliman,  the  eldest  son  of  Orchan,  first  invaded  Europe,  in  1355; 
and  jlmurath,  his  second  son,  and  successor,  conquered  Adrianople 
and  Macedonia.  Bajazet,  (or  Bayazeed),  was  vanquished  by  Tamer- 
lane the  Tartar,  in  the  battle  of  Ancyra,  (or  Angora),  in  1402;  but 
Tamerlane  divided  the  Turkish  possessions  among  the  sons  of  Bajazet. 
A  civil  war  was  the  consequence,  till  Mohamed,  (or  Mahomed),  the 
younger  brother,  became  sole  monarch,  A.  D.  1413.  His  son  Jlmu- 
rath  II.,  warred  against  the  Byzantines  or  Greeks,  but  was  resisted 
by  George  Castriot,  whom  the  Turks  called  Scanderbeg;  and  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople  was  left  for  the  next  sultan,  Mohamed  II., 
in  1453.  Since  that  time,  Constantinople,  called  by  the  Turks 
Stamboul  or  Istamboul,  has  been  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

Mohamed  II.,  extended  his  conquests  from  Trebizond  in  the  east, 
to  Otranto  in  Italy.  His  grandson,  Selim  I.,  conquered  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  Palestine,  in  1517;  and  assumed  the  religions  dignity  of 
Caliph,  or  head  of  the  Mohamedan  church.  Soliman  II.,  the  Mag- 
nificent, called  also  the  lawgiver,  took  Belgrade  and  Rhodes,  in 
1522,  and  Bagdad  soon  after;  but  from  this  period,  the  power  of  the 
Ottoman  Porte  began  to  decline.  Selim  II.,  conquered  Cyprus,  in 


ORIENTAL. 

1571  ;  but  his  fleet  was  defeated  by  John  of  Austria,  at  Lepanto,  in 
the  same  year.  Mohamed  IV.  took  Candia,  in  1669;  but  lost  the 
greater  part  of  Hungary  soon  after.  Jlchmet  III.  gave  refuge  to 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  in  1709  ;  and  Mustapha  III.  engaged  in  a 
war  with  Catharine  II.  of  Russia,  which  terminated  unfavorably  to 
him,  in  1774.  Selim  III.  declared  war  against  France,  in  conse- 
quence of  its  invasion  of  Egypt,  in  1798  ;  but  he  and  his  successor 
were  deposed  by  the  Janizaries,  originally  Christian  slaves ;  and 
Mahmoud  II.  was  raised  to  the  throne,  in  1808.  In  his  reign  the 
Greek  Revolution  took  place,  and  Greece  again  became  free,  in  1828  ; 
by  the  aid  and  intervention  of  the  European  powers. 

§  4.  The  modern  History  of  Persia,  we  shall  commence  with  the 
Mohamedan  conquest  of  it,  begun  by  Omar,  A.  D.  636,  and  com- 
pleted by  Osman,  in  651  ;  when  Yezdegerd  III.,  (or  Jesdijird),  the 
last  of  the  Sassanides,  lost  his  throne.  The  caliph  Al  Mansor,  or 
Abu  Giafar,  of  the  house  of  the  Abassides,  after  founding  Bagdad, 
A.  D.  762,  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Saracen  empire.  Among  his 
successors,  Haroon  al  Rascheed,  and  Al  Mamon,  are  celebrated  as 
patrons  of  learning.  Khorasan,  (Chorassan),  or  northern  Persia, 
became  independent  in  820 ;  but  was  subdued  by  the  Tartars,  under 
Ismail  Samanee,  (or  Ishmael),  in  902.  Persia  was  thenceforward 
divided  between  his  family,  called  Samanides,  in  the  north-east,  and 
the  Dilemides,  in  the  south-west,  till  the  former  were  subdued  by 
Mahmood,  the  Turcoman  governor  of  Gazna  or  Ghizni,  who  subju- 
gated Khorasan,  in  999  ;  and  extended  his  conquests  to  India.  His 
successors,  called  Gaznavides,  were  subdued  by  Togrul  Beg,  the 
grandson  of  Seljook,  (or  Seljuk),  in  1037  ;  and  by  him  the  Dilemide 
caliphs  of  Bagdad  were  also  subjugated,  in  1055.  The  Seljookians, 
Alp  Arselan  and  Malek  Shah,  called  Sultans  of  Bagdad,  waged  war 
with  the  Byzantines  ;  and  Malek  Shah  conquered  Hindoostan  ;  but 
left  the  kingdom  in  confusion,  till  it  was  subjugated  by  the  Monguls, 
or  Tartars,  under  Genghis  Khan,  (Jengis,  Zengis,  or  Chenghiz 
Khan),  in  1220. 

Hulakoo  Khan,  the  grandson  of  Genghis,  encouraged  learning; 
but  Persia  soon  degenerated,  till  it  was  again  overrun,  by  another 
horde  of  Monguls,  under  Timur,  (Timour-lenk),  or  Tamerlane,  in 
1387.  This  leader  vanquished  the  Turks,  and  conquered  Hindoostan, 
before  his  death,  in  1405.  Persia  remained  subject  to  his  descend- 
ants, only  till  1468,  when  it  was  subdued  by  Usong  Hassan,  (or 
Uzun  Hussun),  another  chief  of  the  Turcoman  race  :  but  he  was 
dethroned,  in  1504,  by  Ismail  Sophi,  (or  Ishmael),  who,  claiming 
descent  from  Ali,  assumed  the  title  of  Shah,  or  king,  and  founded  the 
Suffavean  dynasty.  His  successors  lost  several  provinces,  in  wars 
with  the  Turks  and  Usbecks  ;  but  these  were  regained  by  Shah  Mbas 
the  Great;  who  made  Ispahan  his  capital,  in  1589.  The  Afghans, 
under  Mir  Mahmoud,  conquered  Persia,  in  1722 ;  but  held  it  only 
seven  years  :  and,  in  1736,  the  throne  was  usurped  by  Kooli  Nadir, 
who  took  the  title  of  Nadir  Shah,  and  after  conquering  Delhi,  styled 
himself  Emperor  of  the  Indies.  After  his  death,  Georgia  revolted 
from  Persia;  and  the  kingdom  of  Afghanistan  was  founded,  in  the 
east  of  Persia,  by  Ahmed  Abdallah,  who  made  Cabul  (or  Kabul)  his 


214  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

capital.  After  a  long  war,  Kerreem  Khan,  (Kerim  or  Kurrim),  who 
had  served  under  Nadir,  acquired  the  sovereignty  of  Persia ;  and 
fixed  his  residence  at  Shiraz,  in  1755  ;  but  the  Shah  Futteh  Jlli,  (or 
Feth  Aly),  whose  reign  began  in  1796,  removed  the  capital  to  Tehe- 
ran, probably  in  order  to  watch  more  closely  the  Russian  frontier. 

§  5.  The  early  History  of  Hindoo st an  is  very  imperfectly  known. 
The  war  of  the  Pandus  and  Kurus,  described  in  the  Mahabharat, 
carried  on  by  Krishna  and  his  brother  Bali  Rama,  against  Jara 
Sandha,  is  usually  dated  1391  B.  C.  The  invasions  by  Sesostris, 
Darius  Hystaspes,  and  Alexander  the  Great,  have  been  referred  to 
in  the  preceding  sections.  The  latter  was  followed  by  the  wars  of 
Sandracoltus,  (or  Chandra  Gupta),  who  usurped  the  throne  of  Ma- 
gadha,  and  whose  daughter  was  married  to  Seleucus,  Alexander's 
successor  in  Persia,  about  300  B.  C.  Antiochus  the  Great  visited 
India,  and  made  peace  with  Sophagasemus,  (or  Shivaca  Sena),  about 
120  B.  C.  The  reign  of  Vicramaditya,  56  B.  C.,  is  the  era  from 
which  the  Hindoos  reckon  time.  From  this  era,  the  race  of  Bali 
Rama,  or  Putras,  declined,  till  it  was  superseded  by  Sipaca,  who 
founded  the  dynasty  of  the  Jlndharas,  A.  D.  151.  They  ruled  over 
Magadha,  comprehending  the  greater  part  of  Hindoostan,  till  the 
death  of  Puloman,  A.  D.  648 ;  when  the  country  was  divided  into 
several  small  states. 

Next  came  the  Mohamedan  invasion,  by  Mahmoud,  son  of  Sebec- 
taghin,  and  king  of  Gazna,  (Ghazna  or  Ghizni),  who  took  Delhi, 
A.  D.  1011  ;  and  thence  extended  his  conquests  southward.  His 
dynasty  was  overthrown,  in  1158,  by  Kassim  Gauri,  king  of  Gaur, 
(Ghaour),  whose  successor,  Jya  Chandra,  was  in  turn  dethroned  by 
Shahabodien,  in  1194.  The  empire  of  Gazna  was  divided  in  1212; 
when  the  Persian  part  became  subject  to  Eldoze,  and  the  Hindoo 
part  to  Cuttub,  (Kutub),  who  founded  the  Patan  or  Afghan  dynasty, 
with  Delhi  for  its  capital.  This  state  was  partially  subdued  by 
Genghis  Khan,  in  1222 ;  and  was  overrun  by  Tamerlane,  (Timur 
the  Tartar),  who  sealed  his  conquests  in  blood,  in  1397.  Delhi  was 
next  taken  by  Saber,  (Babur),  who  founded  the  Mongul  or  Mogul 
dynasty,  in  1525.  His  grandson,  Jlkbar,  also  reduced  Cabul  and 
Cashmere,  in  1601;  and  appointed  nabobs  to  govern  his  numerous 
provinces.  Under  *flureng  Zebe,  who  began  to  reign  in  1657,  not- 
withstanding the  wars  with  Sevajee,  (Savajee),  chief  of  the  Mahrattas, 
in  the  south,  the  empire  rose  to  its  greatest  glory.  Delhi  was  again 
taken  by  Nadir  Shah,  in  1739;  and  after  his  death  it  became  a  part 
of  Afghanistan,  or  East  Persia,  under  Ahmed  Mdallah ;  who  van- 
quished the  Mahrattas  and  Ghauts  of  the  south,  in  1761.  From  this 
period,  the  Great  Mogul  of  Delhi  held  only  nominal  power,  till  the 
last  who  bore  this  title  became  a  pensioner  of  the  British,  in  1803. 

The  Portuguese  settlements  in  Hindoostan,  commenced  with  the 
first  voyage  thither,  by  Vasco  de  Gama,  in  1498.  Ten  years  after 
this,  Albuquerque  took  Goa  from  the  natives ;  and  the  colonies  grew 
rapidly,  till  the  union  of  Portugal  with  Spain,  in  1580.  The  Dutch 
soon  found  their  way  to  India;  and,  in  1619,  fixed  their  capital  at 
Batavia,  in  Java,  which  they  still  hold.  By  them,  most  of  the 
Portuguese  settlements  were  taken,  about  1060:  but  they,  in  turn, 


ORIENTAL.  215 

were  mostly  dispossessed  by  the  British.  In  1665,  a  French  East 
India  company  was  chartered  ;  and  it  ultimately  secured  a  permanent 
establishment  at  Pondicherry. 

The  first  British  East  India  company,  was  chartered  by  Queen 
Elizabeth,  in  1600;  and  twelve  years  after,  it  obtained  a  foothold  at 
Surat,  by  permission  of  the  great  Mogul.  In  1634,  the  English 
also  obtained  from  him  a  station  on  the  Ganges ;  and,  in  1700,  they 
built  Fort  William,  at  Calcutta.  In  1708,  the  company  was  rechar- 
tered,  and  rival  claims  and  pretensions  united.  Three  Presidencies 
were  formed,  at  Calcutta,  Madras,  and  Bombay;  with  separate  coun- 
cils. Their  political  power  began  with  the  Carnatic  war,  in  1748 ; 
in  which  the  English  and  French  took  sides  with  opposite  parties  of 
the  natives.  In  1756,  Surajah  Dowlah,  nabob  of  Bengal,  took 
Calcutta ;  but  Col.  Clive  soon  regained  it,  and,  by  the  battle  of  Plas- 
sey,  made  Meer  Jaffier  nabob  ;  obtaining  from  him  large  concessions. 
By  the  Peace  of  1763,  France  resigned  most  of  her  Hindoo  posses- 
sions to  the  British;  whose  most  formidable  foe,  thenceforward,  was 
Hyder  Jlli,  chief  of  Mysore:  but  he  was  defeated  in  1780;  and 
Tippoo  Saib,  his  son,  made  peace  soon  after.  Tippoo  afterwards 
renewed  the  war ;  but  was  again  brought  to  terms  by  Lord  Corn- 
wallis,  in  1792;  and  in  a  third  war,  the  sultan  Tippoo  was  slain,  and 
Seringapalam  taken  by  Gen.  Harris,  in  1799.  The  Rajah  of 
Nepaul  invaded  the  British  possessions,  in  1815  ;  but  he  was  defeated 
by  Lord  Hastings,  and  lost  a  large  portion  of  his  territory.  Thus 
has  risen  the  British  power  in  India,  which,  we  hope,  may  aid  in 
regenerating  the  east. 

The  history  of  Chin-India,  is  so  obscure  that  we  shall  pass  it  with 
the  utmost  brevity.  The  religion  of  Boodha  was  introduced  there  in 
the  seventh  century ;  and  this  region  was  first  visited  by  the  Portu- 
guese, in  1511.  Birmah  became  a  distinct  state  soon  after;  and  in 
1757,  its  king,  Jllompra,  conquered  Pegu.  His  successors  conquered 
Siam  ;  but  it  regained  its  independence.  In  1825,  the  Birmans  made 
war  against  the  British ;  but  they  were  defeated  by  Gen.  Campbell, 
with  the  loss  of  Arracan,  and  other  provinces. 

§  6.  The  authentic  History  of  China,  extends  back  only  to  722 
B.  C. ;  Confucius,  (or  Confu-tsee),  being  their  oldest  historian;  but 
their  traditionary  history  begins  with  Fohi,  (Foo-hee),  whom  some 
suppose  to  have  been  the  patriarch  Noah.  The  seventh  monarch 
after  him  was  Yao,  (Yau),  in  whose  reign  the  Chinese  say  that  the 
sun  did  not  set  for  a  space  of  ten  days.  The  first  dynasty,  that  of 
Kia,  (or  Hia),  is  said  to  have  commenced  with  Yu,  about  1900  B.  C. 
Poen-keng,  of  the  second  dynasty,  that  of  Shang,  (Chang,  or  Yn), 
is  said  to  have  removed,  with  all  his  subjects,  to  a  new  settlement, 
1401  B.  C.  Too- Vang,  (Wu-wang),  founded  the  third  dynasty,  that 
of  Chew,  (Tcheoo),  1122  B.  C. ;  and  the  fourth,  or  Tsin  dynasty, 
commencing  256  B.  C.,  included  the  famous  Shee-hoang-tee,  (Chi- 
hoang-ti),  called  also  Ching,  (Tching),  who  united  the  scattered 
provinces,  founded  many  cities,  and  commenced  the  great  wall,  to 
defend  the  northern  frontier.  He  is  said  to  have  burned  the  ancient 
historical  books,  213  B.  C.,  except  those  of  Confucius,  which  were 
accidentally  saved. 


216  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

The  fifth,  or  Han  (Hang)  dynasty,  was  founded  202  B.  C.,  by 
Lieoo-pang,  captain  of  a  band  of  robbers,  who  was  afterwards  called 
Kao-tee.  The  Roman  emperor,  Marcus  Aurelius,  is  said  to  have 
sent  an  embassy  to  China,  A.  D.  166,  when  the  Chinese  first  became 
known  to  him.  China  was  divided,  A.  D.  220,  between  the  families 
of  Oey,  (Goei),  and  Ou,  (Oo) :  and,  though  united  under  Too-tee, 
(Wu-ti),  founder  of  the  seventh  or  Tain  (Tsin-ou-ti)  dynasty,  in  265, 
it  was  again  divided,  in  386;  the  northern  empire  being  founded  and 
governed  by  the  Goli  Tartars ;  and  the  southern  by  the  Oo-tay, 
(U-tai),  or  Five  Families,  which  reigned  there  in  succession.  China 
was  again  united  under  Yang-kien  ;  who  assumed  the  name  of  Ten- 
tee,  and  founded  the  twelfth  or  Sooy  (Soui)  dynasty,  A.  D.  581. 
Under  Tay-tsong,  of  the  next  or  Tang  dynasty,  literature  flourished, 
and  China  grew  powerful.  The  usurper  Shoo-ven,  (Shu-wen),  or 
Tay-tsoo,  founded  the  fourteenth  or  Heoo-Leang  (Helm-Lang)  dy- 
nasty, A.  D.  907 ;  which,  with  the  four  following  dynasties,  all  feeble, 
were  called  the  Heoo-oo-tay,  (Hehu-u-tai),  or  the  five  later  families. 
The  nineteenth  imperial  dynasty,  that  of  Song  or  Sing,  founded  by 
S/iao-quang  yu,  (or  Tchao),  under  the  name  of  Tay-tsoo,  in  960, 
continued  till  the  Tartar  conquest,  in  1278. 

The  eastern  Tartars  had  founded  an  empire  of  their  own,  in  north- 
ern China,  as  early  as  A.  D.  907 ;  and  the  Niutche  (or  Niu-cheng) 
Tartars,  coming  into  power  in  1118,  forced  the  Chinese  to  pay  tribute. 
This  induced  the  latter  to  invite  in  the  Mogul  (Mongol  or  Mong-koo) 
Tartars,  under  Genghis  Khan;  who  subdued  the  Niutches  in  1209, 
and  then  turned  his  arms  against  the  Chinese  themselves.  His 
descendant,  Kublay  Khan,  called  by  the  Chinese  Ho-pie-lie,  (Hou- 
pilay),  completed  the  conquest  of  China,  and  taking  the  name  of 
Shee-tsoo,  (Shi-tsu),  founded  the  twentieth  or  Yuen  dynasty  in  1278, 
the  eighteenth  year  of  his  reign.  The  Tartars  were  again  expelled 
from  China,  by  Shoo,  (Chu),  who  took  the  name  of  Tay-tsoo,  (Tai- 
tsoo  IV.),  and  founded  the  twenty-first  or  Ming  dynasty,  in  1368. 
But  China  was  again  subdued  by  the  Man-tchoo  Tartars,  a  remnant 
of  the  Niutches,  (Niudshees),  under  Sunshee,  (Shun-chi),  who  took 
the  name  of  Shee-tsong,  and  founded  the  twenty-second  imperial 
dynasty,  that  of  Ta-tsin,  (Tsing,  Tsim,  or  Tatim),  in  1644 ;  which 
still  occupies  the  throne.  Kien-Lung  was  emperor  at  the  time  of 
Lord  Macartney's  embassy,  in  1792. 

§  7.  The  History  of  Central  and  Southern  Africa,  is  brief  and 
obscure  ;  consisting  chiefly  of  an  account  of  the  modern  discoveries 
made,  and  colonies  founded,  by  the  Europeans.  Jlbyssinia,  the 
ancient  Ethiopia,  was  imperfectly  known  during  the  middle  ages, 
although  it  had  been  converted  to  Christianity  in  the  third  century  ; 
but  we  must  pass  over  its  history  till  the  Portuguese  mission  of 
Covillan,  about  1490;  whose  reports  hastened  the  discovery  of  the 
southern  passage  to  India.  In  1516,  the  Portuguese  aided  the  native 
king,  David,  in  recovering  his  throne  from  the  Turks ;  and,  in  1543, 
they  extended  like  aid  to  Claudius,  the  next  negus  or  king.  The 
Roman  Catholic  religion  was  established  therein  1604;  but  over- 
thrown in  1632,  by  the  negus  Basilides  or  Facilidas.  The  country 
lias  since  been  involved  in  civil  war,  and  is  now  divided,  into  the 


EUROPEAN.  217 

states  of  Amhara,  Tigre,  and  Shoa  Efat.  Melinda,  in  eastern  Africa, 
was  taken  by  the  Portuguese,  about  1500;  but  recaptured  by  the 
Arabs  in  1698.  Mozambique,  taken  by  the  Portuguese  in  1508, 
still  remains  in  their  possession  ;  and  the  Portuguese  settlements  in 
Lower  Guinea  were  formed  at  about  the  same  time. 

The  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  was  colonized  by  the  Dutch,  in  1615. 
It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  1795;  and  again  in  1806  ;  since  which 
time  it  has  remained  in  their  possession.  In  1787,  the  African 
Association  was  formed,  in  England,  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and 
others,  for  the  purpose  of  exploring  the  interior  of  Africa,  (p.  179). 
In  the  same  year,  Sierra  -Leone  was  colonized  by  negroes  from 
England  ;  and  being  surrendered  to  the  British  crown  in  1807,  it  has 
since  been  made  the  home  of  negroes  rescued  from  slave  ships.  In 
1807,  the  African  Institution  was  formed  in  England,  by  Sharpe, 
Clarkson,  Wilberforce  and  others,  for  the  abolition  of  the  slave  trade, 
and  the  civilization  of  the  Africans.  Slaves  were  carried  by  the 
Portuguese,  from  Africa  to  the  Spanish  American  colonies,  as  early 
as  1503.  The  traffic  was  legalized  by  Spain,  in  1517  ;  and  sanc- 
tioned, soon  after,  by  France  and  England.  The  United  States  and 
England  abolished  this  trade  in  1808;  France,  finally  in  1815; 
Spain,  in  1820;  and  Portugal,  nominally  in  1823.  The  American 
Colonization  Society,  was  formed  in  1816;  to  colonize  in  Africa 
the  free  colored  people  of  the  United  States.  Liberia  was  purchased 
by  it  in  1821;  and  settled  by  the  first  emigrants  in  1822;  under 
Governor  Jlshmun. 

A  few  words  on  Oceanic  History,  must  here  suffice ;  as  the  pro- 
gress of  discovery  in  Oceanica  has  already  been  traced,  (p.  192). 
Java,  was  first  colonized  by  the  Portuguese,  soon  after  its  discovery  ; 
but  taken  from  them  by  the  Dutch  ;  who,  in  1619,  made  it  the  capital 
of  their  Indian  possessions.  Sumatra,  was  settled  by  the  Dutch,  in 
1666  ;  and  the  English  also  formed  there  the  settlement  of  Bencoolen,- 
in  1685;  which  in  1825  they  ceded  to  the  Dutch,  in  exchange  for 
Malacca.  Celebes,  was  taken  from  the  Portuguese,  by  the  Dutch,  in 
1687;  and,  with  it,  the  monopoly  of  the  Spice  Islands.  The  colony 
of  Botany  Bay,  was  founded  in  1788,  by  the  British ;  who  took 
formal  possession  of  the  eastern  part  of  New  Holland,  in  1824 ;  and 
commenced  a  western  Australian  colony,  in  1829.  Van  Diemen's 
Land  was  colonized  by  them,  at  Hobart's  town,  in  1804.  The 
Philippine  Islands  were  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  in  1570. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EUROPEAN    CHRONOGRAPHY. 

IN  the  branch  of  European  Chronography,  we  include  the  History 
and  Antiquities  of  Europe  ;  excepting  those  of  ancient  Greece  and 
Rome,  included  in  Euclassic  ;  and  of  Turkey,  included  in  Oriental 
Chronography.  Here,  therefore,  we  are  to  speak  of  all  the  Christian 
nations  of  modern  Europe ;  tracing  them  back  individually  to  the 
28  T 


218  CHHONOGRAPHY. 

earliest  accounts  of  their  origin  and  growth ;  and  thence,  through 
the  middle  and  modern  ages,  to  the  present  time.  The  History  of 
Europe,  is  that  of  our  own  ancestors,  and  that  of  modern  civilization 
and  improvement.  It  is  a  chapter  often  stained  by  scenes  of  crime 
and  bloodshed,  and  by  the  struggles  of  arbitrary  power,  against  the 
rights  and  interests  of  humanity.  But  though  darkened  thus  at 
intervals,  it  has  its  brighter  hues ;  its  redeeming  features ;  and  the 
retrospect  affords  us  strong  grounds  for  hoping  that,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  Christian  philanthropy,  the  cause  of  truth  and  justice  will 
yet  prevail  throughout  the  world. 

The  present  nations  of  central  and  western  Europe,  arose  from  the 
fragments  of  the  Roman  Empire :  and,  sharing  in  its  religion  and 
laws,  they  constitute  together  a  family  of  nations.  Most  of  them 
were  united  under  Charlemagne  ;  and  notwithstanding  their  divisions, 
wars,  and  quarrels,  their  intercourse  was  maintained  by  the  spread  of 
the  Papal  power,  the  fellowship  of  the  Crusades,  and  the  spirit  of 
Chivalry.  The  age  of  Charles  V.,  again  saw  the  wielding  of  colossal 
power  in  the  west ;  but  it  witnessed  a  far  mightier  change  in  the 
prospects  of  the  civilized  world.  The  introduction  of  the  compass ; 
the  application  of  gunpowder;  the  invention  of  printing;  the  open- 
ing of  the  marine  route  to  India ;  the  discovery  of  America ;  and  the 
protestant  Reformation  ;  all  conspired  to  give  that  impetus  to  the 
human  mind  which  neither  tyranny  nor  superstition  have  yet  been 
able  to  arrest. 

We  proceed  to  the  history  of  the  European  nations  ;  commencing 
with  that  of  Italy,  and  thence  following  the  geographical  order, 
adopted  in  the  preceding  department.  The  Greek  revolution,  which 
resulted  in  the  establishment  of  Otho,  of  Bavaria,  on  the  throne  of 
Greece,  has  already  been  alluded  to,  under  Turkish  history,  (p.  213). 

§  1.  The  History  of  Italy,  properly  commences  with  that  of  the 
Papal  power ;  which  extended,  in  the  middle  ages,  not  only  to  Italy, 
but  to  all  the  western  and  central  parts  of  Europe  ;  overshadowing 
the  power  of  kings,  by  an  influence  mightier  than  that  of  the  sceptre. 
Of  its  origin,  we  have  already  spoken  under  Ecclesiastical  History ; 
(p.  147).  Its  growth  was  vigorous  under  Leo  I.,  the  Great,  in 
the  fifth  century,  and  Gregory  I.,  the  Great,  in  the  sixth.  In  606, 
Boniface  III.,  was  declared  Universal  Bishop,  by  the  tyrant  Phocas  ; 
but  Theodore  I.,  who  died  A.  D.  649,  first  received  the  title  of 
sovereign  pontiff.  Although  the  popes  exercised  secular  autho- 
rity, they  had  no  territorial  dominion  till  755  ;  when  Pepin  the  Short, 
king  of  France,  made  over  to  Pope  Stephen  III.,  twenty-two  cities  in 
Italy,  which  he  had  taken  from  the  Exarch  of  Ravenna.  From  this 
period,  the  papal  power  extended  rapidly  in  the  west;  aided  much 
by  the  forged  decretals,  ascribed  to  Isidore,  and  which  greatly  exag- 
gerated the  power  of  the  early  Roman  bishops.  In  the  year  800, 
Pope  Leo  III.,  conferred  on  Charlemagne  the  ancient  crown  of  the 
Caesars,  saluting  him  emperor  of  the  West ;  and  in  875,  Pope  John 
VIII.,  elevated  Charles  the  Bald  to  the  throne  of  France.*  In  1080, 
Matilda,  countess  of  Tuscany,  bequeathed  a  large  territory  to  Pope 

*  In  1039,  three  popes,  chosen  by  bribery,  were  living  together  at  Rome;  all  of 
them  obnoxious,  from  their  immoral  character 


EUROPEAN.  219 

Gregory  VII. ;  which  became  the  cause  of  much  subsequent  conten- 
tion with  the  German  emperors.  Gregory  VII.  first  decreed  the 
celibacy  of  the  clergy ;  in  order  to  bind  them  more  closely  to  the 
hierarchal  service. 

The  papal  power  was  greatly  increased  by  the  Crusades^  or  wars 
of  the  Cross,  against  the  Mohamedans,  for  the  recovery  of  Jerusa- 
lem. The  first  was  commenced  in  1096,  under  Peter  the  Hermit,  a 
monk  patronized  by  pope  Urban  II. ;  and  three  years  after,  Jerusa- 
lem was  taken  by  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  and  his  associates.  In 
1147,  a  second  Crusade  was  got  up  by  St.  Barnard,  and  Pope  Eu- 
gene III.,  to  sustain  the  Christians  in  the  East ;  in  which  Louis  VII. 
of  France,  and  Conrad  III.  of  Germany,  failed  of  success.  The 
third  Crusade  was  begun  in  1188,  by  Richard  I.  of  England,  Philip 
Augustus  of  France,  and  Frederick  Barbarossa  of  Germany,  stimu- 
lated by  Pope  Clement  III.,  to  recover  Jerusalem,  which  the  Turks 
had  retaken,  ten  years  before.  Richard  defeated  Saladin  and  the 
Turks  at  Ascalon,  in  1192;  but  ended  this  crusade  by  a  truce  with 
them  soon  after.  The  fourth  Crusade,  began  in  1202,  under 
Baldwin,  count  of  Flanders,  who  went  no  farther  than  Constantino- 
ple: and  the  fifth  and  last  Crusade,  made  in  1248,  by  St.  Louis 
(Lewis  IX.)  of  France,  ended  with  his  capture,  and  ransom,  in 
Egypt,  soon  after. 

In  1177,  Pope  Alexander  III.,  compelled  the  emperor  Frederick 
of  Germany  to  hold  his  stirrup,  and  kiss  his  foot :  and  in  1198,  Pope 
Innocent  III.,  subjected  Rome  itself  to  the  temporal  power  of  the 
papal  chair.  Under  him,  the  Inquisition  was  founded,  in  1204,  by 
the  agency  of  Dominic  de  Guzman  ;  being  first  aimed  against  the 
Reformers  in  France  ;  and  next  against  the  Jews  in  Spain.  Pope 
Boniface  VIII.,  was  imprisoned,  in  1303,  by  Philip  the  Fair  of 
France  ;  and  from  1308  to  1377,  the  popes  resided  at  Avignon.  In 
1378,  two  popes  were  chosen  at  the  same  time ;  Clement  VII.,  by 
the  French  ;  and  Urban  VI.,  by  the  Italians.  This  division  is  called 
the  great  schism  of  the  west.  The  council  of  Constance,  convoked 
in  1414,  by  the  German  emperor,  Sigismund,  deposed  John  XXII., 
and  proclaimed  itself  superior  to  the  pope. 

The  Reformation,  begun  by  Luther  in  1517,  (page  154),  and 
which  neither  the  power  nor  the  policy  of  Leo  X.  could  suppress, 
has  liberated  the  half  of  Christendom  from  ecclesiastical  usurpation. 
To  counteract  this,  the  order  of  Jesuits  was  founded,  in  15,36,  by 
Loyola,  under  Pope  Paul  III. ;  (p.  154);  its  members  promising  impli- 
cit obedience  to  the  papal  power;  and  their  professed  object  being  the 
conversion  of  heretics  and  the  heathen.  Their  machinations  led  to 
their  suppression,  in  the  last  century,  by  most  of  the  European 
sovereigns  :  but  not  to  their  extinction.  Pope  Sixtus  V.,  who  died 
in  1590,  has  been  called  the  last  Roman  pontiff  that  kings  had  reason 
to  fear.  Pope  Pius  VII.,  was  forced,  in  1801,  to  buy  his  personal 
freedom  of  Bonaparte  ;  and  owed  his  restoration,  in  1814,  at  least  in 
part,  to  the  protestant  states  of  England  and  Prussia.  In  restoring 
the  Jesuits,  and  opposing  the  dissemination  of  the  Bible,  he  only 
followed  the  maxim  of  his  predecessors,  "never  to  give  up  the 
slightest  claims,  but  to  wait  for  opportunities." 


220  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

Italy  presents  a  sad  example  of  the  effects  of  division,  and  discord, 
among  the  members  of  a  great  nation.  We  shall  first  glance  over  its 
connected  history;  and  then  refer  to  its  separate  divisions.  Odoacer, 
king  of  the  Heruli,  having  overthrown  the  western,  or  Roman  empire, 
A.  D.  476,  assumed  the  title  of  king  of  Italy.  He  was  defeated  and 
slain,  in  493,  by  Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  (Eastern  Goths), 
assisted  by  the  Visigoths,  (or  Western  Goths) :  and  the  Gothic  king- 
dom in  Italy  continued  till  it  was  overrun  by  Narses,  the  Byzantine 
general,  in  552;  by  whose  agency  JLlboin,  king  of  the  Lombards, 
became  king  of  Italy  in  568,  The  last  Lombard  king,  Didier,  was 
dethroned  by  Charlemagne  of  France,  who  united  Italy  to  his  own 
domains,  in  774.  Under  his  descendants,  Italy  was  alternately 
separated  from  and  united  with  France,  till  Otho  I.,  the  Great,  of 
Germany,  became  its  master,  and  was  crowned  emperor  of  the 
Romans,  in  962. 

Otho  and  his  successors  allowed  many  of  the  Italian  cities  to  have 
separate  republican  governments  :  the  chief  officers  of  each  being 
two  consuls,  elected  annually.  These  cities,  with  their  dependent 
territories,  were  styled  the  Italian  Republics ;  among  which  were 
Milan,  Pavia,  Lodi,  Florence,  and  Pisa.  Venice  and  Genoa  were 
also  called  republics ;  their  chief  officer  being  styled  the  doge. 
These  states  were  frequently  engaged  in  contests  with  each  other, 
and  involved  in  broils  with  the  popes  and  German  emperors.  In  the 
war  between  Milan  and  Pavia,  in  1129,  arose  the  distinction  of  the 
Guelfs,  (Guelphs),  and  Ghibelines,  (Gibelins).  The  Guelfs,  so 
called  from  the  family  of  Welfs  in  Germany,  including  the  duke  of 
Bavaria,  favored  the  pope,  and  Lothaire  of  Saxony  ;  while  the  Glii- 
belines,  named  from  Wibelung  or  Waiblinga,  a  German  castle  in 
Franconia,  espoused  the  cause  of  Conrad  of  Hohenstaufen,  of  the 
house  of  Swabia.  In  general,  the  Guelfs,  and  the  house  of  Este 
were  the  partizans  of  the  popes  ;  and  the  Ghibelines,  headed  by  the 
family  Da  Romano,  favored  the  German  emperors.  But  we  have 
no  room  to  pursue  this  complicated  subject  farther. 

Venice  became  a  distinct  state  as  early  as  A.  D.  697,  when  its  first 
doge  was  elected ;  but  the  present  city  was  built  in  809.  It  grew 
rapidly  in  the  time  of  the  Crusades  ;  and  enjoyed  the  chief  commerce 
of  tlte  east,  till  the  discovery  of  the  southern  passage  to  India ;  after 
which  it  began  to  decline.  Cyprus  was  ceded  to  Venice  in  1486  ; 
but  taken  by  the  Turks  in  1571;  who  also  took  Candia  in  1699. 
Venice  continued  free  till  the  French  Revolution  ;  which  resulted  in 
its  final  subjection  to  Austria,  in  1814.  Milan  became  a  duchy 
under  Visconti,  in  1395;  subject  to  Spain,  in  1535;  and  it  has  be- 
longed to  Austria  since  1706,  except  during  the  French  Revolution. 
In  1815  it  was  united  with  Venice,  to  form  the  Lombar  do- Venetian 
kingdom,  which  is  now  a  part  of  the  Austrian  empire. 

Genoa,  became  a  republic  in  953,  and  was  for  a  long  time  second 
only  to  Venice,  in  commerce  and  wealth.  It  was  engaged  in  long 
wars  with  Pisa  ;  and  contended  with  Venice,  for  the  dominion  of  the 
Mediterranean.  The  former  wars  ended  in  1284,  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Pisans;  and  the  latter  in  1381,  in  the  peace  of  Turin,  with  Venice. 
Genoa  continued  independent  till  the  French  Revolution ;  but  was 


EUROPEAN.  221 

incorporated  with  France  in  1805  ;  and  finally  assigned  to  the  king- 
dom of  Sardinia  in  1815.  Savoy  became  a  distinct  county  in  1016; 
a  duchy  in  1416  ;  and  a  kingdom,  from  the  peace  of  Utrecht  in  1713 ; 
the  island  of  Sardinia  being  annexed  to  it  in  1720,  under  Jlmadeus  II. 
It  was  invaded  by  the  French  in  1798  ;  but  reinstated  as  a  kingdom, 
under  the  name  of  Sardinia,  in  1815,  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 

The  kingdom  of  the  TUJO  Sicilies,  (Naples  and  Sicily),  was  found- 
ed by  Norman  adventurers  ;  and  became  a  duchy  under  Robert 
Guiscard,  in  1060  ;  and  a  kingdom  under  Roger  II.,  in  1 130.  When 
his  family  became  extinct,  in  1189,  the  kingdom  fell  to'Henry'  VI. 
of  Germany,  and  to  his  descendants,  till  it  was  granted,  in  1254,  by 
the  pope,  to  Charles  of  Anjou,  brother  to  Louis  IX.  of  France. 
Sicily  revolted  from  his  reign,  and  by  the  massacre  of  the  Sicilian 
vespers,  in  1282,  the  French  were  extirpated  from  Palermo.  The 
French  were  expelled  from  Naples  in  1458,  by  Mphonso  V.  (Alfonso) 
of  Arragon  ;  after  which  Naples  was  connected  successively  with 
Spain  and  Austria,  till  it  was  conferred  on  Ferdinand  of  Spain,  in 
1759.  Since  that  time,  it  has  remained  a  distinct  kingdom. 

Tuscany,  became  a  grand-duchy  in  1569,  under  Cosmo  de'  Medici. 
On  the  failure  of  his  line,  in  1737,  it  passed  to  Francis,  duke  of 
Lorraine ;  and  from  him  to  the  house  of  Austria,  to  which  it  still 
remains  subject ;  though  entirely  distinct  from  the  Austrian  empire. 
Of  the  other  Italian  duchies  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak. 

§  2.  The  History  of  Spain,  commences  with  its  settlement  by  the 
Phoenicians;  who  built  Cadiz,  it  is  said,  900  B.  C.  It  was  invaded 
by  the  Carthaginians,  about  500  B.  C. ;  and  partially  held  by  them 
till  the  end  of  the  second  Punic  war,  201  B.  C.  ;  when  it  was  ceded 
to  the  Romans ;  though  not  completely  subdued  by  the  latter,  till  the 
time  of  Augustus.  On  the  decline  of  the  Roman  power,  Spain  was 
invaded,  and  mostly  subdued,  by  the  Vandals,  Suevi,  and  Alans, 
A.  D.  406;  but  about  419,  the  Visigoths,  under  Wallia,  became  its 
masters,  and  drove  the  Vandals  into  Africa.  The  Catholic  religion 
was  introduced  into  Spain,  in  586,  under  Reccared  I.  In  712,  this 
country  was  invaded  by  the  Moors  ;  and  Don  Roderick,  who  had 
usurped  the  throne,  was  defeated  at  Xeres,  by  Tarik,  sent  from 
Barbary  ;  who  thus  subjected  Spain  to  the  caliphate  of  Bagdad.  In 
756,  Mdalrahman  rendered  Spain  independent ;  and  established  the 
caliphate  of  Cordova,  the  seat  of  Moorish  learning.  This  caliphate 
became  divided,  about  1038,  among  several  Moorish  princes. 

Meanwhile,  as  early  as  718,  Pelagius  the  Goth,  retiring  to  the 
mountains  of  Asturias,  founded  the  kingdom  of  Leon  ;  which  became 
united  with  Castile,  in  1037,  under  Ferdinand  I.  Barcelona  became 
a  distinct  county  in  801;  and  was  united  with  Arragon,  in  1162, 
under  Raymond,  surnamed  Alphonso  II.  By  these  Christian  pow- 
ers the  Moors  were  gradually  driven  back ;  and  by  the  battle  of 
Tolosa,  in  1220,  they  lost  all  Spain  except  Granada  in  the  south. 
After  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand  V.  of  Arragon,  styled  the  Catholic, 
with  Isabella  of  Castile,  in  1479,  their  forces  were  united  against  the 
Moors  ;  and  the  conquest  of  Granada  was  completed  in  1492.  This 
success  induced  Isabella  to  patronize  Columbus  ;  while  Ferdinand's 
fame  was  tarnished  by  t!  e  introduction  of  the  Inquisition.  Charles  I. 

T  2 


222  CHRONOGRAPHS. 

of  Spain,  the  grandson  of  Isabella,  came  to  the  throne  in  1516,  and 
soon  after  became  emperor  of  Germany,  under  the  title  of  Charles  V. ; 
as  heir  to  his  father,  Philip,  archduke  of  Austria.  The  rivalry  of 
Francis  I.  of  France,  led  to  a  war,  in  which  Francis  was  taken 
prisoner,  and  confined  till  the  peace  of  Madrid,  in  1526;  which  left 
Charles  the  most  powerful  monarch  of  Europe,  with  the  wealth  of 
America  at  his  command. 

Charles  resigned  the  Spanish  crown,  in  1556,  to  his  son  Philip  II. ; 
whose  intolerance  and  religious  wars,  and  especially  the  armada  sent 
against  England,  but  destroyed  in  1588,  exhausted  his  resources,  and 
weakened  the  nation.  The  expulsion  of  the  Moors,  by  Philip  III., 
in  1609,  and  the  loss  of  Portugal  during  the  reign  of  Philip  IV., 
accelerated  this  decline.  Charles  II.  appointed  Philip  of  Anjou  to 
be  his  successor :  and  this  led  to  the  war  of  the  Spanish  Succession, 
in  which  France  and  Spain  supported  Philip ;  but  England  and  Hol- 
land aided  Germany,  in  favor  of  the  emperor  Leopold.  This  war 
began  in  1701,  and  ended  with  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713  ;  by 
which  Philip  retained  the  crown,  under  the  title  of  Philip  V. ;  but 
lost  many  of  its  foreign  possessions.  Under  Charles  III.,  Spain 
united  with  France,  in  aiding  the  United  States  of  America  to  secure, 
their  independence ;  and  in  1782,  those  powers  attempted,  but  in  vain, 
to  take  Gibraltar  from  the  English.  The  difficulties  between  Charles 
IV.  and  his  son  Ferdinand  VII.,  invited  the  interposition  of  Napoleon  ; 
who  in  1808,  placed  his  brother,  Joseph  Bonaparte,  on  the  Spanish 
throne.  In  the  wars  which  followed,  the  French  were  expelled,  and 
Ferdinand  restored,  in  1814 ;  by  the  aid  of  the  English.  Isabella  II., 
the  daughter  of  Ferdinand,  is  now  the  queen  and  sole  monarch  of 
Spain. 

The  history  of  Portugal,  belongs  to  that  of  Spain,  till  Henry  of 
Burgundy,  having  assisted  Alphonso  VI.  of  Castile  and  Leon  against 
the  Moors,  was  appointed  by  him,  A.  D.  1094,  to  be  governor  of 
the  provinces  around  Oporto  ;  and  Alphonso  I.,  the  son  of  Henry, 
having  defeated  the  Moors  at  Ourique,  was  at  once  saluted  king  of 
Portugal,  in  1139.  In  1383,  the  direct  line  of  Burgundy  having 
become  extinct,  the  crown  was  conferred  on  John  I.  of  the  same 
family.  His  son,  Henry,  the  Infante,  surnamed  the  Navigator,  set 
on  foot  those  enterprizes  which  opened  the  way  to  the  Indies,  in  the 
reign  of  John  II.  In  1580,  the  crown  becoming  vacant,  was  seized 
by  Philip  II.  of  Spain  ;  and  held  by  that  power  till  1640,  when  the 
Portuguese  placed  John  of  Braganza,  of  the  old  royal  family,  upon 
the  throne.  In  the  reign  of  Joseph  I.  the  Jesuits  were  banished  from 
Portugal,  in  1759;  and  reforms  were  made  in  the  government.  After 
the  French  Revolution  of  1789,  Portugal  became  involved  in  the  wars 
with  France ;  and  in  1807,  the  regent  John  VI.  sailed  to  Brazil, 
leaving  the  country  in  the  hands  of  the  French ;  but  it  was  restored 
to  him  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1814.  In  1821,  John  returned  to 
Portugal,  leaving  his  son  Don  Pedro,  to  govern  Brazil,  which  became 
independent  in  1825.  Maria  II.  (Donna  Maria),  the  daughter  of 
Pedro,  now  occupies  the  throne  of  Portugal. 

§  3.  The  History  of  France,  commences  with  that  of  the  Gauls, 
its  ancient  inhabitants ;  whose  subjugation  to  the  Roman  empire  was 


EUROPEAN.  223 

completed  by  Julius  Caesar,  in  the  year  50  B.  C.  The  ancient 
Cherusci,  afterwards  styled  Franks,  or  freemen,  began  to  migrate 
from  Germany  to  France  as  early  as  A.  D.  264;  and  at  length, 
having  defeated  the  Romans,  at  Soissons,  in  486,  they  founded  the 
Prankish  empire,  including  France  and  Germany,  under  Clovis, 
grandson  of  Merovaeus,  and  head  of  the  Merovingian  dynasty.  His 
successors  were  mostly  weak  monarchs  ;  and  after  the  death  of 
Dagobert  II.,  in  638,  the  mayors  of  the  palace  became  possessed 
of  the  principal  power.  Their  office  became  hereditary,  in  the  family 
of  Pepin  Heristel :  whose  son  Charles  defeated  the  Saracens  from 
Spain,  near  Tours,  in  732,  and  hence  was  surnamed  Martel,  or  the 
Hammer.  His  son,  Pepin  the  Short,  (le  Bref),  was  proclaimed  king 
of  France  in  751  ;  with  whom  commenced  the  second  or  Carlovingian 
dynasty.  Charles,  the  son  of  Pepin,  having  subdued  the  Lombards, 
and  become  monarch  of  Italy,  Germany,  and  France,  was  crowned 
Emperor  of  the  West,  by  Pope  Leo  III.,  in  800;  taking  thencefor- 
ward the  name  of  Charlemagne,  or  Charles  the  Great. 

The  grandsons  of  Charlemagne,  sons  of  Louis  Debonnaire,  con- 
tended for  the  crown  before  their  father's  death ;  and  fought  with 
each  other  the  battle  of  Fontenoy ;  after  which,  by  the  treaty  of 
Verdun,  in  843,  Italy  was  assigned  to  Lothaire  ;  Germany,  to  Louis; 
and  France,  to  Charles  the  Bald.  This  dynasty  continued  till  the 
death  of  Louis  V.,  in  987;  when  Hugh  Capet,  count  of  Paris  and 
Orleans,  founded  the  third,  or  Capetian  dynasty.  From  this  time, 
the  royal  power,  favored  by  the  clergy  and  the  common  people, 
began  to  predominate  over  that  of  the  nobles  ;  thus  undermining  the 
Feudal  system.  In  1087,  France,  under  Philip  I.,  was  invaded  by 
William  the  Conqueror,  of  England  ;  but  without  success.  Louis 
VII.  took  part  in  the  second  Crusade,  in  1147  ;  Philip  II.  (Augustus), 
joined  in  the  third,  in  1188;  and  Louis  IX.  (St.  Lewis),  led  the 
fifth  and  last  Crusade,  in  1248,  but  without  success.  (See  p.  219). 
The  kingdom  of  France  was,  for  a  long  time,  extremely  limited  ; 
Flanders,  Champagne,  Burgundy,  and  several  other  states  being  inde- 
pendent ;  while  a  large  part  of  northern  and  western  France  belonged 
to  England. 

In  1328,  Philip  VI.,  of  the  house  of  Valois,  a  branch  of  the  Cape- 
tian race,  ascended  the  throne.  The  pretensions  of  Edward  III.  of 
England,  to  the  French  crown,  led  to  a  war,  in  which  the  English 
were  victorious  at  Cressy,  in  1347  ;  and  they  took  Calais  soon  after. 
John  II.,  the  successor  of  Philip,  was  defeated  at  Poictiers,  in  1356; 
and  carried  a  prisoner  to  London.  Charles  V.,  the  Wise,  was  more 
successful ;  but  in  the  next  reign,  the  French  were  again  defeated  at 
Jlgincourt,  (or  Azincourt),  in  1415.  Charles  VII.,  aided  by  Joan 
of  Arc,  raised  the  siege  of  Orleans  in  1429;  and  regained  all  of 
France,  which  had  been  held  by  the  English,  except  Calais.  Louis 
XII.,  of  Orleans,  was  succeeded  in  1515,  by  Francis  I.,  of  Angou- 
leme  ;  who  contested  the  crown  of  Germany,  in  a  war  with  Charles 
V.  (See  p.  222).  This  war,  after  the  release  of  Francis,  was 
renewed,  till  the  peace  of  Crespi,  in  1544.  The  reign  of  Charles 
IX.,  was  stained  by  internal  religious  wars,  and  by  the  massacre  of 


224  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

St.  Bartholomew's  eve,  in  which  30,000  Huguenots  (Protestants) 
were  assassinated. 

The  wars  which  followed  this  event,  placed  Henry  IV.,  the  Great, 
upon  the  throne ;  and  thus  was  founded  the  Bourbon  dynasty,  in 
1589.  Louis  XIII.  took  part  in  the  Thirty  years1  war,  against 
the  emperor  of  Germany;  which  was  begun  in  1618;  and  con- 
tinued during  the  minority  of  Louis  XIV.,  styled  the  Great,  till  the 
favorable  peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648.  This  latter  king  was  a  party 
in  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  ending  with  the  peace  of 
Utrecht  in  1713  ;  which  gained  the  crown  of  Spain  for  his  grandson, 
but  weakened  the  power  of  France,  irretrievably.  Louis  XV.  took 
part  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  against  the  claims  of 
Maria  Theresa  to  the  Austrian  crown  ;  which,  however,  she  retained 
by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in  1748.  He  also  took  part  in  the 
Seven  years1  war,  against  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia ;  and  thereby  lost 
Canada,  by  the  peace  of  Paris  in  1763. 

Louis  XVI.  aided  the  United  States  in  gaining  their  independence ; 
but  fell  a  victim  to  the  French  Revolution,  which  was  provoked  by  the 
despotism  and  corruption  of  the  government.  It  broke  out  in  1789  ; 
and  he  was  guillotined  four  years  afterward.  Napoleon  Bonaparte 
was  appointed  first  consul  of  France  in  1799 ;  and  crowned  emperor 
in  1 804.  After  a  long  career  of  victory,  he  was  defeated  at  Leipsic, 
in  1813;  and  soon  after  abdicated  the  crown,  and  retired  to  Elba. 
Returning  to  France,  in  1814,  after  the  brief  triumph  of  the  Hun- 
dred days,  so  called,  he  was  again  defeated  at  Waterloo  ;  and  Louis 
XVIII.  received  the  crown  of  France,  from  the  victorious  allied 
powers.  In  1830,  his  successor,  CharlesX.,  was  expelled  for  usurp- 
ation ;  and  the  Three  days  Revolution  resulted  in  proclaiming  Louis 
Philippe  of  Orleans,  king  of  the  French,  by  the  will  of  the  people. 

§  4.  The  History  of  Great  Britain,  extends  back  to  its  discovery 
by  the  Phoenicians,  probably  soon  after  the  founding  of  Carthage, 
or  878  B.  C.  It  was  unknown  to  the  Romans,  until  the  time  of 
Julius  Cxsar ;  who  invaded  and  conquered  the  southern  part  of  it, 
54  B.  C. :  but  the  conquest  of  England  was  completed  by  Jlgricola, 
about  A.  D.  70.  On  the  decline  of  Rome,  Valentinian  III.  with- 
drew his  legions,  in  426,  and  left  the  Britons  to  their  fate.  Being 
harassed  by  the  Scots  and  Picts,  they  called  to  their  aid  the  Saxons, 
from  Germany;  who,  under  Hengist  and  Horsa,  came  in  449,  and  at 
first  protected,  but  afterwards  subjugated  the  inhabitants.  The 
Saxons  soon  formed  seven  small  kingdoms  in  Britain,  known  as  the 
Heptarchy  ;  which  were  at  length  united,  in  828,  by  Egbert,  king 
of  Wessex ;  and  they  then  received  the  name  of  England,  from 
the  Angles,  who  had  united  with  the  Saxons.  From  this  time, 
England  was  exposed  to  the  ravages  of  the  Danes.  They  were 
defeated  and  brought  to  terms  by  Alfred  the  Great,  in  893  ;  who 
made  London  his  capital,  and  greatly  improved  the  kingdom.  After 
the  cruel  massacre  of  the  Danes  in  1002,  their  countrymen,  under 
Sweyn,  (or  Sueno),  again  assailed  England  ;  and  Ethelred  II.  fled  to 
Normandy,  till  the  death  of  Sweyn  in  1014;  when  he  returned. 
His  son  Edmund  II.  (Ironside)  was  also  defeated  by  the  Danes  ; 
whose  leader  Canute  the  Great,  became  sole  king  of  England,  in  1017; 


EUROPEAN.  22$ 

but  the  Danes  were  finally  expelled,  in  1041,  by  Edward  the  Con- 
fessor, of  the  Anglo-Saxon  line. 

On  the  death  of  Edward,  William  I.,  the  Conqueror,  invaded 
England;  and  defeating  Harold  of  Wessex,  at  Hastings,  in  1066,  he 
seized  the  crown,  and  established  the  Norman  dynasty,  in  the  same 
year.  On  the  death  of  William  II.  (Rufus),  his  brother  Henry  I. 
(Beauclerc)  usurped  the  throne  in  1100:  but  having  no  sons,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  nephew,  Stephen  of  Blois,  in  1135.  Henry  II., 
son  of  Geoffrey  Plantagenet,  and  grandson  of  Henry  I.,  next 
obtained  the  throne,  in  1154;  and  with  him  began  the  line  of  the 
Plantagenets.  Richard  I.,  (Cceur  de  Lion),  engaging  in  the  third 
Crusade,  was  detained  prisoner  in  Austria,  till  ransomed  in  1194; 
and  his  weak  brother  John,  succeeding  him,  was  compelled  by  the 
Barons  to  grant  the  Magna  Charta,  or  great  charter  against  royal 
oppression,  in  1215,  at  Runnymede.  Under  Henry  III.  the  House 
of  Commons  was  first  constituted,  in  1265.  Edward  I.  (Long- 
shanks)  subdued  Wales,  in  1283,  and  gained  a  foothold  in  Scotland  : 
but  Edward  II.  was  defeated  by  Robert  Bruce,  at  Bannockburn,  in 
1314.  Edward  III.,  claiming  the  crown  of  France,  in  right  of  his 
mother,  engaged,  with  his  son,  Edward  the  Black  Prince,  in  a  suc- 
cessful war  with  France,  already  referred  to.  (p.  223). 

In  the  reign  of  Richard  II.,  commenced  the  rivalry  between  his 
uncles,  the  dukes  of  Lancaster  and  York.  Henry  IV.  (Bolingbroke), 
son  of  the  former,  seized  the  crown  in  1399,  and  thus  the  house 
of  Lancaster  occupied  the  throne.  This  led  to  the  wars  of  the 
Roses;  the  white  rose  being  the  badge  of  York,  and  the  red,  that  of 
Lancaster.  Henry  V.  invaded  France,  and  was  victorious  at  Agin- 
court,  in  1415;  but  his  conquests  were  lost  by  Henry  VI.;  from 
whom  the  crown  also  was  wrested  by  Edward  IV.  of  York,  who 
thus  superseded  the  house  of  Lancaster,  in  1461.  Richard  III.,  the 
Cruel,  was  slain  in  the  battle  of  Bosworth,  in  1485,  and  succeeded 
by  Henry  VII.,  son  of  Edmund  Tudor,  who  by  his  marriage  united 
the  rival  interests,  in  the  house  of  Tudor.  The  quarrels  of  Henry 
VIII.  with  the  pope,  led  to  the  abolition  of  papacy,  in  1533,  and  the 
Reformation,  or  introduction  of  the  Protestant  religion.  The  short 
reigns  of  Edward  VI.  and  the  bigoted  Mary,  were  followed,  in  1558, 
by  that  of  Elizabeth;  who  supported  the  Protestants,  and  triumphed 
over  the  Jlrmada,  or  fleet,  sent  against  her  by  Spain,  in  1588.  On 
her  death,  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  (James  I.  of  England),  son  of 
Queen  Mary  Stuart,  inherited  the  crown,  and  thus  permanently  united 
Scotland  with  England  and  Ireland,  under  the  house  of  Stuart,  in  1603. 

His  son,  Charles  I.,  usurping  extreme  powers,  was  beheaded  in 
1649,  in  a  Revolution ;  by  which  Oliver  Cromwell  became  Protector 
of  the  Commonwealth.  Charles  II.,  son  of  Charles  I.,  regained 
the  royal  power  in  1661 ;  but  his  brother  and  successor,  James  II., 
aiming  to  reestablish  papacy,  was  driven  from  the  kingdom  by  the 
Revolution  of  1689,  (1688  o.  s.),  which  placed  William  III.  of 
Orange,  and  Mary,  the  daughter  of  James,  upon  the  throne.  France 
thereupon  made  war  against  Great  Britain  ;  but  concluded  the  peace 
of  Ryswick,  in  1697.  Queen  Jlnne,  took  part  in  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession,  against  France  and  the  Bourbons  ;  and  her  gene- 
29 


226  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

ral,  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  aided  by  the  Germans  under  Prince 
Eugene,  gained  the  battles  of  Blenheim  in  1704,  Ramilies  in  1706, 
Oudenard  in  1708,  and  Malplaquet  in  1709;  thus  inducing  the 
peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713. 

Anne  was  succeeded  in  1714,  by  George  I.  of  Hanover,  great- 
grandson  of  James  I.  ;  and  with  him  commenced  the  dynasty  of 
Brunswick.  George  II.  took  part  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succes- 
sion, in  aid  of  Maria  Theresa ;  till  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in 
1748.  By  the  seven  years'  war,  against  France  and  Germany,  end- 
ing in  the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1763,  George  III.  gained  Canada  ;  but 
by  unjust  exactions  and  uncompromising  measures,  he  lost  the  United 
States,  in  a  war  ending  with  the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1783.  In  his 
time  occurred  the  French  Revolution,  and  the  rise  of  Bonaparte ; 
against  whom  Great  Britain,  fearing  his  exorbitant  power,  took  a 
decisive  part.  Her  armies  and  her  wealth  at  length  procured  his 
downfall,  doubly  sealed  by  the  last  great  battle  of  Waterloo,  in  1814. 
George  IV.  began  to  reign  in  1820;  William  IV.  in  1830;  and 
Victoria  in  1837. 

Scotland,  was  probably  first  settled  by  the  Celts, "and  afterwards  by 
the  Picts,  who  resisted  the  Roman  power ;  and  Walls  were  built  by 
the  Romans  to  prevent  their  inroads.  The  Scots  or  Dalriads  from 
Ireland,  migrated  thither  under  their  leader,  Fergus,  A.  D.  503  ;  and 
Kenneth  Mac  Alpine  first  united  the  Scots  and  Picts  under  one 
reign,  in  843.  Malcolm  I.,  who  gained  the  crown  in  943,  received 
Cumberland  from  the  English,  on  condition  of  guarding  their  northern 
frontier;  and  Malcolm  II.,  in  1004,  defeated  the  Danish  invaders, 
and  finally  made  peace  with  Sweyn,  their  king.  Malcolm  III.,  who 
began  to  reign  in  1057,  was  the  son  of  Duncan,  who  was  murdered  by 
Lady  Macbeth.  On  the  death  of  Alexander  III.,  in  1284,  Edward  I. 
of  England,  as  umpire  between  Bruce  and  Baliol,  gained  a  nominal 
sovereignty,  bjr  favoring  the  latter ;  but  Bruce,  (Robert  I.),  defeated 
the  English  at  Bannockburn,  in  1314,  and  became  king  of  Scotland. 

On  the  extinction  of  his  line,  Robert  II.,  of  the  house  of  Stuart, 
(or  Stewart),  ascended  the  throne  in  1371.  James  I.  was  murdered 
by  his  nobles,  in  1437;  and  James  III.  slain  during  a  rebellion,  in 
1488.  James  IV.  married  Margaret,  daughter  of  Henry  VII.  of 
England,  thus  giving  to  his  heirs  a  claim  to  the  English  crown;  but 
he  fell  at  the  battle  of  Flodden,  in  1513.  James  V.,  in  alliance  with 
France,  opposed  the  Reformation  ;  but  in  vain.  His  daughter  and 
successor,  the  beautiful  Mary  Stuart,  was  cruelly  beheaded,  by  order 
of  Queen  Elizabeth,  in  1587  :  but  her  son,  James  VI.  of  Scotland, 
inherited  the  crown  of  Elizabeth,  and  became  sole  king  of  Great 
Britain,  in  1603,  as  already  mentioned  ;  though  Scotland  continued 
to  be  a  distinct  kingdom,  till  the  act  of  Union,  in  1707. 

Ireland  was  peopled  by  the  Celts,  and  known  to  the  Phoenicians, 
at  an  early  age  ;  but  its  history  has  not  been  well  preserved.  It  was 
divided  among  several  rival  clans,  till  Brian  Boroihm  united  them 
mostly  under  his  sceptre,  about  the  year  1000,  of  our  era.  In  1172, 
Henry  II.  of  England,  taking  advantage  of  a  quarrel  between  Dermod 
of  Leinster  and  Roderick  O'Connor,  landed  with  an  army  in  Ireland, 
and  subdued  all  of  it  except  the  province  of  Ulster  ;  which  fell  to  the 


EUROPEAN.  227 

English,  by  intermarriage,  in  1361.     The  fate  of  Ireland  has  been 
peculiarly  unfortunate  ;  but  we  have  no  room  to  trace  it  farther. 

§  5.  We  come  next  to  the  History  of  Central  Europe  ;  including 
that  of  all  the  Germanic  nations.  The  early  inhabitants  of  Holland, 
the  Batavi  and  Frisii,  were  subdued  successively  by  the  Romans, 
and  the  Franks  ;  and  formed  a  part  of  the  Prankish  empire,  till  the 
partition  at  Verdun,  A .  D.  843 ;  when  Holland  was  attached  to  Ger- 
many. On  the  abdication  of  Charles  the  V.,  in  1556,  Holland,  with 
the  adjacent  provinces,  constituting  the  Netherlands,  (or  Lowlands), 
was  united  with  Spain,  under  Philip  II.  His  severe  treatment  caused 
Holland  and  Zealand  to  rebel  against  him  in  1572;  and  five  other 
provinces  joined  them,  at  Ghent,  in  1576.  The  seven  United  Pro- 
vinces under  William  of  Orange  as  Stadtholder,  declared  themselves 
independent,  in  1579;  though  not  recognized  so  by  Spain,  till  the 
close  of  the  Thirty  years'  war,  and  peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1648. 
At  this  period,  they  were  the  first  commercial  nation  in  the  world; 
the  Dutch  East  India  Company,  formed  in  1602,  having  engrossed 
the  commerce  of  the  East. 

The  other  ten  provinces,  called  Flanders,  or  Spanish  Netherlands, 
now  Belgium,  were  ceded  by  Spain,  at  the  peace  of  Utrecht,  in  1713, 
lo  the  house  of  Austria,  which  held  them  till  the  French  Revolution; 
when  they  were  taken  by  France,  in  1794.  The  French  also  took 
Holland  in  1795;  forming  of  it  the  Batavian  Republic;  which 
Bonaparte,  in  1806,  converted  into  the  kingdom  of  Holland,  under 
his  brother  Louis  Napoleon.  On  the  fall  of  Bonaparte,  in  1814, 
the  whole  seventeen  provinces  were  erected  into  the  kingdom  of  the 
United  Netherlands,  under  William  I.  of  Orange.  But  in  1830, 
the  ten  Belgic  provinces  revolted  from  his  rule,  and  the  kingdom  of 
Belgium  was  organized  in  1831,  under  Leopold  of  Saxe  Coburg. 

Switzerland  was  also  conquered  successively  by  the  Romans,  and, 
the  Franks  ;  by  the  latter  A.  D.  534.  Its  western  part,  was  included 
in  the  kingdom  of  Burgundy,  in  the  south-east  of  France,  founded 
by  Rodolph,  in  888  ;  which  kingdom,  on  the  death  of  Rodolph  III., 
in  1032,  was  reunited  to  Germany.  Switzerland  was  again  inde- 
pendent, under  the  dukes  of  Zdhringen,  till  1218  ;  when  it  reverted 
to  Germany.  The  tyranny  of  the  emperor  Albert,  led  the  Swiss  to 
unite,  in  1307,  and  throw  off  the  German  yoke  ;  in  which  they  suc- 
ceeded, after  a  series  of  bloody  wars,  terminating  with  the  peace  of 
Basle,  in  1499.  By  the  French  Revolution,  Switzerland  was,  in 
1798,  converted  into  the  Helvetic  Republic  ;  but  in  1814,  the  former 
state  was  restored  ;  and  the  Cantons  of  Switzerland  remain  an  inde- 
pendent confederation. 

Germany,  was  first  invaded  by  the  Romans,  under  Julius  Caesar, 
55  B.  C. ;  but  he  only  succeeded  in  checking  the  German  irruptions 
into  Gaul.  During  the  decline  of  Rome,  the  leading  tribes  of  Ger- 
many were  the  Cherusci  or  Franks,  in  the  north,  and  the  Jlllemanni, 
in  the  south  :  but  the  latter  were  subdued  by  Clovis,  king  of  the 
Franks,  A.  D.  496  ;  after  he  had  defeated  the  Romans  in  France. 
Germany  thus  became  a  part  of  the  Prankish  empire,  down  to  the 
time  of  'Charlemagne,  (p.  223).  By  the  peace  of  Verdun,  which 
settled  the  quarrels  of  Charlemagne's  grandsons,  Louis,  (the  Ger- 


228  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

man),  became  the  first  emperor  of  Germany,  as  a  distinct  state. 
His  son,  Charles,  (the  Fat),  reacquired  France  and  Italy,  by  inherit- 
ance ;  but,  being  a  weak  prince,  resigned  the  crown  in  favor  of 
Arnold,  (or  Arnulph),  in  888.  With  Lewis,  the  son  of  Arnold,  the 
Carlovingian  race  became  extinct ;  and  the  empire  then  became  elective. 
Conrad  of  Franconia  was  chosen  emperor,  in  912  ;  and  Henry  I., 
(the  Fowler),  of  the  house  of  Saxony,  was  raised  to  the  throne,  in 
919.  He  and  his  successors,  the  first  three  Othos,  enlarged  and 
improved  the  empire. 

On  the  death  of  Henry  II.,  in  1024,  the  crown  was  conferred  on 
Conrad  II.,  of  the  Salic  tribe,  and  house  of  Franconia.  His  grand- 
son, Henry  IV.,  was  deposed  by  Pope  Gregory  VII.,  and  compelled 
to  do  penance,  barefoot,  at  Rome,  in  1076  ;  but  he,  in  return,  deposed 
Gregory,  and  appointed  another  pope.  On  the  death  of  Lothaire  II., 
in  1 139,  the  crown  was  given  to  Conrad  III.,  of  the  house  of  Swabia, 
or  Hohenstaufen,  who  was  supported  by  the  Ghibelines.  Frede- 
rick I.,  Barbarossa,  engaging  in  the  third  Crusade,  was  drowned  in 
the  river  Cydnus,  in  Cilicia,  in  1190.  Otho  IV.,  of  Brunswick, 
received  the  crown  in  1208 :  but  after  the  death  of  Conrad  IV.,  and 
a  confused  interregnum,  the  choice  fell  on  Rodolph  I.,  count  of  Haps- 
burg,  in  1273 ;  and  from  him  sprang  the  house  of  Austria.  The 
quarrels  of  Louis  IV.  of  Bavaria,  with  Pope  John  XXII.,  led  to  the 
first  Pragmatic  Sanction,  in  1338  ;  by  which  the  electors  declared 
Germany  independent  of  the  pope.  Charles  IV.,  of  Luxembourg, 
issued  in  1356,  the  Golden  Bull,  (from  bulla,  a  seal),  fixing  the 
laws  of  the  empire,  (p.  110). 

On  the  death  of  Sigismund,  of  Hungary,  in  1438,  his  son-in-law, 
Albert  II.,  duke  of  Austria,  was  elected  emperor;  and  from  this  time 
the  house  of  Austria  became  predominant  in  Germany.  Maximi- 
lian I.  united  in  the  League  of  Cambray,  in  1508,  against  Venice  ; 
but  without  success.  His  grandson,  Charles  V.,  inherited  Spain 
from  his  mother;  and  was  elected  emperor,  in  1519;  in  opposition 
to  Francis  I.  of  France,  with  whom  he  was  engaged  in  five  successive 
wars.  Charles  abdicated  the  throne  in  1556,  in  favor  of  his  brother 
Ferdinand  I.  ,  leaving  Spain  and  the  Netherlands  to  his  son  Philip. 
In  the  reign  of  Mattnias,  commenced  the  Thirty  years'  war,  in  1618, 
between  the  Imperialists,  or  Catholic  League,  and  the  Protestants, 
or  Evangelical  Union:  the  latter  ultimately  aided  by  Sweden  and 
France.  This  war  continued  under  the  reigns  of  Ferdinand  II., 
whose  army  was  defeated  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  at  Lutzen,  in 
1632;  and  of  Ferdinand  III.,  who  was  opposed  by  Torstenson, 
Conde,  and  Turenne,  till  the  peace  of  Westphalia,  in  1 648. 

The  claim  of  Leopold  I.  to  the  crown  of  Spain,  for  his  son,  led 
to  the  war  of  the  Spanish  succession,  in  1702,  in  which  England  and 
Holland  aided  Leopold,  against  France :  (p.  222) :  but  at  the  peace 
of  Utrecht,  in  1713,  Spain  fell  to  the  Bourbons.  The  Pragmatic 
Sanction  of  Charles  VI.,  securing  his  crown  to  his  daughter,  Maria 
Theresa,  queen  of  Hungary,  led,  on  his  decease,  in  1740,  to  the  war 
of  the  Austrian  succession  ;  in  which  that  queen,  aided  by  England, 
was  opposed  to  Charles  of  Bavaria,  aided  by  France  and  Prussia. 
By  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  in  1748,  Francis  I.  of  Lorraine,  the 


EUROPEAN.  229 

husband  of  Maria  Theresa,  was  recognized  emperor  of  Germany. 
The  Seven  years'  war,  was  brought  on  by  Maria  Theresa,  aided  by 
France,  with  a  view  to  regain  Silesia  from  Frederick  II.  of  Prussia, 
who  was  assisted  by  England  ;  but  her  efforts  were  in  vain,  and  ter- 
minated in  the  peace  of  Hubertsburg,  in  1763. 

On  the  breaking  out  of  the  French  Revolution,  Leopold  II.  formed 
a  league  with  Prussia,  at  Pilnitz,  in  1791,  to  sustain  the  Bourbons 
in  France.  This  led  to  the  invasion  of  Germany  by  the  French, 
and  their  victories  at  Jemappe,  1792 ;  Marengo,  1800  ;  and  Auster- 
litz,  1805  ;  over  the  Germans  and  their  allies.  Francis  II.  assumed, 
in  1804,  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria:  and  in  1806,  after  six- 
teen German  princes,  protected  by  France,  had  formed  the  Confede- 
ration of  the  Rhine,  he  resigned  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Germany, 
which  then  became  extinct.  After  the  fall  of  Bonaparte,  and  by  the 
peace  of  Vienna  in  1815,  confirmed  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna  in 
1820,  the  states  of  Germany  were  united  in  the  Germanic  Confede- 
ration, consisting  of  four  free  cities,  and  thirty-four  monarchical 
states,  including  Austria,  Prussia,  and  Denmark,  in  right  of  their 
Germanic  possessions;  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  in  treat- 
ing of  Geography,  (p.  176).  The  history  of  the  exclusively  Ger- 
man states,  as  Bavaria,  Saxony,  Hanover,  Wurtemburg,  and  Bruns- 
wick, we  have  no  room  to  pursue  any  farther. 

The  History  of  Austria,  commences  with  the  conquest  of  the 
country  around  Vienna,  by  the  Romans,  A.  D.  33  ;  and  their  sub- 
sequent expulsion  by  the  Vandals,  Goths,  Huns,  Lombards,  and 
Avars.  These  last  were  expelled,  in  791,  by  Charlemagne;  who 
united  this  country  to  Germany,  as  a  part  of  his  empire.  In  a  docu- 
ment of  Otho  III.,  dated  996,  it  is  called  Ostirrichi  (Oest-reich)  or 
the  eastern  kingdom;  and  in  1156  Austria  was  created  a  duchy, 
under  Henry,  its  first  duke.  In  1282,  after  the  extinction  of  the 
house  of  Bamberg,  this  diichy  was  conferred  on  Albert,  of  the  house 
of  Hapsburg ;  who  was  afterwards  elected  emperor  of  Germany; 
but  it  was  not  until  1438,  commencing  with  Albert  II.  (the  Magnani- 
mous), that  the  dukes  of  Austria  became  hereditary  emperors  of 
Germany.  In  1453,  Austria  became  an  arch-duchy,  and  on  the 
acquisition  of  Bohemia  and  Hungary  in  1526,  it  attained  to  the  rank 
of  a  European  monarchy.  The  marriage  of  Maria  Theresa,  who  was 
queen  of  Hungary,  arch-duchess  of  Austria,  and  empress  of  Ger- 
many, placed  Francis  I.,  of  the  house  of  Lorraine,  on  the  throne 
of  the  empire  ;  as  already  mentioned  under  the  history  of  Germany ; 
in  which  the  subsequent  history  of  Austria  is  included.  By  the 
peace  of  Vienna,  in  1815,  Austria  was  recognized  as  an  independent 
and  powerful  empire  ;  and  such,  under  the  present  emperor,  Ferdi- 
nand, it  still  remains. 

Prussia,  was  conquered  from  the  Sarmatians,  Vandals,  and  Suevi, 
by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  under  Herrman  of  Salza,  their  grand 
master;  who  was  invited  thither  by  Conrad  of  Masovia,  A.  D.  1227. 
Their  conquest  was  complete  in  1283  ;  but  not  satisfied  with  this, 
their  invasions  of  the  neighboring  country  led  to  a  bloody  war  with 
Poland,  in  1454.  In  1511,  the  Knights  elected  Albert  of  Branden- 
burg, to  be  their  grand  master;  who,  in  1525,  aided  by  the  Poles, 


230  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

abolished  their  order,  and  converted  Prussia  into  a  hereditary 
duchy,  as  a  fief  of  Poland.  Albert  belonged  to  the  ancient  house 
of  Hohen  Zollern,  which  still  occupies  the  Prussian  throne.  In  the 
reign  of  Duke  Frederick  William,  grandson  of  John  Sigismund, 
Prussia  again  became  independent  of  Poland,  by  the  treaty  of  Welau, 
in  1657  :  and  the  next  duke,  Frederick  III.,  in  1701,  raised  Prussia 
to  the  rank  of  a  kingdom,  assuming  the  regal  title  of  Frederick  I. 

The  next  king,  Frederick  William  I.,  greatly  improved  his  coun- 
try; and  Frederick  II.,  the  Great,  conquered  Silesia,  from  Maria 
Theresa,  in  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession  ;  (p.  228)  ;  retaining 
it  by  the  separate  peace  of  Breslau,  in  1742.  In  the  Seven  years' 
war,  which  followed  this,  he  was  assailed  by  Germany,  France,  and 
Eussia ;  but  defended  himself  with  wonderful  skill  and  valor,  and 
retained  Silesia  by  the  Peace  of  Hubertsburg,  in  1763.  Frederick 
the  Great,  and  his  successor,  Frederick  William  II.,  both  shared  in 
the  unjust  partitions  of  Poland  ;  the  latter  in  1795.  The  late  king, 
Frederick  William  III.,  declared  war,  unaided,  against  Bonaparte, 
in  1806 ;  but  the  battle  of  Jena  led  him  to  seek  the  unfavorable 
peace  of  Tilsit,  in  1807.  He  again  took  part  against  the  French,  in 
1813-14;  and  thus  preserved  his  throne,  and  the  integrity  of  his 
dominions.  He  was  succeeded,  in  1840,  by  his  son,  the  present 
king,  Frederick  William  IV. 

The  first  ruler  of  Denmark,  is  said  to  have  been  Skiold,  (or 
Schiold),  about  60  B.  C. :  but  the  history  of  those  times  is  involved 
in  fable.  After  the  Roman  decline,  the  inhabitants  became  formida- 
ble to  their  neighbors ;  being  known  in  France  as  Normans,  or 
Northmen,  and  in  England,  as  Danes.  Ragner  Lodbrog,  who 
began  to  reign  A.  D.  750,  invaded  England,  but  was  captured,  and 
put  to  death.  The  more  certain  history  of  Denmark,  commences 
with  the  reign  of  Gormo,  the  old,  (Sormo,  or  Sunn),  in  863.  His 
son,  Harold,  was  converted  to  Christianity ;  and  his  grandson, 
Sweyn,  (Svvane,  or  Sueno),  commenced  the  conquest  of  England, 
which  was  completed  by  Canute  II.,  the  Great,  in  1016.  Denmark 
flourished  under  W^aldemar  I.,  who  came  to  the  throne  in  1157; 
and  still  more  under  the  celebrated  Margaret,  who,  in  1388,  united 
Sweden  with  Norway,  under  her  sceptre.  Christian  I.,  was  elected 
king  of  Denmark,  as  a  separate  state,  in  1448  ;  and  its  final  separa- 
tion from  Sweden  took  place  in  1523;  when  the  Danish  Revo- 
lution placed  Frederick  I.  on  the  throne. 

Christian  IV.  took  part  in  the  Thirty  years'  war;  at  first  against 
the  Imperialists  ;  but  afterwards  against  Sweden ;  till  the  peace  of 
Bromsebro,  in  1645.  Frederick  IV.  waged  war  against  Charles  XII. 
of  Sweden  ;  but  was  soon  coerced  into  the  peace  of  Travendahl,  in 
1700.  Under  Christian  VI.,  Denmark,  uniting  in  the  Northern 
Confederacy,  was  involved  in  a  dispute  with  Great  Britain  ;  and  its 
fleet  was  defeated  at  Copenhagen  in  1800.  In  1807,  the  British 
seized  the  Danish  fleet,  to  prevent  its  being  employed  in  aid  of  the 
French.  Denmark  was  thus  provoked  to  unite  with  Bonaparte;  in 
consequence  of  which  she  was  obliged  to  give  up  Norway,  to  Sweden, 
by  the  peace  of  Kiel,  in  1814.  Christian  VIII.  succeeded  to  the 
throne  of  Denmark  in  1839. 


EUROPEAN.  231 

§  6.  We  shall  commence  the  History  of  Northern  Europe  with 
that  of  Norway  and  Sweden;  concluding  it  with  that  of  Poland  and 
Russia.  Sweden  had  its  kings  of  Upsal,  as  early  as  the  fifth  century ; 
and  they  claimed  descent  from  Odin,  (or  Woden) ;  who  appears  to 
have  flourished  before  the  Christian  era.  Sweden  is  said  to  have 
been  united  with  Denmark,  under  Gormo  I.,  in  714,  and  until  the 
death  of  Ragner  Lodbrog ;  but  no  longer.  A  more  settled  govern- 
ment was  established  in  994,  by  Olaf,  (Olof  or  Olaus),  its  first 
Christian  monarch.  In  1250,  Eric  XL,  first  of  the  house  of  Fol- 
kung,  subdued  the  interior  of  Finland.  In  1363,  the  Swedes  rebelled 
against  Magnus  III.,  (Smek),  and  gave  the  crown  to  Albert  of 
Mecklenburg:  but  he  fell  in  the  battle  of  Falkoping,  in  1388  ;  and 
Sweden  became  subject  to  Queen  Margaret  of  Denmark.  In  1448, 
the  Swedes  and  Norwegians  seceded,  and  elected  Charles  VIII., 
(Karl  Knutsen),  to  be  their  king.  Christian  II.  of  Denmark,  again 
united  the  three  countries,  in  1520;  but  his  tyranny  produced  the 
Swedish  Revolution,  in  1523,  which  placed  Gustavus  Vasa  (Wasa) 
on  the  throne  of  Sweden,  thenceforward  a  prominent  state. 

Gustavus  Jldolphus  engaged  in  the  Thirty  years'  war,  in  support 
of  Protestantism  ;  but  fell  in  the  battle  of  Liitzen,  in  1632,  in  the 
midst  of  his  success  against  the  Imperialists.  His  daughter,  Christi- 
na, resigned  the  crown,  in  1654,  to  Charles  X.,  (Gustavus),  of  Deux 
Ponts.  Charles  XII.,  the  rash  and  brave,  being  called  to  defend  his 
territories,  humbled  Denmark  in  1700,  and  Poland  in  1703  ;  but  he 
was  at  length  defeated  by  Peter  the  Great  of  Russia,  at  Pultowa,  in 
1709;  which  event  decided  the  result  of  the  Northern  War,  so 
called.  Jldolphm  Frederick,  of  Holstein,  succeeded  the  house  of 
Vasa,  in  1751  ;  and  took  a  slight  part  in  the  Seven  years'  war.  In 
1810,  Charles  XIII.  accepted  the  nomination  of  the  French  marshal, 
John  Bernadotte,  (Prince  of  Ponte  Corvo),  to  be  crown  prince ;  and 
this  officer  succeeded,  in  1818,  to  the  Swedish  throne,  under  the 
title  of  Charles  XIV. ;  with  the  consent  of  the  allied  powers,  whom 
Sweden  had  ultimately  aided  against  Bonaparte. 

Norway,  appears  to  have  been  united  with  Sweden,  till  its  con- 
quest was  begun  by  Sweyn,  and  completed  by  Canute  of  Denmark, 
in  1028.  It  became  independent  again,  soon  after;  and  had  its 
separate  line  of  kings,  till  Hacon,  (Hakon,  Haquin,  or  Hager),  king 
of  Norway,  married  Margaret,  daughter  of  Waldemar  III.  of  Den- 
mark, in  1363.  Hacon  died  in  1380  ;  when  Margaret  became  queen 
of  Norway,  and  on  the  death  of  her  son,  Olaf 'IV.,  (Olave  or  Olaus), 
in  1387,  she  became  also  queen  of  Denmark;  as  in  the  following 
year,  of  Sweden.  Norway,  with  Sweden,  seceded  from  Denmark, 
in  1448  :  but  these  countries  were  again  united,  in  1520,  under 
Christian  II.  of  Denmark  ;  and  from  this  time  Norway  continued  in 
union  with  Denmark,  till  1814,  when  by  the  peace  of  Kiel,  it  was 
again  united  to  Sweden. 

Poland,  became  a  duchy,  A.  D.  842,  under  Piast ;  and  was  con- 
verted to  Christianity  about  964,  under  Duke  Mieczyslas,  of  the 
Piast  family.  Its  first  king  was  Boleslas  I.,  (Chrobry),  called  the 
Terrible;  who  crowned  himself,  in  1024,  the  last  year  of  his  reign. 
Boleslas  III.,  in  1138,  divided  the  kingdom  among  his  sons;  and 


232  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

thus  subjected  it  to  a  civil  war.  Casimir  III.,  the  Great,  formed  a 
written  code  of  laws ;  and  founded  the  Academy  at  Cracow.  He 
was  succeeded,  in  1370,  by  his  son-in-law,  Jagellon,  grand-duke  of 
Lithuania;  who  took  the  name  of  Ladislaus  V.,  (or  Uladislas),  the 
first"  of  the  house  of  Jagellon.  In  the  reigns  of  Sigismund  I.,  com- 
mencing in  1506,  and  Sigismund  II.,  (Augustus),  commencing  in 
1548,  Poland  acquired  large  territories,  and  became  the  leading 
Northern  power.  On  the  death  of  the  latter,  in  1572,  the  house  of 
Jagellon  became  extinct;  and  Poland,  thenceforward  an  elective 
monarchy,  fell,  at  length,  a  prey  to  internal  factions. 

The  most  illustrious  of  the  remaining  monarchs,  was  John  Sobi- 
eski,  who  aided  Austria  in  defeating  the  Turks  at  Vienna,  in  1683. 
His  successor,  Frederick  Augustus,  of  Saxony,  involved  Poland 
in  the  wars  against  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden ;  but  was  defeated  by 
Charles,  whose  influence  deprived  him  of  his  throne,  in  1704.  The 
last  king,  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  was  elected  by  the  influence  of 
Catharine  II.  of  Russia;  who  took  advantage  of  Poland's  dissatisfac- 
tion and  dissensions,  to  deprive  it  of  a  national  existence.  The  first 
partition  was  made,  in  1772,  by  Catharine  II.  of  Russia ;  Frederick  II. 
the  Great,  of  Prussia ;  and  Joseph  II.,  of  Austria.  The  final  parti- 
tion, was  begun,  in  1792,  by  Catharine  II. ,  Frederick  William  II., 
and  Francis  II. ;  and,  in  despite  of  the  efforts  of  Kosciuszko  and  his 
compatriots,  Poland  was  completely  dismembered,  in  1795,  and  her 
name  blotted  from  the  list  of  nations. 

The  first  civilized  inhabitants  of  Russia,  appear  to  have  been  the 
Sclavonians  :  who,  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries,  built  Kiev  and 
Novgorod.  The  Varangians,  (Warangians),  a  piratic  tribe  from 
the  Baltic,  entered  Russia,  and  made  Ruric,  their  leader,  its  first 
duke,  A.  D.  862.  His  great-grandson,  Vladimir  I.,  (or  Wladimir), 
the  Great,  embraced  Christianity,  in  987  ;  and  George  I.,  (or  Jurge), 
built  Moscow,  in  1147.  Russia  was  invaded  by  Tamerlane,  in 
1395 ;  and  became  subject  to  the  Tartars,  till  they  were  subdued,  in 
1477,  by  John  Basil,  (Ivan  Vasilovitz,  or  I  wan  Wasiliewitsch),  who 
united  the  country  under  one  government,  and  assumed  the  title  of 
Czar,  or  king.  John  Basil  II.,  conquered  the  kingdom  of  Astra- 
chan,  in  1554 ;  and  Theodore,  (Feodor),  his  successor,  conquered 
Siberia,  in  1587.  In  1613,  the  house  of  Ruric  being  extinct,  Mi- 
chael Theodore  JRomanoff  (Romanov?)  was  elected  czar,  with  abso- 
lute and  hereditary  power. 

In  1689,  Peter  the  Great  became  sole  ruler  of  Russia;  with 
whom  commenced  its  rapid  progress  in  power  and  civilization.  He 
defeated  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden,  at  Pultowa,  in  1709 ;  and  built 
St.  Petersburg.  In  1757,  his  daughter,  Elizabeth,  assisted  Austria 
against  Piussia,  in  the  Seven  years'  war;  and  her  successor,  Catha- 
rine II.,  took  part  in  the  unhallowed  partition  of  Poland.  The 
emperor  Alexander  took  an  active  part  in  the  French  Revolutionary 
wars ;  and  though  he  concluded  the  peace  of  Tilsit  with  Bonaparte, 
in  1807,  his  opposition  to  French  measures  commenced  the  war  of 
1812.  The  destruction  of  Moscow,  in  that  year,  saved  Russia  from 
the  French  invasion:  and  it  is  now  a  first-rate  European  power, 
under  the  government  of  the  emperor  Nicholas  I. 


AMERICAN.  233 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AMERICAN    CHRONOGRAPHY. 

THE  History  of  America,  is  involved  in  the  deepest  obscurity, 
prior  to  its  discovery  and  colonization  by  the  western  nations  of 
Europe.  America  is  called,  by  them,  the  Western  World,  as  they 
reach  it  most  easily  by  sailing  westward  ;  and  the  New  World,  from 
its  having  been  known  to  them  only  in  comparatively  recent  times. 
Of  its  discovery  by  Columbus,  who  first  visited  the  mainland  of  this 
Continent  in  1497,  we  have  already  spoken,  under  North  American 
Geography.  (See  p.  183).  Columbus  supposed  these  lands  to  be 
a  part  of  the  Indies,  known  to  the  ancients ;  and  hence  called  them 
by  the  same  name.  But  after  Amerigo  Vespucci  (Americus  Vespu- 
cius)  of  Florence,  had  visited  the  new  world  in  1499,  and  described 
it  in  glowing  colors,  and  after  Balboa  had  discovered  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  in  1513,  the  name  of  the  Florentine  was  ungenerously  applied 
to  the  continent,  and  the  name  of  West  Indies,  was  confined  to  the 
group  of  islands  first  discovered  by  Columbus. 

The  origin  of  the  American  Indians,  or  aborigines,  is  not  fully 
ascertained.  There  are  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  the  Esqui- 
maux, in  the  North  East,  came  from  Greenland ;  and  their  ancestors 
from  Northern  Europe.  The  other  tribes  probably  came  from  Asia, 
the  great  cradle  of  the  human  race ;  but  at  two  or  more  different 
periods.  The  earlier  race  appear  to  have  occupied  a  part  of  the 
United  States,  and  to  have  left  those  mounds  and  antiquities,  here 
discovered;  but  afterwards  to  have  been  driven  southward,  by  new 
and  more  barbarous  hordes,  till  they  finally  settled  in  the  more  con- 
genial regions  of  Mexico  and  Peru.  The  resemblance  of  their 
pyramids,  and  other  antiquities,  to  those  of  India  and  Egypt,  strongly 
indicates  their  common  origin ;  but  whether  they  came  by  the  way 
of  Behring's  Straits,  in  an  age  when  Siberia  enjoyed  a  milder  climate; 
or  whether  across  the  Pacific  Ocean,  from  island  to  island ;  or 
whether  there  was  formerly  a  communication  between  the  continents, 
by  land  since  submerged,  we  are  unable  to  decide.  The  resemblance 
of  our  Northern  Indians  to  the  Tartars  of  Northern  Asia,  we  think, 
strongly  indicates  that  they  are  of  the  same  stock  ;  with  less  differ- 
ence between  the  two  races,  than  there  is,  in  either  race,  between 
different  tribes. 

In  treating  of  American  History,  we  shall  adopt  the  geographical 
order,  of  the  preceding  department ;  commencing  at  the  north. 

§  1.  The  British  Provinces,  in  North  America,  were  originally 
possessed  and  settled  by  the  French ;  the  first  considerable  settle- 
ment being  that  of  Quebec,  founded  in  1608,  by  Champlain,  a  French 
naval  officer.  In  1628,  a  company  of  French  merchants  obtained, 
by  the  favor  of  Cardinal  Richelieu,  the  exclusive  privilege  of  trading 
with  Canada;  which  however  they  resigned  in  1664.  From  this 
time,  the  colony  became  more  flourishing ;  so  much  so  as  to  attempt 
30  U2 


234  CHRONOCRAPHY. 

the  capture  of  New  York  in  1689;  and  to  repulse  the  expedition 
against  it,  from  New  England,  under  Sir  William  Phipps,  in  1690. 
In  the  Seven  years'  war,  Canada  was  again  invaded,  by  three  British 
armies,  in  1759.  That  under  Gen.  W'olfe,  took  Quebec ;  though 
Wolfe  was  slain:  Gen.  Amherst  took  Ticonderoga ;  and  Gen.  Pri- 
deaux  took  Niagara,  from  the  French  :  and  the  three  armies  met  at 
Montreal;  which  capitulated,  in  1760.  By  the  peace  of  Paris,  in 
1763,  Canada  and  Michigan  were  finally  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  In 
1775,  .the  American  Revolution  having  commenced,  Canada  was 
invaded  by  an  army  from  the  United  States,  under  Gen.  Montgomery; 
but  without  success.  In  1791,  Canada  was  divided  into  the  two 
provinces  of  Upper,  and  Lower  Canada ;  with  separate  colonial 
governments.  In  1812,  it  was  again  invaded  by  the  Americans,  but 
without  success  ;  and  notwithstanding  the  attempted  Revolution  in 
1837,  Canada  is  still  subject  to  the  British  government;  the  two 
provinces  having  been  again  united  in  1841. 

Nova  Scotia,  was  first  settled  by  the  French,  probably  about 
1600;  and  named  by  them  Acadia.  In  1621,  it  was  granted  by 
James  I.  to  Sir  William  Alexander ;  and  received  its  present  name  : 
but  in  1632  it  was  restored  to  France.  Louiaburg,  on  Cape  Breton, 
was  captured  by  the  English,  aided  by  the  New  England  colonies,  in 
1745  ;  but  restored  to  France  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  in 
1748.  The  second  capture  of  Louisburg,  in  1758,  secured  to  Great 
Britain  the  permanent  possession  of  Nova  Scotia.  By  the  peace  of 
Paris,  in  1763,  its  boundaries  were  so  defined  as  to  include  Neiv 
Brunswick;  which,  however,  was  made  a  separate  province  in 
1785.  Prince  Edward9 s  Island,  was  chartered  as  a  distinct  pro- 
vince, in  1770;  and  Newfoundland,  in  1832.  The  Hudson"1  s  Bay 
fur  company,  was  chartered  by  Charles  II.,  in  1670;  the  North 
West  fur  company,  was  formed  at  Montreal,  in  1783  ;  and  they  were 
united  some  time  after,  retaining  the  former  name.  The  fur  trade  to 
the  North  West  coast  of  America,  was  commenced  as  early  as  1784, 
and  prosecuted  at  first  chiefly  by  traders  from  the  United  States.  In 
1821,  an  attempt  was  made  by  Russia  to  monopolize  this  trade ;  but 
it  was  abandoned  in  1824. 

§  2.  The  History  of  the  United  States,  is  of  peculiar  interest ; 
and  rich  in  political  instruction.  We  have  no  room  here  to  speak 
farther  of  the  aborigines,  or  of  geographical  discoveries  in  our  coun- 
try ;  already  briefly  referred  to.  The  first  permanent  settlement 
made  in  the  United  States,  was  that  of  Jamestown,  Va.,  in  1607,  by 
Capt.  Christopher  Newport,  under  the  patronage  of  the  London 
Company.  In  1613,  the  Dutch  settled  Albany ;  and  in  the  follow- 
ing year,  they  settled  Neiv  York  ;  naming  the  country  New  Nether- 
lands. In  1620,  the  Puritans,  a  pious  congregation,  originally  from 
England,  came  from  Holland  to  Plymouth,  Mass.,  and  commenced 
the  settlement  of  New  England.  The  Dutch  probably  commenced 
settlements  in  New  Jersey,  prior  to  1623,  when  it  was  settled  by 
Swedes  and  Danes.  Delaware,  was  settled  by  the  Swedes,  in  1627. 
New  Hampshire,  was  settled  by  the  English,  in  1623;  and  Maine, by 
the  Plymouth  company,  in  1630.  Boston  was  founded  in  1630,  by 
Gov.  Wintbrop ;  and  Maryland  was  first  settled,  at  Baltimore,  in 


AMERICAN.  235 

1634,  by  Mr.  Calvert.  Connecticut  was  settled,  at  Windsor,  in 
1633;  and  Rhode  Island,  at  Providence,  by  Roger  Williams,  in 
1636.  Nortli  Carolina  was  settled  from  Virginia,  in  1650;  and 
South  Carolina,  at  Port  Royal,  by  William  Sayle,  in  1670  :  but  the 
present  city  of  Charleston  was  founded  in  1680.  Pennsylvania 
was  probably  settled  by  the  Swedes,  in  1627  ;  but  Philadelphia  was 
founded  by  William  Penn,  in  1682.  Vermont  was  not  settled  till 
1725 ;  nor  Georgia,  till  1733. 

Meanwhile,  notwithstanding  the  hardships  endured,  and  wars  en- 
gaged in  with  the  Indians,  the  colonies  increased  rapidly  in  numbers 
and  in  strength.  Among  the  earlier  Indian  Wars,  were  those  in  Vir- 
ginia, in  1618,  1622,  and  1644:  in  Maryland,  in  1642;  the  Pequot 
war,  in  Connecticut,  in  1636-7 ;  and  the  Narragansett  war,  in 
Rhode  Island,  in  1675-6.  There  was  a  war  between  the  Dutch  and 
Indians  in  New  York,  in  1646  ;  and  in  1664,  New  York  and  the 
other  Dutch  colonies  were  subjugated  by  the  English,  who  thus  con- 
solidated their  territory.  Still,  the  colonies  were  hemmed  in  by  the 
French  ;  and  they  suffered  severely  in  the  French  and  Indian 
Wars,  consequent  to  the  wars  between  France  and  England.  In  the 
first  of  these  wars,  ending  with  the  peace  of  Ryswick,  the  French 
and  Indians  burnt  Schenectady,  in  1690.  In  the  war  of  the  Spanish 
succession,  the  Indians  burnt  Deerfield,  Mass.,  in  1704,  and  ravaged 
the  Carolinas  :  but  the  French  were  repulsed  from  Charleston,  in 
1706  ;  and  Port  Royal,  Nova  Scotia,  was  taken  by  the  colonists,  in 
1710.  In  the  war  of  the  Austrian  succession,  the  colonies  aided  in 
taking  Louisburg  from  the  French,  in  1745  ;  and  D'Anville's  fleet, 
sent  against  the  colonies,  was  disabled  by  a  storm,  in  the  following 
year.  The  French  encroachments  on  the  Ohio,  the  subject  of  Wash- 
ington's mission,  in  1753,  led  England  to  take  part  in  the  Seven 
years'  war;  in  which  Braddock  was  defeated,  in  1755;  and  the 
French  took  Oswego  in  1756  ;  and  Fort  William  Henry,  N.  Y.,  in 
1757;  but  afterwards,  by  a  series  of  defeats,  they  were  deprived  of 
Canada,  and  all  their  northern  possessions,  by  the  English,  in  1760. 

In  1764,  Great  Britain,  by  the  Stamp  act,  commenced  that  op- 
pressive system  of  taxation,  which  led  to  the  assembling  of  a  Colo- 
nial Congress,  in  1765 ;  and  the  organization  of  a  Continental  Con- 
gress, from  all  the  colonies,  except  Georgia,  in  1774 ;  which 
appointed  General  Washington  to  be  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
American  forces,  in  1775;  and  issued  the  Declaration  of  Inde- 
pendence, July. 4th,  1776.  The  first  blood  was  shed  at  Lexington, 
in  1775;  and  followed  by  the  battle  of  Bunker's  Hill,  and  the  expe- 
dition to  Canada,  in  the  same  year.  In  1776,  the  British  evacuated 
Boston ;  but  they  were  successful  at  Brooklyn,  and  White  Plains. 
Washington  retreated  to  New  Jersey  ;  and  there  turned  the  tide  of 
success,  by  the  victory  at  Trenton,  near  the  close  of  the  year.  In 
1777,  the  British  were  defeated  &\,  Princeton,  N.  J. ;  andatBennington, 
Vt.;  and  after  the  battles  of  Still  water  and  Saratoga,  the  British  army, 
under  Burgoyne,  surrendered  to  General  Gates.  Meanwhile,  the  Bri- 
tish were  successful  at  Brandywine,  and  Germantown  ;  and  took 
possession  of  Philadelphia,  until  the  following  summer.  They  were, 
however,  defeated  at  Red  Bank  ;  and  in  1778,  at  Monmouth,  N.  J.; 


236  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

as  also  by  General  Sullivan,  on  Rhode  Island:  though,  in  return,  they 
took  Savannah.  In  1779,  Stoney  Point  was  taken  from  them  by 
General  Wayne  :  but  in  1780,  they  took  Charleston  ;  and  defeated 
General  Gates,  at  Camden,  South  Carolina.  They  were  partially 
defeated  at  King's  Mountain;  and  in  1781,  at  Cowpens,  by  General 
Morgan ;  but  were  more  successful  at  Guilford,  and  in  the  second 
battle  at  Camden.  They  were  again  defeated  by  General  Greene,  at 
Eutaw  Springs,  South  Carolina ;  and  finally,  being  besieged  at 
Yorktown,  their  army  under  Lord  Cornwallis,  surrendered  to  Wash- 
ington, aided  by  La  Fayette,  and  our  French  allies,  under  Count 
Rochambeau,  in  1781.  The  British  evacuated  New  York,  soon  after 
the  peace  of  Paris,  in  1783,  by  which  Great  Britain  acknowledged 
the  independence  of  the  United  States. 

Of  the  framing  of  the  Constitution,  and  its  adoption  in  1788,  we 
have  already  spoken,  (p.  111).  General  Washington  was  chosen 
the  first  president  of  the  United  States  ;  and  the  first  Constitutional 
Congress  met  in  New  York  city,  in  1789.  From  this  period,  the 
country  flourished  ;  and  the  settlements  extended  rapidly,  west  of  the 
Alleghany  mountains ;  notwithstanding  the  Indian  Wars,  in  that 
quarter.  The  bloodiest  of  these  wars,  was  that  with  the  Miamis  : 
who  defeated  General  Harmer,  in  1790 ;  and  General  St.  Glair,  in 
1791  ;  but  were  subdued  by  General  Wayne,  in  1794.  Michigan, 
had  been  settled  by  the  French,  at  Detroit,  in  1670;  Illinois,  in 
1683  ;  and  Indiana,  in  1690.  Tennessee,  was  settled,  at  Fort  Lou- 
don,  in  1757 ;  Kentucky,  by  Daniel  Boon,  in  1775  ;  and  Ohio,  by 
New  England  emigrants,  in  1788.  Alabama,  was  first  settled  by 
the  French,  in  1702;  and  Mississippi,  by  them,  in  1716;  but  both 
states  were  afterwards  held  by  the  English,  as  a  part  of  Georgia.  In 
1800,  under  the  presidency  of  John  Adams,  the  city  of  Washington 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  United  States.  In  1803,  under  the 
presidency  of  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  region  called  Louisiana  was 
purchased  of  France,  for  $15,000,000.  The  state  of  Louisiana, 
was  first  settled  by  the  French,  in  1699;  and  New  Orleans  founded 
in  1717.  .Arkansas,  was  settled  by  them,  in  1685;  and  Missouri, 
in  1763. 

Under  the  presidency  of  James  Madison,  the  British  aggressions  on 
our  commerce,  caused  the  declaration  of  War  against  Great  Britain, 
in  1812.  That  year  saw  the  surrender  of  Detroit,  and  the  repulse  of 
our  troops  at  Queenstown  ;  but  it  saw  also  the  capture  of  the  British 
frigates  Guerriere,  by  Capt.  Hull ;  Macedonian,  by  Decatur ;  and 
Java,  by  Bainbridge.  In  1813,  the  Americans  were  defeated  at  the 
River  Raisin,  but  they  took  Fort  York,  and  Port  George,  U.  C. 
They  lost  the  frigate  Chesapeake ;  but  Commodore  Perry  captured 
the  British  fleet  on  Lake  Erie.  The  northern  Indians,  taking  part 
with  the  British,  were  defeated  by  General  Harrison  ;  and  the  Creek 
Indians  by  General  Jackson,  and  others.  In  1814,  the  British  were 
defeated  by  General  Brown,  at  Chippewa,  and  Bridge  water ;  re- 
pulsed, at  North  Point,  where  they  landed  to  attack  Baltimore ;  and 
defeated  at  Plattsburg,  by  General  Macomb.  They  took  the  frigate 
Essex;  but  lost  their  fleet  on  Lake  Champlain,  which  was  captured 
by  Macdonough.  In  1815,  General  Jackson  defeated  the  British  at 


AMERICAN.  237 

New  Orleans  ;  and  the  war  was  terminated  by  the  peace  of  Ghent. 
In  the  same  year,  a  brief  war  with  Algiers  was  concluded ;  and  the 
United  States  thenceforward  released  from  paying  tribute. 

Under  the  presidency  of  James  Monroe,  Florida  was  ceded  by 
Spain  to  the  United  States,  in  1821  ;  on  the  payment  of  $3,000,000: 
but  it  had  been  settled  by  the  Spaniards,  at  least  as  early  as  1565; 
and  held  by  the  British  from  1763  to  1781.  Vermont  was  admitted 
into  the  Union,  in  1791  ;  Kentucky,  in  1792  ;  Tennessee,  in  1796 ; 
Ohio,  in  1802;  Louisiana,  in  1812;  Indiana,  in  1816;  Mississippi, 
in  1817;  Illinois,  in  1818  ;  Alabama,  in  1819;  Maine,.and  Missouri, 
in  1820;  Arkansas,  in  1836;  and  Michigan,  in  1837.  Of  subsequent 
events  under  the  presidencies  of  J.  Q.  Adams,  Jackson,  and  Van 
Buren,  down  to  the  recent  death  of  the  lamented  Harrison,  we  have 
no  farther  room  here  to  speak. 

Texas,  was  a  part  of  Mexico,  till  it  formed  a  separate  constitution, 
in  1832,  and  declared  itself  independent,  in  1835.  This  declaration 
has  been  sustained,  not  only  by  the  victory  of  General  Houston  over 
the  Mexicans,  at  San  Jacinto,  in  1836;  when  General  Santa  Anna 
was  taken  prisoner;  but  by  various  other  and  more  recent  successes. 
Texas  is  now  substantially  independent,  under  the  presidency  of 
General  Lamar. 

§  3.  Mexico,  appears  to  have  been  inhabited  by  a  race  called  Tol- 
tccs,  (Toltecas,  or  Toultecs),  who  emigrated  from  the  north,  as  early 
as  A.  D.  544,  or  648.  They  were  displaced,  in  1178,  or  1196,  by 
the  Aztecs,  who  founded  the  city  of  Tenochtitlan,  now  Mexico,  in 
1325.  This  country  was  invaded  by  Fernando  Cortez,  in  1519; 
who,  with  a  single  regiment  of  Spaniards,  marched  to  the  capital, 
and  was  received  by  the  emperor,  Monlezuma,  as  a  god,  and  child 
of  the  sun.  Having  ruined  Montezuma,  and  captured  his  successor, 
Guatimozin,  Cortez,  in  1521,  completely  subjugated  Mexico  to  the 
Spanish  crown,  under  the  name  of  New  Spain.  By  the  year  1596, 
the  Spanish  settlements  were  extended  from  Yucatan  to  the  Rio  Del 
Norte,  and  California.  The  last  insurrection  of  the  natives  was  in 
1692  ;  when  the  viceroy's  palace  was  burnt;  but  the  Indians  were 
subdued. 

Mexico  remained  in  general  tranquillity,  till  1810;  when  the  par- 
tiality exhibited  by  the  administration,  towards  the  Spaniards,  led 
to  an  insurrection  of  the  Creoles  or  natives.  In  1813,  a  national 
Congress  was  assembled  at  Chilpanzingo,  which  declared  Mexico 
independent.  Jlugustin  Iturbide,  (Yturbide),  being  sent  by  the 
Spanish  government,  against  the  revolutionists,  united  with  them 
in  effecting  their  independence  ;  and  in  1822,  he  was  proclaimed 
emperor  of  Mexico :  but  he  was  banished  in  the  following  year ;  and 
returning  thither,  was  arrested  and  shot,  in  1824.  Since  that  time, 
Mexico  has  been  nominally  a  representative  republic ;  though  often 
the  scene  of  tumult  and  civil  war.  In  1831,  General  Bustamente 
succeeded  Guerrero  as  president;  which  office,  with  some  brief  inter- 
vals, he  has  held  till  the  present  time.  In  1835,  by  a  decree  of  the 
Mexican  Congress,  the  state  legislatures  were  suppressed ;  and  the 
government  became  a  central  republic  :  but  since  that  time,  in  many 
of  the  provinces,  it  has  possessed  only  nominal  power. 


238  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

The  present  republic  of  Central  America,  comprises  the  old  king- 
dom of  Guatemala,  which  was  subdued  by  the  Spaniards,  under 
Pedro  de  Alvarado.  He  set  out  from  Mexico,  for  this  purpose,  in 
1523,  under  the  orders  of  Cortez  ;  and,  after  several  battles,  and  the 
death  of  Tecum  Umam,  the  native  king,  the  invaders  founded  the 
city  of  Guatemala,  in  1524.  From  that  time  the  country  remained 
under  a  Captain  general,  subordinate  to  Mexico,  till,  in  1821,  it 
declared  itself  independent;  and  in  1824,  adopted  a  federal  constitu- 
tion, similar  to  that  of  the  United  States.  The  first  president  was 
Don  Manuel  Jose  Arw,  but  that  office  is  now  held  by  General 
Morazan.  This  country  has  suffered  from  insurrections  ;  and  in 
1838,  the  city  of  Guatemala  was  taken  by  the  insurgent  General 
Carrero,  when  Salazar,  the  vice  president,  was  slain. 

Of  the  West  Indies,  Hayti,  or  St.  Domingo,  called  by  Columbus, 
Hispaniola,  (or  Little  Spain),  was  colonized  by  him,  immediately 
after  its  discovery,  in  1492  ;  this  being  the  first  European  settlement, 
at  least  in  modern  times,  in  America.  The  French  obtained  a  foot- 
hold in  the  western  part  of  this  island,  about  1650;  and  that  part 
was  ceded  to  France  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick,  in  1691.  The 
French  Revolution  led  to  an  insurrection  in  this  colony,  in  1791, 
and  to  the  enfranchisement  of  the  negroes,  by  the  French  National 
Assembly,  in  1792.  In  1801,  Hayti  was  proclaimed  independent, 
by  the  African  population;  the  whites  having  been  mostly  massacred, 
or  expelled.  In  1804,  Dessalines  assumed  the  title  of  James  I., 
(Jacques  I.),  emperor  of  Hayti:  but  he  was  slain  in  1806;  and 
succeeded  by  Christophe  ;  who  defeated  Petion,  and,  in  1811,  styled 
himself  Henry  I.,  king  of  Hayti.  Boyer  succeeded  him,  in  1820  ; 
and  in  1821,  the  Spanish  part  of  the  island  voluntarily  submitted  to 
his  government ;  under  which  the  whole  island  still  remains.  Cuba, 
was  subdued  in  1511,  by  the  Spaniards,  under  Velasquez,  sent  from 
Hayti.  It  was  taken  by  the  English,  in  1762  ;  but  exchanged  by 
them  for  Florida,  in  1763  ;  since  which  time  it  has  continued  under 
Spanish  dominion.  Jamaica  was  colonized  in  1509,  by  the  Spaniards: 
but  the  English  took  its  capital,  in  1596;  and  completely  subdued 
the  island,  in  1655. 

§  4.  We  proceed  next  to  the  history  of  South  America ;  still  pur- 
suing the  geographical  order  of  countries. 

Brazil  was  settled  by  the  Portuguese,  soon  after  its  discovery ;  and 
in  1549,  Thomas  de  Souza,  (or  Sousa),  was  appointed  its  governor. 
St.  Salvador  was  founded  by  him  in  the  same  year.  In  1624,  Brazil 
was  invaded  by  the  Dutch  ;  and  in  1630,  their  admiral,  Henry  Lonk, 
or  Conk,  with  a  large  fleet,  attempted  its  entire  conquest.  They 
succeeded  in  taking  seven  provinces  of  the  fifteen  ;  but  afterwards 
sold  them  back  to  Portugal.  The  gold  mines  of  Brazil,  were  dis- 
covered in  1698  ;  and  the  diamond  mines,  in  1782.  Brazil  was  still 
farther  favored,  by  the  arrival  thither  of  the  royal  family  of  Portugal, 
in  1808;  as  the  grant  was  then  made  to  it  of  free  trade  with  foreign 
nations.  In  1815,  Brazil  was  erected  into  a  distinct  kingdom  ;  and 
in  1820,  it  obtained  a  constitution,  from  the  crown  prince,  Don  Pedro. 
In  1821,  the  king,  John  VI.,  returned  to  Portugal;  and  in  1822,  his 
son,  the  regent,  Don  Pedro,  was  declared  constitutional  emperor  of 


AMERICAN.  239 

Brazil.  In  1831,  the  latter,  on  returning  to  Portugal,  abdicated  the 
throne,  in  favor  of  his  son,  Pedro  II.  ;  who  is  now  the  reigning 
emperor. 

Guiana  was  settled,  about  1634,  by  a  party  of  Englishmen  and 
Frenchmen;  and  the  British  took  formal  possession  of  it,  in  1650. 
It  was  taken  by  the  Dutch,  in  1667  ;  and  ceded  to  them,  in  exchange 
for  New  York.  Other  settlements  were  afterwards  formed,  by  the 
Spaniards,  English,  French,  and  Portuguese  ;  of  which  our  limits 
allow  no  farther  mention. 

§  5.  New  Grenada,  was  first  visited  by  Columbus,  in  1502  ;  on 
his  fourth  voyage.  In  1508,  it  was  mostly  granted  to  Ojeda  and 
Nicnessa  :  but  in  1514,  it  was  granted  anew  to  Avila,  under  the  name 
of  Terra  Firma.  In  1536,  Benalcazar,  one  of  Pizarro's  officers, 
invaded  the  southern  part  of  it;  and,  in  1547,  it  was  completely 
subdued,  and  made  a  captain  generalship,  dependent  on  the  Spanish 
crown.  In  1718,  it  was  erected  into  the  viceroyalty  of  New  Grenada; 
and  such  it  continued  most  of  the  time,  until  the  Revolution ;  by 
which,  in  181 1,  it  declared  itself  independent.  It  was  again  subjected 
to  Spain,  in  1816,  by  the  victories  of  Morillo  ;  but  again  emancipated, 
in  1819,  by  Bolivar,  who  effected  its  union  with  Venezuela,  to  form 
the  republic  of  Colombia.  In  1830,  dissatisfaction  having  arisen,  this 
republic  was  divided  ;  when  New  Grenada  again  became  a  separate 
and  independent  republic  ;  of  which  Marquez  is  now  president. 

Venezuela,  after  being  colonized  by  the  Spaniards,  was  sold,  by 
Charles  V.,  to  the  Weltzers,  a  German  mercantile  company:  but, 
in  1550,  it  was  erected  into  the  captain  generalship  of  Caraccas. 
From  this  time,  it  remained  under  the  Spanish  government,  until 
1806  ;  when  General  Miranda  attempted  to  effect  a  revolution  ;  but 
failed.  In  '1810,  a  Junta  Suprema,  or  Congress,  was  convened  in 
Caraccas;  which,  in  1811,  declared  the  country  independent,  under 
the  title  of  the  Confederation  of  Venezuela.  In  the  war  which 
followed,  Venezuela  was  defended  by  Bolivar;  and,  in  1819,  he 
effected  its  union  with  New  Grenada  ;  as  has  just  been  mentioned. 
In  1829,  Venezuela  again  declared  itself  independent;  and  General 
Paez  was  chosen  its  president.  He  was  succeeded,  in  1835,  by  Dr. 
Vargas  ;  but  has  since  been  reappointed  to  this  office. 

Equador,  was  a  part  of  the  empire  of  the  Peruvian  Indians  ;  and 
after  the  Spaniards  took  the  city  of  Quito,  in  1534,  it  still  remained 
attached  to  Peru;  till  in  1564,  it  was  erected  into  the  Presidency  of 
Quito,  dependent  only  on  the  Spanish  crown.  From  1717  to  1722, 
it  was  united  with  New  Grenada;  after  which,  it  continued  distinct, 
till  the  Revolution;  which  began  in  1809,  and  ended  in  1822,  in  the 
union  of  Quito  with  the  republic  of  Colombia.  In  1831,  Quito  was 
made  a  separate  and  independent  republic,  called  Equador,  (or  Equa- 
tor), of  which  Rocafuerte  is  now  president. 

Peru,  was  a  distinct  kingdom,  long  before  the  Spanish  invasion. 
The  Peruvian  Indians  attributed  their  civilization  to  Manco  Capac, 
who  is  supposed  to  have  lived  in  the  early  part  of  the  twelfth  century. 
His  successors  were  the  Incas  or  kings  of  Peru;  till  in  1525,  Fran- 
cisco Pizarro  and  Diego  Almagro  sailed  from  Panama,  with  a  small 
force  ;  and  taking  advantage  of  a  civil  war,  soon  subdued  the  country ; 


240  CHRONOGRAPHY. 

seizing  the  Inca,  Atahualpa  or  Atabalipa,  and  putting  him  to  death. 
In  1535,  the  Spaniards  founded  the  city  of  Lima;  and  in  1543,  the 
president  of  the  audiencia,  or  court  of  Lima,  was  appointed  governor 
of  Peru.  Tupac  Amaru,  the  last  of  the  Incas,  was  vanquished,  and 
put  to  death,  in  1562.  There  were  several  revolts  of  the  natives; 
the  most  important  of  which  was  that  headed  by  another  Tupac 
Amaru,  in  1780 :  but  they  were  all  suppressed.  When  Spain  was 
subdued  by  the  French  power,  in  1808,  Peru  began  to  meditate  her 
independence:  but  this  was  not  effected  till  1821;  when  General 
San  Martin,  at  the  head  of  a  Chilian  army,  expelled  the  Spaniards 
from  Lima,  and  was  declared  protector  of  the  Peruvian  republic. 
The  Spaniards  again  took  Lima,  in  1823,  but  were  expelled  by 
Bolivar,  acting  as  dictator;  and  the  battle  of  Ayacucho,  in  1824, 
gained  by  General  Sucre,  sealed  the  independence  of  Peru.  The 
suspected  ambition  of  Bolivar,  then  president  of  Colombia,  led  to  a 
war  between  that  republic  and  Peru,  which  terminated  in  1829. 
Peru  was  divided,  in  1836,  into  North,  and  South  Peru;  and  from 
1837  to  1839,  it  was  united  with  Bolivia;  but  it  is  now  a  distinct 
government,  under  the  presidency  of  General  Gamarra. 

Bolivia,  was  a  part  of  Peru,  until  1778  ;  when  it  was  united  to 
Buenos  Ayres.  It  shared  in  the  revolution  which  commenced  in 
1809  ;  but,  in  1825,  it  declared  itself  a  distinct  republic,  under  the 
above  name.  General  Santa  Cruz  was  elected  its  president  in 
1829;  and,  in  1837,  Peru  was  placed  under  his  protection;  thus 
forming  the  Peru-Bolivian  Confederation  :  but  this  was  dissolved 
by  a  revolution  in  Peru,  in  1839 ;  and  Bolivia  then  became  once 
more  a  distinct  government,  under  General  Velasco. 

§  6.  Of  the  more  southern  Spanish  possessions,  Chili  was  invaded 
by  Almagro,  in  1535,  without  success;  but  Valdivia,  sent  by 
Pizarro,  founded  Santiago,  in  1541,  and  Conception,  in  1550.  He 
was  afterwards  defeated  by  the  Araucanians  ;  a  warlike  native  tribe, 
who  have  never  been  subdued  by  the  Spaniards.  Their  chief  wars 
were  those  of  1598,  and  1665,  the  latter  of  which  ended  10  years 
afterward,  in  a  formal  treaty  of  peace.  In  1770,  an  attempt  of 
Gonzago  to  collect  the  Araucanians  in  towns,  led  to  another  war; 
by  which  it  was  conceded  that  the  natives  should  have  a  resident 
minister  or  representative,  at  Santiago.  The  Revolution  in  Chili, 
commenced  in  1810,  but  was  repressed  by  the  Spanish  forces  from 
Peru,  till  1817 ;  when,  by  the  aid  of  General  San  Martin,  with 
troops  from  Buenos  Ayres,  the  victories  of  Chacabuco  and  Maypu, 
secured  the  independence  of  Chili.  Don  Bernardo  CFHiggins, 
was  elected  its  first  president;  but  was  compelled  to  resign,  in  1823. 
General  Prieto  is  now  the  president  of  Chili. 

La  Plata,  or  the  Argentine  Republic,  was  first  colonized  by 
Mendoza,  in  1535  ;  and  the  city  of  Buenos  Ayres  was  founded  by 
him  in  the  same  year.  It  was  dependent  on  Peru,  till  1778  ;  when 
it  was  erected  into  the  viceroyalty  of  Buenos  Ayres,  or  La  Plata  ; 
and  allowed  to  trade  directly  with  several  ports  of  Spain.  In  1806,  it 
was  attacked,  and  the  city  taken  by  the  British;  but  they  were  soon 
expelled,  by  the  aid  of  Liniers,  a  French  officer.  In  1810,  the 
first  insurrection  against  the  mother  country  broke  out  in  Buenos 


AMERICAN.  241 

Ayres  ;  and  Liniers  was  declared  viceroy ;  but  deposed  soon  after- 
ward. In  1811,  a  Congress  was  assembled,  which,  in  1814,  ap- 
pointed Pozadas  Supreme  Director  of  the  republic,  with  an  execu- 
tive council.  In  1816,  a  Congress  met  at  Tucuman,  appointed 
Pueyrredon  director,  and  declared  the  independence  of  the  United 
Provinces;  which  was  recognized  by  the  United  States,  in  1822. 
The  name  was  changed,  in  1826,  to  the  Argentine  Republic  ;  and 
Rivadavia  was  chosen  president.  A  war  with  Brazil,  on  account 
of  the  Banda  Oriental,  led  to  a  civil  war,  which  resulted,  in  1830,  in 
the  elevation  of  General  Quiroga  as  dictator  or  governor ;  though 
his  power  was  chiefly  confined  to  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
General  de  Rosas  is  now  governor  of  that  province,  and  charged 
with  the  foreign  relations  of  the  Argentine  Republic :  but  the  other 
provinces  are  in  fact  independent. 

Paraguay,  was  granted  to  the  Jesuits,  in  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century ;  and  was  entirely  under  their  control,  till  they  were 
defeated  by  the  united  Spanish  and  Portuguese  armies,  in  1756. 
Paraguay  was  included,  in  1778,  in  the  viceroyalty  of  La  Plata;  and 
so  continued,  till  the  Revolution.  In  1813,  Paraguay  was  pro- 
claimed an  independent  republic,  under  two  consuls,  Yegros  and 
Dr.  Francia.  At  the  end  of  the  year,  Dr.  Francia  caused  himself  to 
be  named  dictator  for  three  years,  and  at  the  end  of  that  term,  for 
life.  In  1826,  he  made  a  formal  declaration  of  the  independence  of 
Paraguay ;  of  which  he  continued  the  dictator,  or  sovereign,  until 
his  death  in  1840. 

Uruguay,  formerly  called  the  Banda  Oriental,  was  originally 
settled  by  a  Spanish  colony  from  Buenos  Ayres ;  but  soon  became  a 
subject  of  contention  between  Spain  and  Portugal ;  though  retained 
by  the  former.  This  province  took  part  with  Buenos  Ayres,  in 
effecting  the  Revolution :  but  separating  itself  from  that  state,  in 
1815,  under  General  Artigas,  it  was  invaded  and  held  in  subjection 
by  Brazil,  until  1826;  when  General  Rivera,  aided  by  Buenos 
Ayres,  raised  the  standard  of  independence.  By  the  peace  of  Rio 
Janeiro,  in  1828,  the  Banda  Oriental  became  a  separate  republic, 
under  the  name  of  Monte  Video,  which  it  afterwards  changed  to  the 
Oriental  Republic  of  Uruguay  ;  of  which  General  Rivera  (or  Ri- 
beira)  is  now  president. 


31 


VII.  DEPARTMENT: 

BIOGRAPHY. 


IN  the  department  of  Biography,  we  comprehend  that  portion  of 
human  knowledge  which  relates  to  the  lives  of  distinguished  persons ; 
their  character  and  actions  ;  their  descent  and  their  insignia;  including 
the  kindred  and  subordinate  subjects  of  Genealogy,  Heraldry,  Auto- 
graphics,  and  Sphragistics.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
/3u>$,  life,  and  ypa<j>co,  I  write  or  describe :  and  we  may  add,  that 
Biography  is  to  individuals,  what  Chronography  is  to  communities, 
or  nations ;  the  record  of  their  existence.  These  departments  are, 
therefore,  closely  connected,  and  the  present  one  is  often  regarded 
as  subordinate  to  the  preceding ;  but  we  think  it  so  extensive,  and 
important,  as  to  deserve  a  distinct  place.  Judging  from  the  Cata- 
logues of  some  of  our  largest  Libraries,  about  one-fifth  part  of  all  the 
books  in  the  world,  relates  to  History  and  Biography :  from  which 
fact  the  propriety  of  separating  these  subjects  will  perhaps  be  still 
more  apparent. 

Biography,  may,  we  think,  be  considered  as  supplementary  to 
Civil  History,  rather  than  subordinate,  to  it.  Where  the  historian 
gives  only  a  crowded  sketch,  the  biographer  selects  a  single  promi- 
nent object,  and  presents  us  with  a  finished  picture.  This  depart- 
ment presents  advantages  over  every  other,  for  mingling  instruction 
with  amusement,  in  a  simple  and  natural  style :  the  gravest  facts  and 
principles  being  often  enlivened  by  sprightly  anecdotes  ;  and  the  cur- 
rent of  action  readily  bearing  the  reader  along  to  the  close,  without 
any  severe  mental  effort.  It  is  doubtless  the  duty,  as  it  is  generally 
the  aim  of  the  Biographer,  to  exhibit  the  faults  of  his  subject  as  a 
warning,  and  the  virtues  as  an  example,  for  the  reader's  benefit ;  but 
this  is  often  better  done  indirectly,  than  in  a  formal  manner.  While 
a  proper  freedom  of  description  is  allowable,  there  are  also  domestic 
privacies,  especially  in  regard  to  persons  recently  deceased,  which 
we  think  no  biographer  has  a  right  to  invade.  If  wrong  conduct,  or 
erroneous  principles  are  already  known  to  the  world,  they  must  per- 
haps be  mentioned ;  but  it  is  the  writer's  fault  if  they  are  allowed 
cither  to  gratify  or  to  mislead  the  mind  of  the  reader. 

The  earliest  Biographers,  in  most  countries,  were  the  bards,  or 
minstrels,  who  sang  the  exploits  of  their  chiefs,  exalted  them  as 
demigods,  and  ascribed  to  them  actions  surpassing  human  ability. 
Thus,  the  remains  of  the  most  ancient  biography,  even  in  Greece 
and  Rome,  are  mixed  with  their  Mythology ;  or,  in  other  words, 
involved  in  fable.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  this  department  of  Litera- 
ture, the  Greeks  were  surpassed  by  the  Romans  :  the  earliest  general 
work  on  Biography  being  that  of  Varro,  written  about  50  13.  C.f 

242 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  243 

and  said  to  have  contained  notices  of  seven  hundred  distinguished 
men  ;  though  unfortunately  it  is  now  lost.  Cornelius  Nepos,  in  his 
Lives  of  Excellent  Commanders,  about  30  B.  C.,  has  given,  in  a 
classical  style,  the  biography  of  twenty-two  celebrated  generals, 
mostly  Grecian.  Suetonius,  about  A.  D.  100,  wrote  the  Lives  of  the 
Twelve  Caesars  ;  and  notices  of  Illustrious  Grammarians,  Rhetori- 
cians, and  Poets  ;  which  works  are  yet  extant.  Plutarch,  who  died 
about  A.  D.  130,  was  the  first  and  only  Greek  writer  of  note,  on 
general  Biography  ;  and  his  Parallel  Lives  of  celebrated  Greeks  and 
Romans,  gave  to  this  study  a  more  philosophical  form,  and  raised  it 
to  a  higher  estimation,  than  it  had  previously  attained. 

The  name  Autobiography,  is  applied  to  those  works  in  which  the 
writer  gives  an  account  of  his  own  life.  If  written  with  fidelity, 
they  are  often  of  great  value ;  being  usually  more  full  and  explana- 
tory than  more  formal  works.  The  name  of  Memoirs,  is  applied  to 
mixed  works  of  history  and  biography,  written  at  the  time  of  the 
events  described,  or  soon  after ;  usually  by  persons  who  witnessed 
the  events,  or  took  part  therein.  Such  works  are  generally  minute 
and  sprightly ;  often  valuable,  but  not  always  worthy  of  entire  con- 
fidence. The  term  Necrology,  has  been  applied  to  a  brief  biogra- 
phy, or  obituary  notice  of  persons  recently  deceased.  -  Such  produc- 
tions are  often  partial,  and  almost  necessarily  incomplete ;  but  as 
rapid  sketches,  demanded  by  the  public  curiosity,  they  often  possess 
the  deepest  interest.  The  term  Eulogy,  is  often  applied  to  a  funeral 
discourse,  in  honor  of  some  distinguished  person. 

The  subject  of  Genealogy,  is  a  constituent  part  of  Biography  ; 
tracing,  as  it  does,  the  ancestry  or  the  progeny  of  individuals,  and 
the  relationship  of  families.  It  is  a  subject  of  legal  importance,  in 
regard  to  the  descent  or  disposition  of  property ;  as  already  alluded 
to  in  a  previous  department,  (p.  119).  It  is  also  frequently  import- 
ant in  history,  as  regulating  the  descent  of  crowns,  fiefs,  and  titles  of 
nobility ;  and  occasionally  furnishing  the  cause  of  wars,  quarrels, 
alliances,  and  other  events.  A  series  of  persons  descended  from  a 
common  ancestor,  is  called  a  genealogical  line  ;  and  tables  are  often 
constructed,  in  the  form  of  a  tree,  or  otherwise,  for  the  purpose  of 
exhibiting  family  genealogies.  These  were  most  highly  prized  in 
the  middle  ages ;  when  noble  descent  was  most  highly  regarded  ; 
and  when  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  nobles  gave  the  greatest  value 
to  their  titles  and  claims.  In  many  cases  also,  important  offices,  not 
hereditary,  were  accessible  only  to  those  who  could  prove  a  sufficient 
line  of  noble  ancestors.  Happy  is  it  for  our  own  country,  that  we 
have  abrogated  the  aristocratical  system  of  Europe ;  though  family 
influence,  and  the  influence  of  wealth  and  fashion,  are  still  strongly, 
and  often  too  strongly  felt.  The  use  of  family  names,  or  surnames, 
though  occasional  in  remote  times,  was  not  generally  introduced  in 
Europe,  till  about  A.  D.  1200  :  and  the  earliest  recorded  instance  in 
Germany,  is  that  of  Henry  de  Sinna,  in  1062. 

Heraldry,  is  that  study,  or  science,  which  relates  to  badges  of 
honor,  or  personal  insignia,  called  coats  of  arms.  In  a  wider  sense, 
it  relates  also  to  the  management  of  public  ceremonials ;  as  proces- 
sions, cavalcades,  tournaments,  coronations,  and  the  like.  The  name 


244  BIOGRAPHY. 

is  derived  from  the  French  heraut,  a  herald,  or  marshal,  whose 
business  it  is  to  establish  armorial  bearings,  settle  disputes  for  prece- 
dence, and  regulate  public  ceremonials.  The  objects  of  this  study, 
are,  to  explain  the  distinctive  insignia  of  persons  of  rank ;  to  assist 
in  tracing  genealogies ;  and  to  stimulate  those  of  noble  birth  to 
deeds  of  patriotism,  and  virtue.  Though  of  little  use,  therefore,  in 
our  own  country,  still  we  think  it  proper  here  to  give  some  general 
ideas  of  a  subject  which  has  absorbed  so  much  time,  and  excited  so 
much  interest,  in  the  eastern  world. 

A  coat  of  arms,  armory,  or  achievement,  is  a  badge  of  honor, 
usually  painted,  or  engraved,  on  carriages,  weapons,  seals,  plate  and 
the  like,  to  identify  or  dignify  its  possessor.  Thus,  in  the  days  of 
chivalry,  when  the  warrior  covered  his  face  with  his  visor,  the  device 
on  his  shield,  and  the  crest  on  his  helmet,  served  to  distinguish  him 
from  his  companions.  These  devices  were  afterwards  transmitted  to 
his  descendants;  varied  only  by  family  alliances,  and  governed  by 
rules  so  exact  as  to  have  dignified  Heraldry  with  the  name  of  a  science, 
alike  distinct  and  complicated.  Arms  may  belong  to  individuals,  to 
families,  or  to  nations ;  and  they  are  sometimes  distinguished  by 
different  names,  to  denote  the  cause  of  their  being  borne  ;  as  arms  of 
dominion,  of  pretension,  of  concession,  of  community,  of  patronage, 
of  family,  of  alliance,  of  succession,  of  assumption,  and  the  like. 
European  money  is  often  stamped  with  the  arms  of  the  sovereign 
under  whom  it  was  coined. 

Something  like  these  insignia,  was  used  in  very  remote  times,  to 
distinguish  individuals  or  nations.  Thus  the  Israelites  chose  the 
Hebrew  letter  Tan  ;  the  Scythians,  a  thunderbolt ;  the  Egyptians, 
an  ox  ;  the  Phrygians,  a  hog ;  the  Thracians,  Mars ;  the  Medians 
and  Romans,  an  eagle;  the  Persians,  a  bow  and  arrow ;  and  the 
Goths,  a  bear.  But  Heraldry  appears  to  have  been  first  made  a 
regular  study,  by  the  Germans,  in  the  days  of  the  Crusades,  and  of 
Chivalry  :  and  its  French  name,  Blason,  comes  from  the  German, 
blasen,  to  blow  the  horn  ;  as  was  done  when  the  herald  announced 
a  new  knight,  and  his  coat  of  arms.  To  blazon  a  coat  of  arms, 
is  to  explain  or  describe  its  emblems  ;  and  to  marshal  the  same, 
is  to  compose  a  new  coat  of  arms,  or  to  unite  two  or  more  in  one, 
as  in  the  union  of  families  or  nations.  The  French  had  cultivated 
this  study,  before  it  was  introduced  into  England,  by  the  Norman 
conquerors ;  and  hence  most  of  its  technical  terms  are  in  the  French 
language. 

The  principal  part  of  a  coat  of  arms  is  the  escutcheon,  or  shield, 
with  its  tinctures,  ordinaries,  and  charges.  The  shield  has  varied  in 
shape,  with  different  ages  and  nations  ;  but  is  generally  widest  at  the 
top,  and  pointed  at  the  bottom  ;  though  among  the  Italians  it  is  oval ; 
and,  for  women,  the  escutcheon  is  lozenge  or  diamond  shaped.  There 
are  nine  points  on  the  escutcheon  or  shield,  which  have  received 
distinctive  names.  They  are  the  dexter  chief,  middle  chief,  and 
sinister  chief,  near  the  top;  the  honor  point,  f ess  or  heart  point, 
and  nombril  point,  down  the  middle ;  and  the  dexter  base,  middle 
base,  and  sinister  base,  near  the  bottom.  The  dexter  chief  and 
dexter  base,  are  on  the  right  side  of  the  shield ;  that  is,  on  the  left 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  245 

of  an  observer  looking  toward  it ;  but  the  sinister  chief  and  base  are 
on  the  left  side  of  the  shield.  (Plate  VI.  Fig.  5.) 

The  tinctures,  or  armorial  colors,  are  represented  in  engravings  as 
follows  ;  or,  (golden  or  yellow),  by  a  dotted  surface  ;  argent,  (silver 
or  white),  by  a  white  surface,  unshaded  ;  (Fig.  7) ;  azure,  (blue), 
by  shading  with  horizontal  lines;  (Fig.  8) ;  gules,  (red),  by  shading 
with  vertical  lines  ;  (Fig.  9) ;  sable,  (black),  by  two  sets  of  lines, 
horizontal  and  vertical :  (Fig.  10) ;  vert,  (green),  by  lines  inclining 
downwards  to  the  right;  (Fig.  12);  purpure,  (purple),  bylines  in- 
clining downwards  to  the  left;  (Fig.  16);  tenne,  (orange),  bylines 
crossing  obliquely ;  (Fig.  15) ;  and  sanguine,  (dusky  red),  by  oblique 
lines  inclining  downwards  to  the  left,  crossed  by  horizontal  ones. 
(Fig.  14).  Of  furs,  ermine,  is  represented  by  black  sprigs  on  a  white 
field,  each  sprig  having  three  dots  over  it ;  (Fig.  6) ;  and  contre- 
ermine,  (or  counter-ermine)  is  the  same,  only  with  white  sprigs,  on 
a  black  ground.  Vair,  is  represented  by  a  surface  covered  with  small 
escutcheons,  alternately  white  and  blue,  with  the  white  inverted,  and 
placed  opposite  to  the  blue  ;  (Fig.  11) ;  while  in  contre-vair,  two  of 
the  same  color,  blue  or  white,  are  placed  head  to  head.* 

The  ordinaries,  are  certain  divisions  or  portions  of  the  escutcheon, 
which  have  received  distinctive  names.  Thus,  a  broad  horizontal 
space,  constituting  the  upper  third  part  of  the  shield,  is  called  the 
chief;  (Plate  VI.  Fig.  6)  ;  and  a  broad  horizontal  belt  across  the 
middle,  is  called  a  fcss  ;  (Fig.  7) ;  or  if  narrower,  a  bar.  A  broad 
space  down  the  middle  of  the  shield,  is  termed  the  pale  ;  (Fig.  8);  a 
similar  belt  from  the  left  upper  corner,  downward  to  the  right,  is 
called  the  bend ;  (Fig.  9)  ;  and  if  inclined  the  contrary  way,  the 
bend  sinister.  The  bar  sinister,  (Fig.  10),  is  the  most  common 
badge  of  illegitimacy.  A  smaller  shield  within  the  escutcheon,  is 
called  an  inescutcheon  ;  and  a  broad  space  around  the  edge,  is  termed 
a  border.  (Fig.  11).  A  horizontal  and  vertical  band,  together,  form  a 
cross  ;  but  two  oblique  bands,  united,  form  a  saltier.  (Fig.  12).  A 
band  across  the  shield,  forming  a  right  angle,  with  the  vertex  upwards, 
is  called  a  chevron;  (Fig.  13);  a  vertical  triangle,  with  the  point 
upwards,  is  named  a  pile  ;  (Fig.  14)  ;  and  a  vertical  band,  narrowest 
in  the  middle,  and  with  concave  sides,  is  termed  aflasque.  (Fig.  15). 
A  cross  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T,  that  is,  wanting  the  upper  arm,  is 
called  a  potence.  (Fig.  16).  If  the  shield  is  divided  by  a  line  across 
the  middle,  it  is  said  to  be  parted  per  fess,  (parte  per  fesse) ;  if  by 
a  line  down  the  middle,  parted  per  pale  ;  and  so  of  other  directions. 
The  dividing  line  may  be  either  straight ;  or  indented,  (Fig.  6) ;  or 
invected,  (Fig.  7) ;  or  engrailed,  (Fig.  8) ;  or  waved,  (Fig.  9) ;  or 
nebuledt  (Fig.  12) ;  or  it  may  be  embattled,  raguled,  urded,  dove- 
tailed, or  in  still  other  forms,  which  we  have  no  room  here  to  explain. 

Heraldic  charges,  are  those  figures  which  are  painted  within  the 
field  of  the  escutcheon ;  and  which  may  represent  almost  any 
objects,  whether  natural  or  artificial.  If  simple  round  spots,  or 
roundlets,  are  used,  they  are  called  bezants,  when  yellow ;  plates, 
when  white ;  torteaux,  when  red ;  and  by  other  names  for  other 

*  The  block  shading  in  Fig.  13,  is  technically  called  potent-counter-potent  /  but 
it  might  be  more  simply  designated  counter-potent. 

X2 


246  BIOGRAPHY. 

colors  ;  or,  if  very  small,  they  are  called  guttes,  that  is,  drops.  If 
diamond  shaped,  they  are  called  lozenges,  fusils,  or  muscles  ;  and 
if  oblong,  they  are  named  billets.  Angels,  men,  beasts,  birds,  fishes, 
insects,  stars,  and  ships,  are  frequently  used  as  heraldric  charges ; 
having  in  the  first  instance  probably  a  symbolical  reference  to  the 
acts  or  character  of  their  bearer.  In  case  of  animals,  their  position 
is  carefully  designated ;  as  couchant,  lying  down ;  dormant,  sleep- 
ing ;  guardant,  looking  towards  the  spectator  ;  reguardant,  looking 
backward ;  passant,  walking  by ;  combattant,  fighting ;  rampant, 
rearing  up  to  fight;  salient,  leaping;  seiant,  sitting;  and  various 
other  postures. 

Some  charges  are  deemed  more  honorable  than  others  :  as  the  lion 
is  deemed  the  most  honorable  of  beasts  ;  and  beasts  generally  are 
deemed  more  honorable  than  fishes :  but  these  very  artificial  dis- 
tinctions, now  but  little  regarded,  it  is  not  our  province  to  explain. 
Marks  of  cadency,  are  those  symbols  used  to  designate  the  order 
of  birth  or  primogeniture.  Thus,  the  eldest  son  may  bear  the  addi- 
tion of  a  label,  or  alabel ;  that  is  a  horizontal  bar,  with  three  drops 
beneath  :  the  second  son  may  be  distinguished  by  a  crescent ;  the 
third,  by  a  mullet,  or  five  pointed  star ;  the  fourth,  by  a  martlet,  a 
certain  small  bird ;  the  fifth,  by  an  annulet,  or  ring ;  the  sixth,  by  a 
fleur  de  Us ;  and  so  on.  Sometimes,  however,  this  distinction  is 
made  by  repeating  the  characteristic  charge,  or  varying  its  position. 

The  ornaments,  of  an  escutcheon,  are  the  external  objects  con- 
nected with  it ;  as  crests,  helmets,  scrolls,  and  the  like.  The  crest, 
was  originally  the  plume  attached  to  the  helmet ;  and  in  coats  of 
arms  it  was  a  badge  of  the  highest  honor  :  but  the  term  is  now 
applied  to  any  object  placed  above  the  shield,  for  ornament.  Of  the 
helmet,  there  were  four  kinds  ;  for  the  king ;  (Fig.  1) ;  for  the  nobili- 
ty; (Fig.  2) ;  fora  knight;  (Fig.  3) ;  and  for  an  esquire.  (Fig.  4). 
Croivns,  are  appropriated  to  sovereigns ;  (Fig.  17) ;  and  coronets, 
to  the  nobility,  with  distinctions  to  mark  the  grade.  The  coronets 
of  dukes,  marquises,  and  earls,  (Figs.  18,  19,  20),  are  set  with  both 
strawberry  leaves  and  pearls ;  but  those  of  viscounts  and  barons,  are 
set  with  pearls  alone.  Mitres  are  peculiar  to  the  coats  of  arms  of 
the  higher  clergy;  (Fig.  21);  but  the  tiara,  or  triple  crown,  (Fig. 
22),  is  worn  only  by  the  pope  of  Rome.  The  mantling,  is  the 
drapery  thrown  around  the  escutcheon  :  the  wreath,  resembling  leaves, 
is  an  appendage  to  the  helmet ;  the  scroll,  is  usually  attached  below 
the  escutcheon,  containing  some  motto  selected  by  the  individual 
owner;  and  the  supporters,  are  figures,  usually  of  animals,  standing 
on  the  scroll,  and  on  each  side  of  the  escutcheon. 

The  marshalling  of  arms,  or  uniting  of  two  or  more  coats  in  one, 
is  most  frequently  performed  by  impaling;  that  is,  bisecting  the 
shield  by  a  vertical  line,  and  appropriating  one-half  to  each  coat. 
This  method  is  usually  adopted  for  the  escutcheons  of  a  husband  and 
wife.  Another  mode,  is  by  quartering  $  that  is,  dividing  the  shield, 
by  cross  lines,  into  quarters,  in  which  the  separate  arms  are  placed. 
These  may  be  farther  subdivided ;  so  that  one  coat  of  arms  may 
unite  many  others,  from  which  it  is  derived.  Funeral  escutcheons 
or  achievements,  also  called  hatchments,  are  of  a  lozenge  shape,  and 


PLATE    VI.       HERALDRY. 


Engraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  247 

are  affixed  to  the  fronts  of  houses,  on  the  death  of  their  proprietor, 
to  denote  his  rank  and  condition.  On  the  death  of  a  husband,  for 
example,  that  side  of  the  lozenge  which  is  appropriated  to  his  dis- 
tinctive arms,  is  painted  black,  while  the  wife's  side  remains  white. 
The  above,  we  trust,  will  suffice  to  give  a  general  idea  of  the  princi- 
ples of  Heraldry. 

The  term  Autographies,  may  be  applied  to  the  study  of  the  hand- 
writing of  individuals,  with  a  view  to  its  recognition.  The  signa- 
ture of  any  person  is  commonly  called  his  autograph;  but  this 
name  is  also  applied  to  manuscripts  of  whatever  length,  when  they 
are  in  the  handwriting  of  their  author.  Extensive  collections  of 
autographs  have  been  made;  which,  in  identifying  manuscripts,  or 
signatures,  are  of  historical,  as  well  as  biographical  importance.  Of 
similar  use  is  the  study  of  Sphragistics,  or  the  examination  of  seals, 
with  their  devices  and  inscriptions.  This  study  has  been  termed  a 
branch  of  Diplomatics  ;  as  serving  to  authenticate  treaties,  and  other 
documents  :  but  we  think  it  also  especially  subsidiary  to  Biography. 
Seals,  are  of  various  shapes,  though  usually  in  that  of  a  shield, 
whether  cardiform  or  oval;  and  they  were  formerly  impressed  on 
gold,  silver,  lead,  or  common  wax,  until  the  introduction  of  sealing 
wax,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Originally,  none  but  persons  of 
rank,  or  churches,  or  corporations,  and  states,  had  a  right  to  use 
seals  ;  and  the  color  of  the  wax  indicated  their  relative  dignity.  The 
earliest  regular  work  on  Sphragistics,  was  that  of  ffeineccius,  on 
seals,  published  in  1709. 

In  comparing  distinguished  individuals  with  each  other,  it  seems 
most  natural  and  proper  to  institute  the  comparison  between  those  of 
similar  characters,  or  pursuits.  Thus,  we  may  naturally  compare 
Caesar  and  Bonaparte  ;  or  Des  Cartes  and  La  Place  :  but  a  compari- 
son between  Alexander  and  Aristotle,  or  between  Newton  and 
Shakspeare,  would  be  futile,  if  not  absurd.  In  such  cases,  it  is 
enough  to  know  that  each  was  preeminent,  in  his  own  sphere.  This 
principle  will  be  our  guide,  in  the  subordinate  arrangement  of  this 
department ;  in  which  the  only  philosophical  method  that  occurs  to 
us,  is  to  group  together  individuals  of  the  same  country,  and  of  simi- 
lar pursuits;  as  statesmen,  warriors,  divines,  and  other  classes  of 
men.  The  subject  of  Biography  is  of  course  inexhaustible ;  so  that  even 
the  largest  works  are  found  to  commemorate  but  an  extremely  small 
portion  of  our  race  ;  and  this  in  reference  only  to  their  most  promi- 
nent actions  and  traits  of  character.  We  have  thought  that  the  small 
space  here  allotted,  would  be  best  devoted  to  a  systematic  arrange- 
ment of  the  most  prominent  names ;  preparatory  to  the  perusal  of 
extensive  and  miscellaneous  Biographical  works. 

We  proceed  therefore  to  treat  of  the  present  department,  in  geo- 
graphical, and  ethnographical  order,  under  the  four  branches  of 
Euclassic,  Oriental,  European,  and  American  Biography. 


248  BIOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER  I. 

EUCLASSIC    BIOGRAPHY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Euclassic  Biography,  we  include  the  lives  of  all 
the  distinguished  persons  of  antiquity,  who  were  known  to  the  ancient 
Greeks  and  Romans.  It  extends  therefore  to  the  Jews,  Egyptians, 
Assyrians,  and  Persians,  who  flourished  before  or  during  the  Roman 
conquest  and  dominion  ;  as  well  as  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  them- 
selves. Of  the  name  Euclassic,  we  have  already  spoken,  in  the 
preceding  department,  (p.  201).  Euclassic  Biography  is  necessarily 
very  imperfectly  known  to  us ;  owing  to  the  remoteness  of  the  period, 
and  the  scantiness  of  the  records,  which  have  been  preserved,  in  any 
form,  to  the  present  day  Enough  however  remains  to  prove  that 
human  nature  was  essentially  the  same,  in  ancient  times,  as  in  our 
own ;  though  influenced  then  by  a  less  perfect  system  of  society, 
laws,  and  religion.  The  want  of  greater  personal  security,  and  the 
comparative  instability  of  states  and  governments  in  those  times, 
tended  perhaps  to  produce  more  self-dependence,  and  more  originality 
of  character,  than  is  common  at  the  present  day ;  though  to  this  remark 
we  have  frequent  exceptions,  especially  in  cases  of  great  emergencies. 
The  spirit  of  the  ancient  heroes  is  now  unemployed,  or  otherwise 
occupied  ;  but  by  no  means  extinct. 

§  1.  Of  Jewish  Biography,  our  principal  records  are  the  Bible, 
and  the  writings  of  Josephus.  The  following  is  the  series  of  Ante- 
diluvian Patriarchs,  with  the  dates  of  their  birth  and  death,  according 
to  the  common  chronology.  Mam,  4004—3074  B.  C. ;  Seth,  (or 
Sheth),  3874—2962;  Enos,  (or  Enoch),  3769—2864;  Cainan, 
(or  Kenan),  3679—2769;  Mahalaleel,  (or  Malaleel),  3609—2714; 
Jared,  (or  Jered),  3544—2582  ;  Enoch,  (or  Henoch),  born  3382, 
translated  to  heaven  3017;  Methuselah,  (or  Mathusela),  3317 — 
2348;  Lantech,  3130—2353;  and  Noah,  (or  Noe),  2948—1998 
B.  C.  Of  Noah's  three  sons  we  have  already  spoken;  (p.  201); 
and  we  have  farther  room  to  continue  the  genealogy  only  down  to 
Jacob,  as  follows  :  She.m,  (or  Sem),  2446—1846  B.  C.;  Arphaxad, 
2346—1908  ;*  Salah,  (or  Shelah),  2311—1878  ;  Eber,  (or  Heber 
2281—1817;  Peleg,  (or  Phalec),  2247—2008  ;  Reu,  (or  Ragau 
2217—1978;  Serug,  (or  Saruch),  2185— 1955;  Nahor,  (or  Nachor 
[155—2007;  Terah,  (or  Tharah),  2126— 1922  ;  Abraham,  1996— 
1821  ;  Isaac,  1896—1716;  and  Jacob,  1836—1689  B.  C. 

The  twelve  sons  of  Jacob,  heads  of  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel,  we 
have  already  named;  (p.  140):  and  will  only  add  that  Joseph  died 
1635  B.  C.,  aged  110  years.  From  Levi,  through  Kohath  and 
Amram,  was  descended  Moses,  the  leader  of  the  Israelites,  and  their 
divinely  appointed  lawgiver  and  historian.  Moses  died  1452  B.  C., 
or,  according  to  Hales,  1609  B.  C. ;  and  his  brother  Aaron,  the  first 
Jewish  high-priest,  died  in  the  same  year.  Joshua,  the  successor  of 

*  The  Septuagint  mentions  Cainan  as  next  after  Arphaxad ;  but  in  the  Hebrew 
text  his  name  is  omitted. 


EUCLASSIC.  249 

Moses,  died  1426  B.  C.  ;  and  was  succeeded  by  the  Judges,  Othniel, 
Ehud,  and  Shamgar,  to  1312  B.  C. ;  Deborah,  the  prophetess,  and 
Barak,  who  defeated  the  Canaanites,  about  1290  B.  C.;  Gideon, 
(surnamed  Jerubbaal),  who  defeated  the  Midianites,  1245  B.  C.,  and 
whose  son,  Abimelech,  made  himself  a  king;  Tola  and  Jair ;  Jeph- 
thah,  who  defeated  the  Ammonites,  1188  B.  C.;  Ibzan,  Elon,  and 
Jlbdon;  Samson,  who  died  amid  the  Philistines,  1117  B.  C.  ;  Eli ; 
and  lastly,  Samuel,  the  prophet,  by  whom  Saul  was  anointed  king, 
1095  B.  C.  Saul  was  slain  1055  ;  David  died  1015;  and  Solomon 
died  975  B.  C.  (See  p.  202). 

After  the  division  of  the  kingdom,  the  kings  of  Israel,  with  the 
dates  of  their  accession,  were  Jeroboam  I.,  975  B.  C. ;  Nadab,  954  ; 
Baasha,  (or  Baasa),  953 ;  Elah,  (or  Ela),  930  ;  Zimri,  929  ;  Ahab, 
918;  Jlhaziah,  897  ;  Joram,  (or  Jehoram),  896;  Jehu,  884;  Jeho- 
ahaz,  856  ;  Joash,  839 ;  Jeroboam  II.,  825 ;  Zcchariah,  771  ; 
Menahem,  770  ;  Pekahiah,  (or  Pekaiah),  760  ;  Pekah,  758  ;  and 
Hosea,  (or  Hoshea),  729  B.  C.;  with  whom  the  kingdom  of  Israel 
became  extinct.  The  contemporary  kings  of  Judali  and  the  dates 
of  their  accession,  were,  Rehoboam,  975  B.  C. ;  Abijali,  (or  Abia), 
958  :  Jlsa,  the  pious,  955  ;  Jehosaphat,  the  wise,  914  ;  Jehoram,  (or 
Joram),  889;  Jlhaziah,  885;  Jlthaliah,  the  usurper,  884;  Joash, 
(or  Jehoash),  878  ;  Jlmaziah,  838  ;  Uzziah,  (or  Azariah),  the  vir- 
tuous, 809;  Jotham,  757;  Ahaz,  the  idolater,  741 ;  Hezekiah,  the 
pious,  726 ;  Manasseh,  the  cruel,  697 ;  Jimon,  642 ;  Josiah,  the 
good,  640  ;  Jehoahaz,  (or  Shallum),  and  Jehoiakim,  both  608  ;  and 
Zedekiah,  597  B.  C.,  the  last  of  whom  was  carried  a  captive  to 
Babylon. 

Of  the  Jewish  prophets;  besides  Samuel,  and  Nathan,  1055 
B.  C. ;  and  Elijah  and  Elisha,  896  B.  C. ;  the  four  greater,  so 
called,  were  Isaiah,  the  evangelical,  who  flourished  750 ;  Jeremiah, 
the  warning  and  weeping,  about  629 ;  Ezekiel,  the  speculative  and 
mysterious,  595  ;  and  Daniel,  the  historical,  who  flourished  569 
B.  C.  The  twelve  lesser  prophets,  with  the  dates  at  which  they 
flourished,  were  Jonah,  830  B.  C.  ;  Amos,  820  ;  Hosea,  750  ; 
71/zc#7i,  740 ;  Nahum,  probably  735  ;  Joel,  probably  680;  Zepha- 
niah,  630  ;  Habakkuk,  610 ;  Obadiah,  probably  600 ;  Haggai, 
520  ;  Zechariah,  520  ;  and  Malachi,  about  420  B.  C.  The  leaders 
in  rebuilding  the  Temple,  were  Zerubbabel,  the  governor,  and  Joshua, 
the  priest,  535  B.  C.  Ezra,  the  priest,  467  B.  C.,  restored  the 
temple  worship  ;  and  Nehemiah,  455  B.  C.,  rebuilt  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem.  The  succession  of  high-priests,  thenceforward  till  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  we  have  no  room  to  present. 

Sadoc,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Sadducees,  flourished  about  250 
B.  C. ;  and  Hillel,  founder  of  the  sect  of  Pharisees,  about  200  B.  C. 
The  Targum  writers,  Jonathan  and  Onkelos,  we  have  already 
mentioned,  (p.  144).  Philo  of  Alexandria,  called  the  Platonist,  or 
follower  of  Plato,  flourished  A.  D.  40;  and  Josephus,  the  Jewish 
historian,  died  at  Rome,  about  A.  D.  80.  The  biography  of  distin- 
guished modern  Jews,  as  Spinoza,  Menasseh,  Mendelssohn,  and 
others,  belongs,  we  think,  to  the  countries  in  which  they  resided. 

§  2.  Of  early  Egyptian  Biography,  very  little  is  known ;  for 
32 


250  BIOGRAPHY. 

reasons  already  explained  in  the  preceding  department.  The  fabu- 
lous personage,  Thaut,  to  whom  so  many  inventions  have  been 
attributed,  (p.  26),  is  said  to  have  gone  from  Babylon  to  Egypt,  in 
the  earliest  times  of  the  latter,  and  to  have  been  contemporary  with 
Osiris  and  Isis.  The  earliest  Egyptian  legislator,  appears  to  have 
been  Menes ;  the  founder  of  Memphis.  Tnephactus,  Bocchoris, 
and  Asychis,  also  named  as  law-givers,  probably  flourished  about 
800  B.'  C.  The  Egyptian  kings  of  the  Ptolemaean  dynasty,  with 
the  dates  of  their  accession,  were  Ptolemy  I.,  (Lagus  or  Soter),  323 
B.C.;  Ptolemyll.,  (Philadelphus),  284  ;  Ptolemylll.,  (Euergetes), 
246;  Ptolemy  IV.,  (Philopater),  221;  Ptolemy  V.,  (Epiphanes), 
204;  Ptolemy  VI.,  (Philometor),  180;  Ptolemy  VII.,  (Physcon 
or  Euergetes  II.),  145 ;  Ptolemy  VIII.,  (Lathyrus),  and  his  mother 
Cleopatra  I.,  116,  including  the  reign  of  his  brother,  Ptolemy  Alex- 
ander ;  Ptolemy  Alexander  II.,  81,  with  Cleopatra  II.,  and  Berenice ; 
Ptolemy  Alexander  III.,  80 ;  Ptolemy  Dionysius,  (Auletes),  65 ; 
and  Ptolemy  Dionysius  II.,  51,  with  Cleopatra  III.,  who  destroyed 
herself,  31  B.  C.  The  Greek  philosophers  at  Alexandria,  during 
this  and  a  later  period,  will  be  mentioned  under  Grecian  Biography. 
Manetho,  the  Egyptian  historian,  flourished  about  280  B.  C. 

Of  Assyrian,  Babylonian,  and  Persian  Biography,  very  little 
information  has  been  preserved,  (p.  204).  The  kings  of  the  last 
Babylonian  empire,  with  the  dates  of  their  accession,  were,  Nabopo- 
lassar,  who  revolted  from  the  Assyrian  government,  626  B.  C.  ; 
Nebuchadnezzar,  the  Great,  (Nabuchodonosor  II.),  606 ;  Evil  Me- 
rodach,  562  ;  Neriglissar,  (or  Belshazzar),  558  ;  and  Nabonadius, 
(or  Labynitus),  the  Belshazzar  of  the  Scriptures;  who  came  to  the 
throne  553,  but  was  slain  538  B.  C.  The  kings  of  Persia,  after 
Xerxes,  (p.  205),  were  Artaxerxes,  (Longimanus),  464  B.  C  ; 
Xerxes  II.,  425  ;  Darius  Nothus,  (or  Ochus),  423;  Artaxerxes  II., 
(Mnemon),  404  ;  Artaxerxes  III.,  (or  Ochus),  358  ;  Arses,  or  Aro- 
gus,  357;  and  Darius  Codomanus,  335  B.  C.;  who  fell  in  the 
conquest  of  Persia  by  Alexander  the  Great.  We  have  farther  room 
to  mention  only  Berosus,  the  Babylonian  historian,  who  flourished 
about  250  B.  C. ;  and  Zoroaster,  (or  Zerdusht),  the  Persian  philoso- 
pher, who  lived  about  500  B.  C. 

Among  tne  Syrian  kings,  (p.  205),  with  the  dates  of  their  accession, 
were  Seleucus  Nicator,  312  B.  C. ;  Antiochus  I.,  (Soter),  280  B.  C. ; 
Anliochus  II.,  (Theos),  261  ;  Seleucus  II.,  (Callinicus),  246;  Se- 
leucus III.,  (Ceraunus),  226;  Antiochus  III.  the  Great,  223  ;  Seleu- 
cns  IV.,  (Philopater),  187  ;  Antiochus  IV.,  175  ;  Antiochus  V.,  164  ; 
Demetrius  I.,  (Soter),  162  ;  Alexander  Balas,  150;  Demetrius  II., 
(Nicator),  146;  Antiochus  VI.,  144 ;  Diodotus,  143;  Antiochus 
VII.,  139;  Demetrius  II.,  restored,  130;  Alexander  Zcbina,  127; 
Antiochus  VIII.,  123  ;  Philip  and  Demetrius,  93  ;  Tigranes  of  Ar- 
menia, 83  ;  and  Antiochus  Asiaticus,  69  B.  C.,  who  was  dethroned 
by  Pompey  the  Great.  Sanchoniathon,  the  Phoenician  historian, 
probably  flourished  about  1200  B.  C. ;  and  Cadmus,  the  Phoenician, 
who  carried  letters  into  Greece,  flourished  1490  B.  C. 

§  3.  We  come  next  to  the  interesting  subject  of  Grecian  Biogra- 
phy; in  which  we  shall  first  speak  of  statesmen,  warriors,  and  orators ; 


EUCLASSIC.  251 

next  of  historians  and  poets ;  and  lastly  of  philosophers  and  men 
of  science.  The  heroes  of  the  Trojan  war,  Jlchilles,  Ulysses, 
Agamemnon,  and  others,  are  chiefly  celebrated  by  Homer,  and 
belong  to  the  age  of  tradition.  Of  Grecian  lawgivers,  Lycurgus, 
884,  and  Solon,  594  B.  C.,  have  been  already  mentioned.  The  as- 
piring Pisistratus,  died  about  527  B.  C. ;  and  his  sons  Hipparchus 
and  Hippias,  were  expelled  from  the  government  of  Athens.  The 
principal  generals  of  Greece  in  the  Persian  wars,  were  Miltiades, 
who  died  about  489  B.C.;  Leonidas,  of  Sparta,  who  fell  480  B.C.; 
•ftristidest  called  the  Just,  who  died  about  467  ;  Themistocles,  who 
died  449 ;  Pausanias,  who  died  471  ;  and  Cimon,  the  son  of 
Miltiades,  who  died  449  B.  C.  Pericles,  the  Athenian  leader,  died 
of  the  plague,  429  B.  C. ;  Jllcibiades ,  of  Athens,  was  slain  404 ; 
Conon,  of  Athens,  died  393  ;  and  Lysander,  of  Sparta,  the  victor  in 
.he  Peloponnesian  war,  fell  in  the  Theban  war,  394  B.  C.  Pelopidas, 
of  Thebes,  fell  in  battle,  364 ;  and  Epaminondas,  who  defended 
Thebes  against  Sparta,  also  fell  gloriously,  363  B.C.  Jlgesilaus, 
of  Sparta,  died  306  B.C. ;  and  Phocion,  the  virtuous  statesman  of 
Athens,  was  put  to  death,  318  B.  C.  We  have  further  room  to  men- 
tion only  Philoposmen,  general  of  the  Achaean  league,  who  was  put 
to  death,  183  B.  C.,  and  has  been  styled  the  last  of  the  Greeks.  Of 
the  Grecian  orators,  Lysias  died  379 ;  and  Isocrates,  338  B.  C. : 
Demosthenes,  the  Athenian  statesman  and  orator,  died  322  ;  and 
JEschines,  his  rival,  323  B.  C. 

Of  the  Greek  historians,  Herodotus,  of  Halicarnassus,  flourished 
445 ;  Thucydides,  died  at  Athens,  391 ;  Xenophon,  celebrated  also  as  a 
general,  died  359  ;  Polybius,  also  a  statesman  and  general,  died  about 
124;  Diodorus  Siculus,  (or  the  Sicilian),  flourished  44;  and  Dlo- 
nysius  of  Halicarnassus,  flourished  30  years  B.  C.  Of  Plutarch, 
the  biographer,  we  have  already  spoken,  (p.  243).  Charon  of  Lamp- 
sacus,  who  flourished  460,  and  Ctesias  of  Cnidos,  400  B.  C.,  are 

among  the  historians  of  minor  note Of  the  Greek  poets,  Homer 

flourished  about  907  B.  C. ;  and  Hesiod,  probably  at  the  same  time. 
Sappho,  of  Lesbos,  flourished  600 ;  and  Jlnacreon,  of  Teos,  about 
530  B.  C.  JEschylus,  of  Athens,  died  456;  Pindar,  of  Thebes, 
435 ;  Euripides,  of  Salamis,  407  ;  and  Sophocles,  of  Athens,  died 
406  B.  C.  Bion,  of  Smyrna,  died  about  300  ;  Theocritus,  of  Syra- 
cuse, in  Sicily,  flourished  285  ;  and  Moschus,  of  Syracuse,  probably 
flourished  160  B.  C.  JEsop,  the  fabulist,  born  in  Phrygia,  died  561 
B.C.  Archilochus,  Tyrtaeus,  Theognis,  Empedocles,  Aristophanes, 
Menander,  and  others,  we  have  only  room  to  name. 

The  Seven  Wise  Men  of  Greece,  were  Solon,  of  Athens,  (p.  207) ; 
Thales,  of  Miletus,  (p.  20) ;  Periander,  of  Corinth,  who  died  585 
B.  C. ;  Chilo,  of  Sparta,  who  died  597  B.  C. ;  Pittacus,  of  Mytilene, 
who  died  570  B.  C. ;  Cleobulus,  of  Lindos,  who  died  564  B.  C. ;  and 
Bias,  of  Priene,  who  flourished  at  the  same  date.  Of  other  Greek 
philosophers,  besides  those  already  mentioned  as  founders  of  sects, 
(p.  20,  21),  we  would  name  Jlnaximander,  the  pupil  and  friend  of 
Thales,  who  died  547  B.C. ;  Zeno,  the  elder,  of  Elia,  a  disciple  of 
Xenophanes,  who  flourished  464  ;  and  Leucippus,  of  Elea,  who 
flourished  440  B.C. ;  Anaxagoras,  of  Clazomene,  who  was  the  pre- 


252  BIOGRAPHY. 

ceptor  of  Pericles,  and  died  428  B.  C. ;  Heraclitus,  the  weeping  philo- 
sopher, who  flourished  500 ;  and  Democritus,  the  mirthful,  who  died 
361  B.  C. ;  Xenocrates,  the  virtuous,  who  died  314  ;  and  Theophras- 
tus,  the  eloquent,  who  died  286  B.C.  Longinus,  the  critic  and  states- 
man, under  Queen  Zenobia,  of  Palmyra,  died  A.D.  273. 

Of  the  Greek  scientes,  or  scientific  men,  besides  those  termed 
philosophers,  Meton  of  Athens,  the  astronomer,  flourished  432  ; 
Eudoxus,  the  astronomer  and  geometer,  died  352  ;  Euclid  of  Al- 
exandria, the  geometer,  flourished  300 ;  and  Archimedes  of  Syra- 
cuse, the  geometer  and  mechanician,  was  killed  212  B.  C.  Eratos- 
thenes, the  geographer  and  librarian,  of  Alexandria,  died  194  ;  Hip- 
parchus  of  Nicaea,  the  astronomer,  died  125  B.  C.;  Strabo  of  Ama- 
sia,  the  geographer,  died  A.  D.  25  ;  and  Ptolemy  of  Alexandria,  the 
astronomer,  flourished  about  A.  D.  100.  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria,  the 
mechanician,  flourished  135  ;  and  Hero,  of  the  same  place  and  pur- 
suit, flourished  120  B.  C.  Hippocrates  of  Cos,  the  great  physician, 
died  361 ;  and  Galen  of  Pergamus,  alike  renowned  in  medicine,  died 
201  B.  C.  Of  Grecian  artists,  Phidias,  the  sculptor,  died  432 
B.  C.;  Parrhasius,  the  painter,  and  Zeitxis,  his  rival,  flourished 
about  400  ;  Jlpelles,  the  painter,  flourished  about  330  ;  and  Praxi- 
teles, the  sculptor,  about  324  B.  C. 

§  4.  The  subject  of  Roman  Biography,  is  alike  extensive  and 
interesting.  Of  the  seven  kings  of  Rome,  Romulus,  its  founder,  is 
said  to  have  died  715  B.  C. ;  Nvma  Pompilius,  the  pious,  died  672; 
Tullus  Hostilius,  the  warlike,  was  killed  640 ;  Jlncus  Martins, 
the  prudent,  died  616;  Tarquinius  Priscus,  (the  elder  Tarquin), 
was  assassinated,  578 ;  and  Servius  Tullus,  the  freedman,  met  the 
same  fate,  534  B.  C.;  but  Tarquinius  Superbus,  or  the  proud,  died 
about  14  years  after  his  expulsion,  (p.  208).  Of  the  consuls,  who 
succeeded  in  the  Roman  government,  there  were  no  fewer  than  four 
or  five  hundred,  besides  occasional  dictators,  on  great  emergencies. 
Junius  Brutus,  one  of  the  first  two  consuls,  fell  in  battle,  in  the 
year  of  his  election,  509  B.  C. :  Collatinus,  his  colleague,  being 
of  the  Tarquin  family,  retired  from  Rome ;  and  Publius  Vale- 
rius, styled  Poplicola,  was  chosen  in  his  stead ;  while  Spurius 
Lucretius,  succeeded  Brutus ;  all  in  the  same  year.  Florus 
Lartius,  the  first  dictator,  498  B.  C.,  was  previously  a  consul. 
Menenius  Jlgrippa,  appeased  the  people  at  Mount  Sacer,  in  the  same 
year.  Marcius  Coriolanus,  who  was  exiled,  and  went  over  to  the 
Volsci,  but  afterwards  saved  Rome,  died  488  B.  C.  M.  R.  Fabius, 
five  times  consul,  twice  dictator,  and  seven  times  triumphant,  proba- 
bly fell  in  battle  with  the  other  Fabii,  477  B.  C.  L.  Q.  Cincinnati^, 
thrice  dictator,  returned  each  time  victorious  to  his  plough,  and  died 
430  B.  C.  L.  F.  Camillus,  who,  as  dictator,  saved  Rome  from  the 
Gauls,  died  365  B.  C.  C.  L.  Fabricius,  the  magnanimous  con- 
queror of  Pyrrhus,  died  about  270  B.  C. 

M.  A.  Regulus,  the  invader,  and  afterwards  the  captive  of  Car- 
thage, was  there  put  to  death  251  B.  C.  Q.  M.  Fabius,  called 
Cunctator,  or  the  delayer,  because,  when  dictator,  he  avoided  a  battle 
with  Hannibal,  was  twice  triumphant,  and  died  202  B.  C.  M.  C. 
Marcellus,  victorious  at  Syracuse,  was  killed  208  B.  C.  P.  C. 


EUCLASSIC.  253 

Scipio,  the  first  surnamed  Africanus,  victorious  at  Zama,  died  about 
184  B.  C. ;  L.  C.  Scipio,  surnamed  Asiaticus,  was  his  brother;  and 
P.  JEmilius  Scipio,  styled  Africanus  the  younger,  died  128  B.  C. 
M.  P.  Cato,  the  censor,  died  147  B.  C. ;  and  L.  Mummius,  sur- 
named Achaicus,  who  completed  the  conquest  of  Greece,  flourished 
at  the  same  date.  Caius  Gracchus,  the  seditious  agrarian,  was 
killed  121  B.  C. ;  thirteen  years  after  his  brother  Tiberius.  Q.  C. 
Metellus,  surnamed  Numidicus,  who  warred  against  Jugurtha, 
flourished  109  B.  C.  C.  Marius,  the  victor  and  tyrant,  died  86 
B.  C. ;  Cinna,  his  adherent,  was  previously  slain  ;  and  L.  C.  Sylla, 
his  rival,  alike  cruel,  died  78  B.  C.  Cneus  Pompeius,  or  Pompey 
the  Great,  the  friend  of  Sylla,  and  rival  of  Caesar,  was  slain  in 
Egypt,  48  B.  C.  M.  T.  Cicero,  the  orator,  and  friend  of  Pompey, 
was  killed  43  B.  C.  ;  and  M.  Cato,  surnamed  Uticensis,  sacrificed 
himself  at  Utica,  46  B.  C.  Julius  Caesar,  was  slain  at  Rome,  44 
B.  C. ;  M.  J.  Brutus,  and  C.  Cassius,  who  took  part  in  slaying 
him,  fell  atPhilippi,  42  B.  C. ;  and  M.  Antonius,  or  Mark  Anthony, 
their  vanquisher,  sacrificed  himself  for  Cleopatra,  31  B.  C.;  when 
Rome  ceased  to  be  a  republic,  even  in  name. 

Julius  Caesar,  and  Augustus,  were  included  among  the  Twelve 
Caesars,  so  called ;  of  whom  the  other  ten,  with  the  dates  of  their 
accession,  were  Tiberius,  A.  D.  14 ;  Caligula,  the  vile,  A.  D.  37 ; 
Claudius,  the  first  of  that  name,  41 ;  Nero,  the  cruel,  54 ;  Galba, 
the  weak,  68;  Otho  andVitellius,  each  a  few  months  in  69;  Ves- 
pasian, the  popular,  69;  Titus,  the  virtuous,  79;  and  Domitian,  the 
cruel,  A.  D.  81.  Next  succeeded  the  five  good  emperors,  Nerva, 
the  aged  and  prudent,  96 ;  Trajan,  the  popular,  98 ;  Adrian,  the 
enterprizing,  117  ;  Antoninus  Pius,  the  peaceful,  138  ;  and  M.  Au- 
relius  Antoninus,  the  virtuous,  and  philosophical,  A.  D.  161.  Of 
the  remaining  emperors,  some  of  the  most  remarkable,  were  Corn- 
modus,  A.  D.  180;  Septimius  Severus,  193;  Caracalla,  and  Geta, 
211;  Heliogabalus,  or  Elagabalus,  the  vicious,  218;  Alexander 
Severus,  222 ;  the  Gordians,  236-8 ;  Decius,  249 ;  Gallienus, 
260  ;  Claudius,  the  second  of  that  name,  268 ;  Aurelian,  the  brave, 
270 ;  Tacitus,  275 ;  M.  Aurelius  Cams,  282  ;  Diocletian,  284 ; 
Constantine  I.  the  Great,  306 ;  Julian,  361  ;  Jovian,  363  ;  Vahn- 
tinian  L,  and  Valens,  364;  Honorius,  395;  Valentinian  III., 
424 ;  and  Romulus  Augustus,  475 ;  with  whom  terminated  the 
western  empire,  (p.  209.) 

Of  Roman  orators,  we  would  mention  Hortensius,  with  his  great  con- 
temporary and  rival,  Cicero,  above  named  ;  and  Quintilian,  who  died 
A.D.  95.  Of  Roman  historians,  besides  Julius  Caesar,  the  three  prin- 
cipal were  Crispus  Sallustius,  or  Sallust,  who  died  35  B.C. ;  Titus 
Livius,  or  Livy,  who  died  A.D.  17 ;  and  C.  Cornelius  Tacitus,  who 
flourished  A.D.  97.  Of  the  minor  historians,  Valerius  Maximus, 
flourished  A.D.  20 ;  Velleius  Paterculus,  soon  after ;  Quintus  Curtius, 
flourished  A.D.  60;  Florus,  110;  Justin, 130;  and Eutropius,  flourished 
about  360,  during  the  decline  of  the  empire.  Of  the  biographers, 
Varro,  Nepos,  and  Suetonius,  we  have  already  spoken,  (p.  242). 

Of  the  Roman  poets,  the  most  distinguished  were  P.  Virgilius 
Maro,  or  Virgil,  who  died  19  B.  C. ;  and  Q.  Horatius  Flaccus,  01 

Y 


254  BIOGRAPHY. 

Horace,  who  died  8  B.C. ;  both  of  them  patronized  by  Augustus  and 
Maecenas.  Plautus,  the  comic  poet,  died  about  184:  Terence,  his 
rival,  flourished  167  ;  and  Lucilius,  the  satirist,  died  103  B.C.  Ca- 
tullus, Propertius,  and  Tibullus,  preceded  Ovid,  the  third  best  poet 
of  Rome,  who  died  A.D.  17.  Phsednts,  the  fabulist,  flourished  about 
A.D.  20.  Lucan,  was  put  to  death  by  Nero,  A.D.  65  ;  and  Petronius 
met  the  same  fate  in  the  following  year.  Martial,  died  about  A.D. 
104 ;  and  Juvenal  died  A.D.  128.  Among  the  minor  poets,  were 
Naevius,  Ennius,  Pacuvius,  Attius,  Gallus,  Persius,  and  Seneca ;  and 
others,  whom  we  have  no  room  even  to  name. 

Of  Roman  philosophers,  besides  Cicero,  we  can  only  mention  Lu- 
cretius, who  died  about  54  B.C. ;  and  Seneca,  who  was  put  to  death 
by  Nero,  A.D.  65.  In  sciences  and  arts,  Rome  produced  Pomponius 
Mela,  the  geographer,  who  flourished  A.D.  60;  Pliny,  the  elder,  the 
naturalist,  who  perished  while  observing  Vesuvius,  A.D.  79  ;  Celsus, 
the  physician,  who  flourished  A.D.  20  ;  Sammonicus,  the  physician, 
who  flourished  A.D.  200 ;  Columella,  who  wrote  on  agriculture,  in 
the  first  century ;  Vitruvius,  the  architect,  who  flourished  at  the 
Christian  era ;  Pollio,  who  wrote  on  architecture  and  mechanics,  at 
the  same  era :  and  Frontinus,  who  wrote  on  the  military  art,  and 
died  A.D.  106. 

Our  notice  of  Byzantine  Biography  must  be  confined  to  the  men- 
tion of  the  following  emperors,  with  their  dates  of  accession  :  Arca- 
dius,  the  first  of  the  eastern  emperors,  distinctively  so  called,  A.D. 
395;  Theodosius  II.,  408;  Leo  I.,  the  Thracian,  457;  Leo  II., 
(Zeno),  474 ;  Anastatius,  styled  the  Silentary,  491  ;  Justin  I.,  the 
Thracian,  518;  Justinian  I.,  527;  Justin  II.,  565;  Phocas,  602; 
Heraclius,  610 ;  Constans  II.,  642  ;  Justinian  II.,  685,  and  704 ; 
Ze<\III.,  Isauricus,  717  ;  Constantine  V.,  742  ;  Irene,  797  ;  Michael 
III.,  842;  Basilius,  867;  Leo  VI.,  the  philosopher,  886;  Constan- 
tine VII.,  Porphyrogenitus,  912,  associated  with  Romanus  I.,  919; 
Nicephorus  II.,  (Phocas),  963  :  and  Basilius  II.,  with  Constantine 
VIII.,  A.D.  975.  (p.  209).  The  renowned  general  Belisarius,  died 
in  565 ;  and  Tribonian,  the  lawyer,  died  in  545.  Zosimus,  and  Pro- 
copius,  were  among  the  Byzantine  historians  who  wrote  in  the  Greek 
language  ;  all  of  whom  were  of  minor  note. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ORIENTAL    BIOGRAPHY. 

THE  subject  of  Oriental  Biography  is  very  imperfectly  known  to 
us ;  owing  to  the  remoteness  of  its  scenes,  the  deficiency  of  its  records, 
and  our  imperfect  knowledge  even  of  those  which  do  exist.  It  doubt- 
less^ presents  topics  of  romantic  interest,  and  well  worthy  of  contem- 
plation, which  have  not  yet  been  exhibited  to  the  western  world. 
The  wild  and  fiery  zeal  of  the  Mohamedan  conquerors  ;  the  self-im- 
molation of  their  opponents  ;  and  the  sudden  reverses  of  fortune,  so 
frequent  in  the  eastern  world,  and  so  fatal  to  social  improvement, 
are  among  the  characteristics  of  this  branch,  which  we  have  no  room 


ORIENTAL.  255 

more  fully  to  describe.  We  shall  here  follow  the  same  general  order 
as  in  Oriental  Chronography  :  for  the  reasons  therein  explained.  This 
arrangement  will  bring  the  Biography  of  all  the  Mohamedan  nations 
into  one  connected  series ;  which  will  be  followed  by  that  of  the  re- 
maining nations,  in  the  east  of  Asia. 

§  1.  Commencing  with  Arabian  Biography,  the  names  of  the  first 
ten  Caliphs,  or  vicarious  successors  of  Mohamed,  and  the  dates  of  their 
accession,  are  as  follows  :  Abu-Bekir,  (or  Aboo  Beker,  whose  original 
name  was  Abdallah  Ebn  Abu  Koafas),  A.  D.  632  ;  Omar,  the  victo- 
rious, 634  ;  Othman,  (or  Osman),  644  ;  All,  regarded  by  the  Persians 
as  the  first  caliph,  656,  assassinated  660  ;  Moawiyah,  (or  Moawiah), 
first  of  the  Ommiades,  660  ;  Yezid,  (or  Jezid),  679  ;  Moawiyah  II., 
683  ;  Abdallah,  684 ;  Merwan  I.,  same  year ;  and  Abdulmelek, 
685.  Among  the  remaining  caliphs  were  fflalid  I.,  the  victorious, 
A.  D.  705;  Suleiman,  714;  Hashem,  723;  Ibrahim,  744;  Abul 
Abbas,  called  Saffah,  or  the  bloody,  first  of  the  house  of  Abbas,  A. 
D.  750  ;  Jll  Mansor,  (Mansur,  or  Abu  Giafar),  754,  first  of  the 
caliphs  of  Bagdad;  Haroun  al  Raschid,  (or  Haroon  al  Rasheed), 
786;  Al  Mamun,  813;  and  Motasim,  833;  the  four  last  men- 
tioned being  known  as  patrons  of  learning.  Al  Motazem,  (or 
Mostasem),  the  last  caliph  of  Bagdad,  was  put  to  death,  A.D.  1258. 
Khaled,  (or  Caled),  the  general  of  Aboo  Beker,  died  in  639;  Amroo, 
(or  Amru),  the  general  of  Omar,  died  in  663  ;  and  Thaher,  the 
general  of  Al  Mamun,  flourished  in  813. 

Of  Arabian  geographers,  we  would  mention  Scherif  Edrisi,  who 
flourished  A.  D.  1160;  and  Ismael  Abulfeda,  prince  of  Hamah,  in 
Syria,  who  died  in  1333.  To  this  class  of  writers  belong  also  Al 
Balkhi,  Al  Beirouni,  and  Ibn  Essakar.  Of  historians,  besides  Abul- 
feda just  mentioned,  Hesham  Schoaib  Alkhekebi  flourished  in  818 ; 
and  Abulfaragius,  (or  Abulpharagius),  bishop  of  Guba  in  Syria,  died 
in  1286.  Other  historians  were  Makrizi,  Assoiuti,  Aljazri,  Elmacin, 
Tabari,  and  Arabshah.  Elmanicus,  of  Egypt,  wrote  a  Saracen 
History,  in  the  13th  century.  Of  Arabian  poets,  besides  those 
of  the  Moallakat,  to  be  mentioned  under  Callography,  Montanabbi, 
(or  Motenabbi),  was  killed  by  robbers,  in  965 ;  Abu  Ismael  To- 
grai,  (or  Thograi),  vizier  of  Bagdad,  flourished  in  1100;  Abu 
Temam,  in  830  ;  and  Bochteri,  in  880.  Other  poets  were  Abu  Beer, 
Al  Nasaphi,  Shafari,  Abu  Mansur,  Al  Gazi,  and  Ibn  Zadun.  Admai, 
(or  Asmai),  the  great  romancer,  flourished  at  the  court  of  Haroon  al 
Rasheed,  in  800 ;  and  Ithiel  Hariri,  and  Abu  Dschafar  Ibn  To- 
phail,  also  excelled  in  romance. 

Of  scientific  Arabians,  we  would  name  as  astronomers,  besides  the 
caliph  Al  Mamun,  Jllbategnius,  (or  Albatani),  of  Mesopotamia,  who 
died  888  ;  Alhazen,  of  Spain,  who  flourished  about  1100  ;  and  Men 
Ragel,  who  lived  in  the  thirteenth  century.  Al  Farabi,  (or  Alfara- 
bius),  the  natural  philosopher,  flourished  in  954.  Almubassar,  was 
a  follower  of  Aristotle.  Among  the  Arabian  physicians,  were  Sera- 
pion,  who  flourished  about  800;  Rhazes,  about  880;  and  Geber, 
and  Halyabbas  at  about  the  same  time.  Avicenna  died  in  1036; 
Albucasis,  in  1106  ;  Avenzoar,  of  Spain,  died  at  Morocco,  in  1169  ; 
and  Averroes,  of  Cordova,  who  was  famed  for  general  learning, 


256  BIOGRAPHY. 

died  at  Morocco,  about  1220.  Most  of  these  physicians  were  also 
alchemists. 

§  2.  We  shall  commence  Turkish  Biography,  by  giving  the 
names  of  the  Sultans,  and  the  dates  of  their  accession,  since  the 
conquest  of  Constantinople.  They  are  Bajazet,  (or  Bayazeed)  II., 
1481;  Selim  I.,  1512;  Soliman  II.,  (or  Suleiman),  the  magnificent, 
1520;  Selim  II.,  1566;  Amurath  HI.,  1574;  Mohamed  III.,  (or 
Mahomed),  1595;  Ahmed  I.,  (or  Achmet),  1604;  Mustapha,  (or 
Mustafa),  16 17;  Amurath  IV.,  1623;  Ibrahim,  1640;  Mohamed  IV., 
1655; "Soliman  II.,  1687;  Ahmed  II.,  1690;  Mustapha  II.,  1695; 
Ahmed  III.,  1703;  Mahmood  I.,  (or Mahmoud),  1730  ;  Mustapha  III., 
1757;  Abdul  Ahmed,  1774  ;  Selim  III.,  1789  ;  Mustapha  IV.,  1807  ; 
Mahmood  II.,  1808  ;  and  Abdul  Medjid,  1839.  Of  Turkish  histo- 
rians, Saad-ed-din,  who  was  also  mufti  of  Constantinople,  died  in 
1599.  His  work  was  followed  by  those  of  Naima,  Raschid,  and 
Hadschi  Chalfa,  surnamed  Tchelebisade,  who  was  also  an  encyclo- 
pedist, and  died  in  1657.  Of  Turkish  poets,  we  would  mention 
Baki,  the  lyric  poet,  who  died  in  1600;  Molla  Khosrew,  the  ro- 
mancer ;  and  Abdul  Latifi,  who  made  a  collection  of  minor  poems, 
or  a  Turkish  Anthology.  Abdorrhaman  Effendi,  was  a  Turkish 
mathematician,  who  flourished  in  1793. 

In  modern  Persian  Biography,  we  have  room  to  give  the  sove- 
reigns of  the  Suffavean  dynasty  only,  with  their  dates  of  accession, 
as  follows.  Shah  Ismail,  1504;  Tamasp,  (or  Thamas),  1523; 
Ismail  II.,  1576;  Mohammed  Meerza,  1577;  Hamzeh,  1586; 
Abbas,  the  Great,  1587;  Sam  Meerza,  (or  Shah  Suffee),  1629; 
Abbas  II.,  1642;  Suffee  Meerza,  (or  Shah  Suleiman,  or  Soliman), 
1666;  Hoossein,  1694;  Meer  Mahmood,  the  Affghan,  1722;  Ash- 
raff,  the  Affghan,  1725  ;  Tamasp  II.,  (or  Thamas),  son  of  Hoossein, 
1729;  Abbas  III.,  1732;  Nadir  Shah,  (Thamas  Kouli  Khan),  1736; 
Adil  Shah,  1747;  Ibrahim,  1748;  Kerreem  Khan,  (or  Kerim,  1753; 
AH  Murat,  1784;  Aga  Mohammed,  1789;  Feth  Ali,  (or  Futteh  AH 
Khan),  1796;  and  Mohammed,  1834.  Of  Persian  historians,  we 
would  mention  Abu  Said,  (or  Abulkasin  Beidavi),  who  flourished  in 
1276;  Kazwini,  who  died  in  1351;  Turan  Shah,  who  died  in 
1377;  Choivand  Shah,  who  flourished  in  1741;  and  Fcrishta,  at 
about  the  same  date.  Among  the  Persian  poets,  Ferdusi,  flourished 
in  1020;  Sadi,  (or  Saadi),  of  Shiraz,  died  in  1292;  Hafiz,  (or 
Hafez),  died  in  1389  ;  Jamy,  (or  Djamy  Abdalrahman),  died  in 
1494;  Hatifi,  died  in  1520;  and  Nizami,  (Nisami  or  Nisam), 
flourished  in  1690.  Ansari,  (Ansseri  or  Anasari),  flourished  A.  D. 
1000;  Anvari,  (Anweri,  or  Enweri),  died  in  1200;  Khakani,  (or 
Chakani),  was  his  contemporary;  and  Roumi  of  Balk,  surnamed 
Balkhi,  died  in  1262.  Rudigi  is  a  modern  poet ;  and  Blab  Phelair, 
a  recent  poet  of  note,  died  in  1825.  Other  poets  will  be  mentioned 
under  Persian  Callography.  Of  Persian  astronomers,  we  would 
mention  Omar  Chehan,  who  flourished  in  1072  ;  and  Nassir  Eddin, 
(or  Nasereddin),  of  Thus,  in  1259. 

§  3.  The  Biography  of  the  East  Indies,  is  less  known  to  us, 
than  that  of  any  other  part  of  the  civilized  world.  We  shall  com- 
mence that  of  Hindoostan,  by  naming  some  of  the  great  Moguls, 


EUROPEAN.  257 

chiefly  those  who  were  the  most  distinguished.  Baber,  (Babur  or 
Baba),  the  first  of  this  series,  died  in  1530.  Shere,  the  Afghan,  died 
in  1545;  and  Houmaioun,  the  son  of  Baber,  after  regaining  his 
throne,  died  in  1555.  His  son,  Jlkbar,  (or  Acber),  the  fortunate,  died 
in  1605;  and  Jehan  Ghire,  (Jehanghire,  or  Selim),  died  in  1628. 
Shah  Jehan,  died  about  1660;  and  his  son,  the  ambitious  and  re- 
nowned Jlureng  Zebe,  died  in  1707.  After  the  short  reigns  of 
Bahauder,  Jehaunder,  and  Mahomed  Shah,  and  the  Persian  con- 
quest by  Nadir  Shah,  already  mentioned,  (p.  213),  the  great  Moguls, 
from  their  diminished  power,  became  of  minor  consequence.  The 
principal  native  chiefs  who  were  subdued  by  the  British,  have  been, 
mentioned  in  the  preceding  department.  Of  Hindoo  historians,  we 
would  mention,  besides  the  emperor,  Jehan  Ghire,  (or  Jehan  Guir), 
the  vizier,  J$bul  Fazl,  who  wrote  in  the  Persian  language,  and  was- 
put  to  death  in  1604.  Of  the  Hindoo  poets,  Valmiki  and  Vyascb 
flourished  long  before  the  Christian  era ;  and  Calidas  flourished  60 
B.  C.  Other  Hindoo  poets,  and  the  fabulous  name  of  Pilpay,  will 
be  referred  to  under  Hindoo  Callography. 

Under  Chinese  Biography,  we  give  the  names  of  the  emperors- 
of  the  present  (22d,  or  Tai  Tsin)  dynasty,  with  the  dates  of  their 
accession,  as  follows:  Shun-chi,  or  Shee-tsong,  1644;  Kang-hee, 
(Kang-hi),  or  Shin-tsoo-gin,  1662;  Yong-ching,  (Yong-tching),  or 
Shee-tsong-hien,  1723;  Kien-long,  (or  Kien-lung),  1736  ;  Kia-king* 
1796;  and  Tao-kwang,  (Tara-kwang,  or  Daoguan),  1821.  Of 
Chinese  historians  we  would  mention  Con-fu-tse,  (Kung-fu-dsu),  or 
Confucius,  who  was  also  a  poet  and  moralist,  and  flourished  about 
550  B.  C. ;  and  Meng-tseu,  or  Mencius,  his  successor,  and  com- 
mentator, who  died  314  B.  C.  Se-ma-tsien,  was  also  a  Chinese 
historian ;  and  the  recent  emperor  Kien-long,  may  be  mentioned 
among  the  Chinese  poets. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EUROPEAN    BIOGRAPHY. 

THE  branch  of  European  Biography,  is  very  extensive,  and  abounds 
in  distinguished  characters,  in  all  the  walks  of  life.  Next  to  that  of 
our  own  country,  it  presents  to  us  lessons  the  most  available  for  prac- 
tical benefit ;  as  the  circumstances  of  the  European  nations  are,  of  all 
others,  the  most  similar  to  our  own  ;  and  therefore  afford  precedents 
the  most  suitable  for  our  guidance.  All  that  we  can  here  attempt, 
is  an  enumeration  of  some  of  the  most  renowned  and  meritorious 
characters,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  give  an  idea  of  their  relative  posi- 
tion, in  the  scale  of  time,  and  the  circle  of  nations  ;  by  which  the 
reader  will  be  enabled  to  study  them  in  a  connected  and  natural  order, 
on  referring  to  extensive  biographical  works.  It  is  gratifying  to 
observe,  that  the  names  distinguished  in  the  cause  of  learning  and 
philanthropy,  may  at  least  rival  the  number  of  those  renowned  in  arms 
33  Y  2 


258  BIOGRAPHY. 

or  in  power ;  while  not  a  few  of  the  latter  may  also  be  reckoned 
among  the  former.  By  this  retrospect,  we  are  also  encouraged  to 
hope  that  the  prejudices  and  jealousies  which  have  in  time  past 
opposed  barriers  to  international  intercourse,  are  gradually  disappear- 
ing; and  that  the  various  nations  will  henceforward  become  more 
and  more  united,  in  a  reciprocity  of  kindness  and  beneficence.  In 
pursuing  this  branch  of  Biography,  we  shall  of  course  follow  the 
geographical  order,  adopted  in  the  preceding  departments. 

§  1.  The  Biography  of  Modern  Greece,  relates  chiefly  to  the 
leaders  in  the  late  Revolution ;  among  whom  were  Mavrocor- 
dato,  the  first  president ;  Colocotroni  and  Conduriottis,  who  were 
among  his  successors ;  the  brothers  Ypsilanti,  of  whom  Alexander 
died  in  prison  at  Vienna,  in  1828;  Mavromichalis  the  Patriotic ;  and 
Marco  Bozzaris,  the  Brave,  who  fell  in  the  arms  of  victory,  in 
1823. 

The  subject  of  Italian  Biography,  naturally  commences  with  an 
enumeration  of  some  of  the  most  distinguished  Popes,  and  the  date 
of  their  accession.  Reckoning  from  the  apostolic  age,  their  whole 
number  is  about  258  ;  but  we  have  room  to  give  the  names  only  of 
the  following.  Leo  L,  called  the  Saint,  A.  D.  440  ;  Hilary,  (or 
Hilarius),461  ;  Felix  II.,  483  ;  Symmachus,  498  ;  Hormisdas,  514; 
Pelagius  I.,  556;  John  III.,  560;  Gregory  I.,  surnamed  the  Great, 
590;  Boniface  III.,  606;  (see  p.  218;)  Honorius  I.,  626;  Theo- 
dore I.,  641,  the  first  who  was  styled  sovereign  pontiff;  Vitalianus, 
(or  Vitellianus),  655  ;  Domnus,  676  ;  Benedict  II.,  684  ;  Sergius  I., 
687;  Constantius,  (or  Constantine),  708;  Gregory  II.,  714;  Gre- 
gory III.,  731  ;  Zachary,  (or  Zacharius),  741  ;  Stephen  III.,  752, 
the  first  who  acquired  territorial  sovereignty;  Adrian  I.,  772  ;  Leo 
III.,  795;  Paschal  I.,  817,  who  first  created  cardinals;  Leo  IV., 
847  ;  John  VIII.,  872  ;  Benedict  IV.,  the  virtuous,  905  ;  Anastatius 
III.,  910;  John  X.,  913;  Martin  III.,  943  ;  John  XIII.,  965  ;  John 
XVI.,  985;  Benedict  VIII.,  1012;  John  XIX.,  1024;  Leo  IX., 
1049;  Gregory  VII.,  (Hildebrand),  1073;  Urban  II.,  1088;  Eu- 
gene III.,  1145;  Alexander  III.,  1159;  Clement  III.,  1188;  Inno- 
cent III.,  1198;  Gregory  IX.,  1227;  Gregory  X.,  1271;  Boniface 
VIII.,  1294  ;  Clement  V.,  1305,  who  removed  to  Avignon  ;  Gregory 
XL,  1370,  who  restored  the  papal  chair  to  Rome  ;  John  XXIL,  1410 ; 
Martin  V.,  1417;  Pius  II.,  1458;  Alexander  VI.,  the  vile,  1492; 
Leo  X.,  (Giovanni  or  John  de  Medici),  1513,  who  opposed  the 
Reformation;  Paul  III.,  the  licentious,  1534;  Pius  V.,  1566;  Gre- 
gory XIII.,  1572  ;  Sixtus  V.,  1585;  Clement  VIII.,  (Aldobrandini), 
1592;  Paul  V.,  1605;  Urban  VIIL,  1623;  Innocent  X.,  1644; 
Clement  X.,  1670;  Clement  XL,  1700;  Benedict  XIV.,  (Lamber- 
tini),  1740;  Clement  XIV.,  (Ganganelli),  1769;  Pius  VI.,  1774; 
Pius  VIL,  1800;  Leo  XII.,  1822;  Pius  VIIL,  1829;  and  Gregory 
XVL,  1831. 

Of  Italian  statesmen  and  warriors,  Obizzo  of  Este,  first  leader  of 
the  Guelfs,  or  papal  party,  flourished  about  1130;  as  did  also  his 
rival,  Eccelino  Romano,  (or  Da  Romano),  the  first  chief  of  the 
Ghibelines.  The  Este  family  were  of  Modena ;  the  Romano,  of 
Verona  and  Padua.  Eccelino  Romano  III.,  the  cruel,  was  defeated 


EUROPEAN.  259 

by  Jlzzo  of  Este,  and  killed  himself  about  1260.  Nicolas  II.  of 
Este,  who  died  1388,  and  Nicolas  III.,  who  died  in  1441,  were  dis- 
tinguished patrons  of  learning.  So  were  also  Cosmo  de  Medici, 
chief  of  Florence,  who  died  in  1464 ;  and  his  grandson,  Lorenzo, 
called  the  Magnificent,  who  died  in  1492.  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti, 
a  descendant  of  Lucchino,  and  duke  of  Milan,  died  of  the  plague  in 
1402.  Machiavelli,  the  politician,  of  Florence,  died  in  1530;  and 
Andrew  Doria,  the  defender  and  doge  of  Genoa,  died  in  1560. 
Of  the  Ricci,  Albizzi,  Strozzi,  Scali,  and  Alberti  of  Florence  ;  the 
Torri  and  Visconti  of  Milan;  and  numerous  other  distinguished 
families,  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak.  Nicholas  Rienzi,  (Cola 
di  Rienzi),  the  popular  tribune  of  Rome,  celebrated  in  romance,  was 
slain  in  1354. 

Of  Italian  voyagers  and  travellers,  we  have  only  room  to  mention 
Marco  Polo,  (or  Paulo),  who  flourished  in  1272;  the  brothers  Zeno, 
(or  the  Zeni),  in  1390  ;  the  great  Columbus,  (Cristoval  Columbo), 
who  died  in  1506;  Vespucius,  (Amerigo  Vespucci),  who  died  in 
1512;  and  his  rival  contemporaries,  John  Cabot,  and  Verrazano. 
Of  the  Italian  historians,  besides  Machiavelli,  we  would  mention 
Guicciardini  of  Florence,  who  wrote  a  history  of  Italy,  and  died  in 
1540;  Sarpi,  called  Father  Paul,  or  Fra  Paolo,  of  Venice,  who  died 
in  1623  ;  Davila,  who  lived  in  France  and  Venice,  and  died  in  1631 ; 
JBentivoglio,  the  cardinal,  who  died  in  1644;  Muratori,  who  wrote 
several  works,  and  died  in  1750 ;  and  Botta,  who  died  in  1837. 
Davila  wrote  on  French  history ;  Bentivoglio  on  Flemish  ;  and 
Botta  on  American.  Among  other  Italian  historians,  we  may  name 
Nerli,  Nardi,  Segni,  Varchi,  Denina,  Colletta,  Serra,  Varese,  Sfor- 
zosi,  and  Giannone. 

Of  the  Italian  poets,  Dante  JHighieri,  of  Florence,  died  at  Ra- 
venna, in  1321  ;  Francesco  Petrarca,  or  Petrarch,  born  at  Florence, 
died  near  Padua,  in  1374 ;  Ludovico  Jlriosto,  died  at  Ferrara,  in 
1533  ;  and  Torquato  Tasso,  after  an  unhappy  life,  died  at  Rome,  in 
1595.  Sannazaro  died  in  1533  ;  Trissino  of  Vicenza,  died  at  Rome 
in  1550  ;  Vida  died  in  1566  ;  Guarini,  in  1612  ;  and  Maffei,  in  1755. 
Metastasio,  the  dramatist,  died  at  Vienna,  in  1782 ;  Goldoni,  of 
Venice,  died  in  1792  ;  Jllfieri,  of  Piedmont,  a  dramatic  and  epic 
poet,  died  at  Florence,  in  1803  ;  and  Ugo  Foscolo,  died  near  Lon- 
don, in  1827.  Boccacio,  the  novelist,  of  Florence,  died  at  Certaldo, 
in  1375. 

In  the  physical  sciences,  Italy  has  produced  Galileo,  (Galilei), 
who  was  patronized  in  Venice  and  Florence,  persecuted  in  Rome, 
and  died  in  1642;  Torricelli,  his  pupil,  who  died  at  Florence,  in 
1647  ;  Boscovich,  who  died  at  Milan,  in  1787  ;  Galvani,  of  Bolog- 
na, who  died  in  1798  ;  and  Volta,  the  electrician,  and  Piazzi,  the 
astronomer,  both  of  whom  died  in  1826.  Cxsalpinus,  of  Arezzo, 
the  physician  and  botanist,  died  in  1603  ;  Jlldrovandi,  of  Bologna, 
the  naturalist,  died  in  1605 ;  and  Spallanzani,  the  naturalist,  died 
in  1799.  Among  other  Italian  physicians,  Mondini,  (or  Mundinius), 
of  Bologna,  flourished  in  1315;  Bercngarius  died  in  1527;  Fra- 
castorio,  (or  Fracastor),  in  1553;  Fallopius,  in  1563;  Fessalius, 
in  1564  ;  Eustachius  died  at  Rome,  in  1574  ;  dsellius,  died  in 


260  BIOGRAPHY. 

1626;  Borelli,  in  1679;  Bellini,  in  1703;  and  Baglivi  died  in 
1706.  Among  the  earlier  physicians,  was  Fabricius  Aquapendente. 

Of  Italian  artists,  Palladia,  the  architect,  died  in  1580;  Michael 
Angelo  Buonarotti,  the  famed  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor,  died 
in  1563;  Cellini,  the  sculptor  and  painter,  died  in  1570;  Bernini, 
the  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor,  died  in  1680;  and  Canova,  the 
sculptor,  died  at  Venice,  in  1822.  Of  the  remaining  Italian  painters, 
Leenardo  da  Vinci,  styled  the  head  of  the  Florentine  school,  died  in 
1519;  and  Raphael,  (Sanzio  da  Urbino),  head  of  the  Roman  school, 
died  in  1520.  To  the  Roman  school  also  belonged  Michael  Angelo, 
already  named ;  Giulio  Romano,  and  Penni,  called  II  Fattore ;  Salvator 
Rosa,  who  died  in  1673  ;  and  Carlo  Maratli,  who  died  in  1713.  The 
Florentine  school  includes  the  earlier  painter,  Cimabue,  who  died  in 
1300;  as  also  Luini  and  Perugino,  Fra  Bartolomeo,  (Baccio  della 
Porta),  who  died  in  1517  ;  and  Andrea  del  Sarlo,  who  died  in  1520. 
Carlo  Dolce,  who  died  at  Florence  in  1686,  is  usually  classed  with  the 
Florentine  school.  To  the  Venetian  school  belong  Giorgione,  (Bar- 
barelli  di  Castelfranco),  who  died  in  1511  ;  the  famous  Titian,  (Ti- 
ziano  Vercelli),  who  died  of  the  plague  in  1576,  at  the  age  of  99; 
Paul  Veronese,  (Cagliari  of  Verona),  who  died  in  1588;  the  elder 
Bassano,  who  died  in  1592;  and  Tintoretto,  (Robusti),  who  died  in 
1594.  Of  the  Lombard  school,  Correggio,  (Antonio  Allegri),  its 
founder,  died  in  1534  ;  Lodovico  Carracci  died  in  1619,  having  sur- 
vived his  cousins,  Agostino  and  Annibale  Carracci ;  Domenichino, 
(Domenico  Zampieri),  their  pupil,  died  in  1641  ;  and  Guido  Reni, 
another  pupil  of  the  Carracci,  died  in  1642.  Caravaggio,  (whose 
first  name  was  Michael  Angelo),  head  of  the  natural  school,  died  in 
1609.  Of  Italian  musicians,  Piccini  died  in  1800;  Cimarosa,  in 
1801  ;  Paesiello,  in  1816  ;  and  Paer,  in  1839.  Bellini  died,  we  be- 
lieve, in  1838;  and  Zingarelli,  in  1839. 

§  2.  We  shall  commence  the  section  on  Spanish  Biography,  by 
giving  the  names  of  the  sovereigns,  since  Spain  became  one  united 
kingdom,  with  the  dates  of  their  accession.  Ferdinand  and  Isabella, 
were  married  in  1479  ;  Charles  I.,  (the  emperor  Charles  V.),  acceded 
to  the  throne  in  1516;  Philip  II.,  in  1556;  Philip  III.,  in  1598; 
Philip  IV.,  in  1621  ;  Charles  II.,  in  1665  ;  Philip  V.,  in  1700  ;  Fer- 
dinand VI.,  in  1746;  Charles  III.,  in  1756;  Charles  IV.,  in  1788; 
and  Ferdinand  VII.  in  1808  ;  but  Joseph  Bonaparte  was  sovereign 
from  1808  to  1814,  when  Ferdinand  was  restored  ;  and  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  his  daughter  Isabella  II.,  in  1833.  Of  Spanish  warriors 
and  statesmen,  Don  Rodrigo,  called  the  Cid,  and  the  flower  of  Spa- 
nish chivalry,  died  in  1099.  Hernandes  Gonsalvo,  called  the  great 
captain,  so  victorious  against  the  Moors,  died  in  1515  ;  and  Francisco 
Xime.nes,  cardinal,  and  prime  minister,  the  conqueror  of  Oran,  in 
Africa,  died  in  1517.  Alvarez,  (duke  of  Alva),  the  cruel  viceroy  of 
the  Netherlands,  died  in  1582.  Gaspar  de  Guzman,  (count  of  Oli- 
varez),  prime  minister  of  Philip  IV.,  died  in  1645  ;  and  Giufio  Albe- 
roni,  cardinal,  and  prime  minister  of  Philip  V.,  died  in  1752.  Don 
Manuel  de  Godoy,  prince  of  peace,  the  unworthy  favorite  of  Charles 
IV.,  is,  we  think,  still  living.  The  patriot  Riego  was  put  to  death 
in  1823  ;  but  his  coadjutor  Mina,  we  believe,  still  survives. 


EUROPEAN.  261 

Of  Spanish  voyagers  and  explorers,  Mmagro  was  slain  in  1538; 
Pizarro,  in  1541  ;  Cortez  died  in  1554  ;  Orellana  died  about  1550; 
Ponce  de  Leon  flourished  in  1512  ;  De  Solis,  in  1517  ;  Valdivia,  in 
1541 ;  Saavedra,  in  1526;  Mendana,  in  1567  ;  and  Quiros  in  1606. 
Of  Spanish  historians,  Zurita  flourished  in  1579;  and  Mendoza 
in  1584;  Mariana  died  in  1623;  Herrera,  (Tordesillas),  died  in 
1625;  and  Antonio  de  Solis,  died  in  1686.  John  Leo,  the  biogra- 
pher, died  about  1526.  Of  the  Spanish  poets,  the  marquis  Henri/  de 
Villena,  died  in  1434  ;  Inigo  de  Mendoza,  was  his  pupil ;  Juan  de 
Mena,  died  in  1456  ;  Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  in  1536  ;  Juan  Boscan, 
in  1543;  Hernando  Herrera,  in  1578;  Louis  de  Leon,  in  1591; 
Er cilia  y  Zuniga,  died  about  1600  ;  and  Louis  Gongora,  died  in  1627. 
Cervantes,  (Saavedra),  the  poet  and  novelist,  died  in  1616  ;  don  Lope 
de  Vega,  of  Madrid,  the  dramatist,  died  in  1635;  and  don  Pedro 
Calderon,  (or  Calderona),  his  rival,  died  in  1687.  Vincent  Garcias 
de  la  Huerta,  the  recent  dramatist,  flourished  in  1778 ;  and  Yriarte, 
the  fabulist,  at  the  same  date.  Prince  Juan  Manuel,  the  novelist, 
died  in  1362  ;  and  Mattheo  Meman  flourished  in  1580.  Of  the  Spa- 
nish painters,  Murillo,  of  Seville,  died  in  1682;  and  Velasquez,  of 
Seville,  his  patron,  died  in  1660.  Zusbaran  and  Vargas,  were  painters 
of  less  note. 

The  sovereigns  of  Portugal,  since  it  was  last  separated  from 
Spain,  are  John  IV.,  of  Braganza,  1640;  Alfonso  VI.,  1656;  Peter 
II.,  1668;  John  V.,  1706;  Joseph,  1750;  Maria  Francisca,  1777; 
John  VI.,  as  regent,  1799 ;  and  Maria  II.,  in  1826.  The  romantic 
king  Sebastian,  (or  Don  Sebastian),  fell  in  Africa,  in  1578.  The 
infante  don  Henry,  called  the  Navigator,  the  pioneer  in  southern  dis- 
coveries, died  in  1463.  Vasco  de  Gama,  who  first  sailed  around 
Africa  to  India,  died  at  Goa,  in  1524.  Alfonso  de  Albuquerque,  the 
admiral  and  Asiatic  conqueror,  died  at  Goa,  in  1515.  Fernando  de 
Magellan,  (or  Magalhaens),  the  first  circumnavigator,  under  Spanish 
patronage,  was  killed  at  the  Philippine  Islands,  in  1521.  Bartholo- 
mew Diaz,  who  discovered  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  flourished  in 
1486  ;  but  the  time  of  his  death  we  have  not  been  able  to  ascertain. 

Of  Portuguese  historians,  besides  the  admiral  Albuquerque,  Bar- 
has,  (or  Barras),  also  a  novelist,  died  in  1571  ;  Brito,  (or  Debrito), 
died  in  1617;  Manuel  y  Souza,  flourished  in  1610;  and  Freire  de 
Jlndrade,  the  biographer  and  poet,  flourished  soon  after.  Of  Portu- 
guese poets,  the  most  celebrated  is  Louis  de  Camoens,  who  died  in 
1579.  Bernardin  Ribeyro,  flourished  in  1510;  and  Andrade  Ca- 
minha  and  Falcum  were  his  contemporaries.  Gil  Vicente  died  in 
1557;  Miranda,  in  1558;  Ferreira,  in  1569;  Lobo  flourished  in 
1560;  Cortereal;  (or  Corte  Real) ;  in  1570  ;  and  Bacelar  in  1640. 
Montemayor  died  in  1558;  and  Bernardes  Pimenta,  in  1596.  Me- 
neses,  count  of  Ericeyra,  died  in  1744,  and  Basilio  da  Gama,  was 
his  contemporary  :  Bocage  died  in  1805  ;  and  Manoel,  in  1819.  Of 
Portuguese  novelists,  besides  Ribeyro  and  Barhas,  we  would  men- 
tion Moraez  and  Carvalho ;  Lobeira,  who  died  in  1403 ;  and  Fer- 
reira de  Vasconcellos,  who  flourished  about  1580. 

§  3.  We  commence  the  section  of  French  Biography,  by  giving 
the  names  of  the  French  sovereigns,  from  the  Capetian  dynasty, 


262  BIOGRAPHY. 

inclusive,  with  the  dates  of  their  accession  ;  as  follows. 
Capet,  A.  D.  987;  Robert  I.,  the  Wise,  996;  Henry  I.,  1031; 
Philip  I.,  the  Amorous,  1061  ;  Lewis  (or  Louis)  VI.,  the  Fat,  1108; 
Lewis  VII.,  the  Young,  1137  ;  Philip  II.  Augustus,  1180;  Lewis 
VIII.,  the  Lion,  1223  ;  Lewis  IX.  the  Saint,  1226  ;  Philip  HI.,  the 
Bold,  1270;  Philip  IV.,  the  Fair,  1285  ;  Lewis  X.,  1314;  John  I., 
1315  ;  Philip  V.,  the  Long,  1316  ;  and  Charles  IV.,  the  Fair,  1321 ; 
all  of  the  house  of  Capet.  They  were  followed  by  Philip  VI.,  of 
Valois,  the  Fortunate,  1328  ;  John  II.,  1351  ;  Charles  V.,  the  Wise, 
1364  ;  Charles  VI.,  the  Beloved,  1380;  Charles  VII.,  the  Victorious, 
1422  ;  Lewis  XL,  1461  ;  Charles  VIII.,  1483  ;  Lewis  XII.,  1498  ; 
Francis  I.,  1515;  Henry  II.,  1547;  Francis  II.,  1559;  Charles 
IX.,  1560;  and  Henry  III.,  1574;  who  was  the  last  of  the  house 
of  Valois.  To  these  succeeded  Henry  IV.,  the  Great,  of  Bourbon, 
1589;  Louis  (or  Lewis)  XIII.,  1610;  Louis  XIV.,  1643;  Louis 
XV.,  1715  ;  Louis  XVI.,  1774  ;  (Louis  XVII.,  nominally  in  1796) ; 
Napoleon  Bonaparte,  in  1804  ;  Louis  XVIII.,  in  1814  ;  Charles  X., 
in  1824 ;  and  Louis  Philippe  of  Orleans,  in  1830. 

Of  French  statesmen  and  warriors,  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  who 
took  Jerusalem  in  the  first  Crusade,  died  there,  A.  D.  1100.  Ber- 
trand  du  Guesclin,  constable  of  France,  and  general  of  Charles  V., 
died  in  1380.  Joan  of  Arc,  the  heroine,  was  burnt  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion, in  1431.  Gaston  de  Foix,  nephew,  and  general  of  Lewis 
XII.,  died  in  1512;  and  the  chevalier  Bayard,  (Pierre  du  Terrail), 
the  knight  without  fear  and  without  reproach,  died  of  a  wound,  in 
1524.  Charles,  duke  and  constable  of  Bourbon,  unjustly  banished, 
was  killed  in  attacking  Rome,  in  1527.  Anne  de  Montmorency, 
general  of  Francis  I.,  died  of  wounds,  in  the  war  against  the  Hugu'e- 
nots,  in  1567;  and  Gaspard  de  Coligny,  his  antagonist,  fell  in  the 
massacre  of  St.  Bartholomew,  1572.  The  chancellor,  Michael  de 
rHopital,  shared  the  same  fate.  Henry  of  Guise,  the  catholic 
duke  of  Lorraine,  was  slain  by  order  of  Henry  III.,  in  1588.  The 
duke  of  Sully,  (Maximilian  de  Bethune),  the  able  financier  of  Henry 
IV.,  died  in  1641.  Cardinal  Richelieu,  (Armand  Jean  du  Plessis), 
minister  of  Louis  XIII.,  died  in  1642.  Cardinal  Mazarin,  (Julius),  the 
first  prime  minister  of  Louis  XIV.,  died  in  1661  ;  Cardinal  delete,  his 
rival,  died  in  1679;  and  Jean  Baptiste  Colbert,  his  successor, 
renowned  as  a  financier,  died  in  1683. 

Marshal  Turenne,  general  of  Louis  XIV.,  fell  in  1675  ;  and 
his  coadjutor,  the  prince  of  Conde,  (Louis  de  Bourbon,  ancestor  of 
the  duke  d'Enghien),  died  in  1687.  Marshal  Luxembourg,  (Mont- 
morency), died  in  1695  ;  Marshal  Vauban,  the  engineer,  died  in 
1707  ;  and  Marshal  Villars,  in  1734.  Cardinal  Fleury,  minister  of 
Louis  XV.,  died  in  1743.  James  Turgot,  who  died  in  1781 ;  and 
James  Necker,  of  Geneva,  who  died  in  1804,  were  ministers  of 
Louis  XVI.  Of  the  cruel  revolutionary  triumvirate,  Danton  and 
Robespierre  were  guillotined  in  1794,  and  Marat  was  assassinated 
in  1793.  Napoleon  Bonaparte,  the  ex-emperor,  died  at  St.  Helena, 
in  1821.  Of  his  generals,  including  Murat,  ex-king  of  Naples,  and 
Ney,  who  were  shot  in  1815,  Massena,  Larrey,  Kleber,  Lannes, 
Desaix,  Davoust,  Lasalle,  Suchet,  Bessiere,  Soult,  Macdonald, 


EUROPEAN.  263 

Grouchy,  and  others,  we  have  no  farther  room  here  to  speak.  La 
Fayette,  the  patriot  and  philanthropist,  died  in  1834 ;  and  Talleyrand, 
the  famed  diplomatist,  died  in  1838. 

Of  French  lawyers,  we  can  here  only  mention  Domat,  who  died 
in  1696;  Ferriere,  the  elder,  in  1715;  Burlamaqui,  of  Geneva, 
who  died  in  1748  ;  the  chancellor  D' Agues  seau,  in  1751 ;  Montes- 
quieu, who  died  in  1755;  Vattel,  of  Swiss  birth,  who  wrote  in 
French,  and  died  in  1767  ;  Pothicr,  who  died  in  1772 ;  De  Lolme, 
of  Geneva,  who  died  in  1807;  and  Lacretelle,  who  died  in  1824. 
Of  French  divines,  Robert  of  Sorbonne,  founded  the  Sorbonne,  or 
Theological  college  in  Paris,  about  1250.  John  Calvin,  the  reformer, 
born  in  France,  died  at  Geneva,  in  1564  ;  and  Theodore,  Beza,  his 
successor,  died  in  1605.  Martin  Bucer,  another  distinguished 
reformer,  died  in  England,  in  1551.  Cornelius  Jansenius,  founder 
of  the  sect  of  Jansenists,  opposed  to  the  Jesuits,  died  in  1638. 
Jaques  Benigne  Bossuet,  bishop  of  Meaux,  who  wrote  on  Universal 
History,  died  in  1704;  and  Louis  Bourdaloue,  in  the  same  year. 
Francois  Fenelon,  the  pious  archbishop  of  Cambray,  died  in  1715; 
and  Jean  Baptiste  Massillon,  the  eloquent  prelate  of  Sevigny,  died 
in  1742.  Of  the  French  schoolmen,  or  scholastic  philosophers, 
Peter  fibelard,  died  in  1 142  ;  and  Thomas  Aquinas,  (or  St.  Thomas, 
called  the  angelic  doctor),  founder  of  the  sect  of  Thomists,  as  also 
John  Bonaventura,  (or  St.  Bonaventure,  styled  the  seraphic),  both 
of  Italian  birth,  both  died  in  1274. 

Of  French  voyagers  and  geographers,  we  can  only  mention  here 
Gonneville,  who  flourished  in  1503;  Cartier,  in  1542;  Champlain, 
who  died  in  1635;  Tavernier,  who  died  in  1689;  La  Pey rouse, 
who  was  probably  lost  at  sea,  in  1788  ;  and  D'Jlnville,  the  celebrated 
geographer,  who  died  in  1782.  Of  French  historians,  John  Frois- 
sart,  the  chronicler,  died  in  1401  ;  Philip  de  Comines,  died  in  1509  ; 
Pierre  Brantome,  in  1614;  James  de  Thou,  (Thuanus),  in  1617; 
Francis  de  Mezerai,  in  1683;  Pelisson,  in  1693;  Varillas,  in  1696, 
Peter  Bay le,  in  1706;  Nicholas  Boileau,  in  1711  ;  Vertot  d/Jlubceuf, 
in  1735  ;  Charles  Rollin,  in  1741 ;  Crevier,  in  1765 ;  Francis  de 
Voltaire,  in  1778  ;  Claude  Millot,  in  1785  ;  Honore  Mirabeau,  in 
1791  ;  William  Raynal,  in  1796;  and  Count  Louis  de  Segur  died 
in  1830.  The  statesmen  Sully,  and  de  Retz,  also  wrote  on  history : 
and  the  brothers  Michaud,  as  also  Thouret,  Thiers,  and  others,  are, 
we  believe,  still  living.  The  abbe  Barthelemy,  celebrated  as  an 
archaeologist,  died  in  1795. 

Of  the  French  poets,  William,  count  of  Poitou,  called  the  first 
troubadour,  flourished  about  1071;  and  Thibaut,  count  of  Cham- 
pagne and  king  of  Navarre,  died  in  1253.  Clotilde  du  Vallon  Cha- 
lys,  (de  Surville,  by  marriage),  died  about  1500;  Clement  Marot, 
in  1551  ;  Du  Bellay,  in  1560;  Jodelle,  in  1573;  and  Ronsard,  in 
1585.  Desportes  died  in  1600  ;  Malherbe,  in  1627  ;  Sarrazan,  in 
1654;  and  the  marquis  of  Racan,  (du  Breuil),  in  1670.  Jean  B. 
de  Moliere,  died  in  1673;  Pierre  Corn eille,  in  1684;  Thomas 
Corneille,  his  brother,  in  1709:  Jean  de  la  Fontaine,  in  1695; 
Jean  Racine,  in  1699;  and  Madame  Deshoulieres,  in  1694.  Se- 
grais  died  in  1701  ;  Jean  Baptiste  Rousseau,  in  1741  ;  Fontenelle, 


264  BIOGRAPHY. 

in  1757:  Crebillon,  in  1762;  Pompignan,  in  1784;  Berlin,  in 
1790  ;  and  Chenier,  in  1794.  Ponce-Denis  Le  Brun,  died  in  1807  ; 
Jacques  Delille,  in  1813  ;  and  Count  Coetlogon,  in  1826.  Froissart, 
Boileau,  and  Voltaire,  have  been  mentioned  among  the  historians ; 
and  among  other  poets,  Chateaubriand  and  Lamartine  are,  we 
believe,  still  living.  Of  French  novelists,  besides  Rousseau,  Voltaire, 
and  Chateaubriand,  we  can  only  name  Rabelais,  who  died  in  1553  ; 
Montaigne,  the  essayist,  who  died  in  1592 ;  Mile,  de  Scuderi,  who 
died  in  1701  ;  Le  Sage,  in  1747 ;  Marmontel,  in  1798  ;  Madame  de 
Cottin,  in  1807;  St.  Pierre,  in  1814;  Madame  de  Stael,  in  1817; 
and  Madame  de  Genlis,  in  1830. 

In  the  physical  sciences,  France  presents  many  distinguished  names. 
Of  mathematicians,  Descartes,  also  a  metaphysician,  died  at  Stock- 
holm, in  1650;  James  Bernouilli  died  in  1705;  and  his  brother, 
John,  in  1748:  Delahire,  in  1718;  Clairault,  in  1765;  D'Alem- 
bert,  in  1783  ;  Condor cet,  also  a  politician,  died  in  1794 ;  Lagrange, 
in  1813  ;  and  Monge,  in  1818.  Gassendi,  the  astronomer,  died  in 
1655;  Lacaille,  in  1762;  and  Laplace,  the  mathematician  and 
astronomer,  died  in  1827.  Fermat,  the  mechanician,  died  in  1664; 
Pascal,  in  1662  ;  Coulomb,  in  1806 ;  and  Poisson,  in  1840.  Arago, 
Biot,  and  Ampere,  are,  we  trust,  still  living.  Of  French  chemists, 
Lavoisier  died  in  1794  ;  Fourcroy,  in  1809  ;  Guyton  de  Morveau, 
in  1816 ;  and  Berthollet,  of  Swiss  birth,  died  in  1822.  Gay  Lussac, 
and  Vauquelin  are,  we  believe,  still  living.  Of  French  naturalists, 
Tournefort  died  in  1708  ;  Anthony  de  Jussieu,  in  1758  ;  and  his 
brother,  Bernard,  in  1777 :  Buffon  died  in  1788  ;  Saussure,  in 
1799  ;  the  abbe  Haiiy,  in  1822  ;  and  Cuvier,  in  1832.  Decandolle, 
Lamarck,  and  Brongniart,  are,  we  believe,  .still  living.  Of  French 
physicians  and  surgeons,  Pare  died  in  1590;  Pecquet,  in  1674; 
Geoffroy,  in  1731 ;  Sauvages,  in  1767  ;  J.  L.  Petit,  in  1750  ;  An- 
thony Petit,  in  1794  ;  Desault,  in  1795 ;  and  Bichat,  in  1802. 

Of  French  painters,  Eustache  Le  Sueur,  historical  painter,  died  in 
1655;  Nicholas  Poussin,  his  rival,  died  in  1665  ;  Gaspar  Poussin, 
landscape  painter,  died  in  1675  ;  and  Claude  Lorraine,  of  the  Vene- 
tian school,  died  in  1682.  Claude  Joseph  Vernet,  the  marine  painter, 
died  in  1789 ;  and  some  of  his  descendants  are  also  distinguished 
painters.  Girodet-Trioson,  died  in  1824;  and  David,  the  recent 
historical  painter,  died  in  exile,  at  Brussels,  in  1825.  Of  French 
sculptors,  Puget  died  in  1694  ;  and  Falconet,  in  1791.  Of  French 
musical  composers,  we  can  only  name  Boieldieu,  who  died  in  1834 ; 
and  Le  Sueur,  and  Auber,  who,  we  believe,  are  still  living. 

§  4.  We  commence  the  section  on  British  Biography,  by  giving 
a  list  of  the  sovereigns,  with  the  dates  of  their  accession,  from  the 
time  of  the  Saxon  Heptarchy.  Of  the  Anglo-Saxon  line  were  Egbert, 
828;  Ethelwolf,  838;  Ethelbald,  857;  Ethelbert,  860;  Ethelred, 
866;  Alfred,  the  Great,  872  ;  Edward,  the  Elder,  900  ;  Athelstan, 
925;  ^  Edmund  L,  941  :  Edred,  948:  Edvvy,  955;  Edgar,  the 
Peaceable,  959;  Edward  II.,  the  Martyr,  975;  Ethelred  II.,  the 
Unready,  978;  Edmund  II.,  Ironside,  1016;  to  whom  succeeded 
the  Danish  conquerors,  Canute,  the  Great,  1017  ;  Harold  Harefoot, 
1036;  and  Canute  II.,  (Hardicanute),  1039;  after  which  the  Saxon 


EUROPEAN.  265 

line  was  restored  in  Edward  III.,  the  Confessor,  1041 ;  and  Harold  II., 
1066.  Next  succeeded  the  Norman  line,  of  William, \he  Conqueror, 
1066  ;  William  II.,  Rufus,  1087  ;  Henry  I.,  1100  ;  and  Stephen  of 
Blois,  1135;  who  was  followed  by  the  house  of  Plantagenet,  com- 
prising Henry  II.,  Plantagenet,  1154;  Richard  I.,  Coeur  de  Lion, 
1189;  John,  Lackland,  1199;  Henry  III.,  of  Winchester,  1216; 
Edward  I.,  Longshanks,  1272;  Edward  II.,  of  Caernarvon,  1307  ; 
Edward  III.,  of  Windsor,  1327  ;  Richard  II.,  of  Bourdeaux,  1377  ; 
Henry  IV.,  Bolingbroke  of  Lancaster,  1399  ;  Henry  V.,  of  Mon- 
mouth,  1413  ;  Henry  VI.,  of  Windsor,  1422  ;  Edward  IV.,  of 
York,  1461  ;  and  Edward  V.,  and  Richard  III.,  the  Hunchback, 
in  1483.  Next  came  the  house  of  Tudor;  Henry  VII.,  1485; 
Henry  VIII.,  1509  ;  Edward  VI.,  1547  ;  Mary,  1553  ;  and  Eliza- 
beth, 1558  :  next  the  house  of  Stuart;  James  I.,  1603  ;  Charles  I., 
1625;  the  Commonwealth  under  Oliver  Cromwell,  1649 ;  Charles  II., 
1660;  James  II.,  1685  ;  William  III.,  and  Mary,  1689  ;  and  Anne, 
1702  ;  and  lastly,  the  house  of  Brunswick,  George  I.,  1714 ; 
George  II.,  1727;  George  III.,  1760;  George  IV.,  1820;  William 
IV.,  1830  ;  and  Victoria,  1837. 

Of  British  statesmen  and  warriors,  Edward,  the  Black  prince,  son 
of  Edward  III.,  died  in  1376.  Henry  Percy,,  of  Northumberland, 
called  Hotspur,  fell  at  Shrewsbury,  in  1403.  John  Talbot,  first  earl 
of  Shrewsbury,  fell  in  righting  the  French,  in  1453.  The  earl  of 
Warwick,  called  the  king  maker,  fell  at  the  battle  of  Barnet,  in  1441. 
Cardinal  Wolsey,  minister  of  Henry  VIII.,  died  in  1530.  The  good 
Sir  Philip  Sidney,  died  of  a  wound,  near  Zutphen,  in  1586;  Sir 
Francis  Wahingham,  died  in  1590;  and  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  was 
beheaded  in  1618.  George  Villiers,  the  unworthy  duke  of  Bucking- 
ham, was  assassinated  in  1628  ;  and  Thomas  Wenfworth,  earl  of 
Strafford,  was  beheaded  in  1641.  Admiral  Robert  Slake,  died  in 
1657.  Edward  Hyde,  earl  of  Clarendon,  chancellor,  and  historian, 
died  in  1674.  Algernon  Sidney,  the  patriot,  was  beheaded  in  1683  ; 
and  .Anthony  Ashley  Cooper,  first  earl  of  Shaftsbury,  died  in  the 
same  year.  John  Churchill,  duke  of  Marlborough,  the  renowned 
general,  died  in  1722.  Robert  Walpole,  earl  of  Oxford,  died  in 
1745  ;  and  his  rival,  Henry  St.  John,  viscount  Bolingbroke,  died  in 
1751.  William  Pitt,  earl  of  Chatham,  died  in  1778  ;  and  Edmund 
Burke,  the  orator,  in  1797.  Horatio  Nelson,  the  renowned  admiral, 
fell  at  Trafalgar,  in  1805.  Charles  James  Fox,  died  in  1806; 
William  Pitt,  the  same  year;  Richard  Brinsley  Sheridan,  in  1816; 
and  George  Canning,  in  1827.  Arthur  Wellesley,  duke  of  Welling- 
ton, still  lives  to  enjoy  his  well-earned  reputation.  Of  British  jurists, 
Sir  Thomas  Littleton,  died  in  1481  ;  Sir  Edward  Coke,  in  1634; 
Sir  Matthew  Hale,  in  1676  ;  Sir  William  Blackstone,  in  1780;  and 
William  Murray,  earl  of  Mansfield,  died  in  1793. 

Of  British  divines,  commencing  with  the  schoolmen,  Alexander 
Hales,  styled  the  irrefragable,  died  in  1245  ;  John  Duns,  usually 
called  Duns  Scotus,  and  styled  the  subtle  doctor,  founder  of  the  sect 
of  Scotists,  (Realists),  died  in  1308  ;  and  William  Occam,  styled  the 
invincible,  and  leader  of  the  sect  of  the  Nominalists,  died  in  1347. 
John  Wicklij/fe,  the  reformer,  died  in  1384;  William  Tyndal  suffered 
34  Z 


266  BIOGRAPHY. 

martyrdom  in  1536  ;  Hugh  Latimer  and  Nicholas  Ridley,  in  1555  ; 
and  Thomas  Cranmer,  in  1556.  John  Knox,  the  Scotch  reformer, 
died  in  1572.  Richard  Hooker,  died  in  1600  ;  James  Usher,  arch- 
bishop of  Armagh,  the  chronologist,  died  in  1656 ;  and  Jeremy  Taylor, 
died  in  1667.  Richard  Baxter,  the  non-conformer,  died  in  1691. 
John  Tillotson,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  died  in  1694  ;  and  Gilbert 
Burnet,  bishop  of  Sarum,  died  in  1715.  Dr.  Isaac  Watts,  died  in 
1748  ;  and  Dr.  Philip  Doddridge,  in  1751.  Joseph  Butler,  bishop 
of  Durham,  died  in  1752 ;  and  William  Warburton,  bishop  of 
Gloucester,  in  1779.  John  Wesley,  died  in  1791  ;  Dr.  William 
Paley,  in  1805;  and  Robert  Hall,  in  1831.  Reginald  Hebcr,  the 
poet,  bishop  of  Calcutta,  died  in  India,  in  1826.  Of  mental  philoso- 
phers, John  Locke  died  in  1704;  Thomas  Reid,  in  1796;  Tho- 
mas Brown,  in  1820;  and  Dugald  Stewart,  in  1828. 

Of  British  voyagers  and  travellers,  Sebastian  Cabot  died  about 
1557;  Sir  Thomas  Cavendish,  in  1592;  Sir  Francis  Drake,  in 
1595  ;  Capt.  John  Davis,  in  1605;  Capt.  Henry  Hudson,  in  1611  ; 
Capt.  William  Baffin,  in  1616;  Capt.  Jo hn  Smith,  in  1631  ;  Capt. 
William  Dampier,  probably  about  1715;  Capt.  Woods  Rogers,  in 
1732  ;  Com.  George  Anson,  in  1762  ;  Com.  John  Byron,  in  1786  ; 
Capt.  James  Cook,  in  1779  ;  and  Capt.  George  Vancouver,  in  1798. 
Of  British  historians,  besides  Walsingham,  Raleigh,  the  earl  of 
Clarendon,  Bishop  Burnet,  and  Archbishop  Usher,  already  named, 
George  Buchanan,  of  Scotland,  died  in  1582  ;  Tobias  Smollett,  in 
1771;  David  Hume,  in  1776;  Dr.  William  Robertson,  in  1793; 
Edward  Gibbon,  in  1794;  William  Mitford,  in  1827;  and  Sir 
James  Mackintosh,  in  1832.  Dr.  John  Lingard,  Lord  John  Russell, 
Sharon  Turner,  Henry  Hallam,  and  James  Grahame,  Esqrs.,  are, 
we  believe,  still  living. 

Of  the  British  poets,  Geoffrey  Chaucer  died  in  1400;  and  John 
Gower,  who  wrote  in  Latin,  died  in  1402.  Gascoigne  died  in  1577; 
Tusser,  about  1580  ;  and  Edmund  Spenser,  in  1599.  William 
Shakspeare,  the  dramatist,  died  in  1616;  John  Fletcher,  in  1625; 
and  Ben  Jonson,  in  1637.  Davies  died  in  1626  ;  Greville,  (Lord 
Brooke),  in  1628;  Drayton,  in  1631;  Donne,  in  1631 ;  Carew,in  1639; 
Giles  Fletcher,  in  1623;  and  Phineas  Fletcher,  about  1650.  John 
Milton  died  in  1674;  Cowley,  in  1667;  Butler,  in  1680  ;  Waller, 
in  1687  ;  and  John  Dry  den,  in  1700.  Prior  died  in  1721  ;  Gay,  in 
1732  ;  Swift,  in  1744 ;  and  Alexander  Pope,  in  the  same  year. 
Thomson  died  in  1748;  Collins,  in  1756;  Shenstone,  in  1763;  Dr. 
Young,  in  1765;  Akenside,  in  1770;  Falconer,  in  the  same  year; 
Gray,  in  1771  ;  Goldsmith,  in  1774  ;  and  Dr.  Armstrong,  in  1779. 
Robert  Burns,  the  Scotch  poet,  died  in  1796 ;  William  Cowper,  in 
1800  ;  James  Beattie,  in  1803  ;  Grahame,  in  1811  ;  and  Shelley,  in 
1822.  Lord  Byron,  (George  Gordon),  died  in  1824  ;  Mrs.  Bar- 
bauld,  in  1825  ;  Crabbe,  in  1832  ;  Sir  Walter  Scott,  in  the  same 
year;  Miss  Hannah  More,  in  1833;  Coleridge,  in  1834;  Mrs. 
Hemans,  in  1835;  and  Miss  Landon,  (Mrs.  Maclean),  in  1838. 
Miss  Baillie,  Campbell,  Rogers,  Wordsworth,  Bowles,  Montgomery, 
Moore,  Southey,  and  Prof.  Wilson,  are,  we  believe,  still  living.  Of 
novelists  and  essayists,  not  already  named,  dddison  died  in  1719  ; 


*    »       tFf*4   vaaima—  a        .     g      *     ^^^q  V^KP       d/>^      r   •  '^f    f  M^X^S         -y 

#£7*,£'"/  j; 

CL_  267 

Fielding,  in  1754  ;  Richardson,  in  1761 ;  Sterne,  in  1768*  and  Dr. 
Johnson,  in  1784.  Mrs.  Radcliffe  died  in  1822  ;  and  Gait,  in  1839. 
Miss  Burney,  (D'Arblay),  Miss  Edgeworth,  Mrs.  Roche,  and  the 
Misses  Porter,  are  also  among,  the  novelists.  D'Israeli,  Bulwer, 
James,  Marryat,  and  Dickens,  are  still  before  the  public. 

Of  British  mathematicians,  Napier,  baron  of  Marchiston,  died  in 
1617;  Hariot,  in  1621  ;  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  alike  celebrated  in  na- 
tural philosophy,  died  in  1627  ;  Brook  Taylor,  died  in  1741  ;  Colin 
Machurin,  in  1746;  and  Robert  Simson,  in  1765.  Of  natural  phi- 
losophers, besides  Newton,  Roger  Bacon,  (the  friar),  died  in  1294; 
Dr.  Gilbert,  in  1603;  Francis  Bacon,  (Lord  Verulam),  in  1626; 
Robert  Boyle,  in  1691  ;  Mitchell,  and  Dr.  Gowan  Knight,  flourish- 
ed about  1740 ;  Dr.  Joseph  Black,  died  in  1799 ;  Dr.  Joseph  Priestley, 
in  1804 ;  Dr.  William  H.  Wollaston,  in  1828  ;  Sir  Humphrey  Davy, 
in  1829;  and  Sir  John  Leslie,  in  1832.  Of  British  astronomers, 
John  Flamstead,  died  in  1719  ;  Dr.  Edmund  Halley,  in  1742;  Dr. 
James  Bradley,  in  1762  ;  Mr.  Ferguson,  in  1776 ;  Dr.  Nevil  Mas- 
kelyne,  in  1811  ;  and  Sir  William  Herschell,  in  1822.  Dr.  Henry, 
the  chemist,  died  in  1836.  The  philosophers  and  chemists,  Brew- 
ster,  Herschell,  Dalton,  Thompson,  Ure,  and  Faraday,  are,  we  believe, 
still  living.  Of  British  naturalists,  and  geologists,  John  Ray,  died  in 
1705;  Thomas  Burnet,  in  1715;  William  Whiston,  in  1752; 
James  Hutton,  in  1797;  Dr.  Erasmus  Darwin,  in  1802;  Professor 
John  Playfair,  in  1819;  and  Professor  Robert  Jameson,  is,  we  be- 
lieve, still  living.  Of  British  physicians  and  surgeons,  Dr.  William 
Harvey,  died  in  1658;  Dr.  John  May ow,  in  1679;  Dr.  Thomas 
Sydenham,  in  1689;  Dr.  William  Cheseldea,  in  1752  ;  Dr.  William 
Hunter,  in  1783;  Dr.  John  Brown,  in  1788;  Dr.  William  Cullen, 
in  1790 ;  Dr.  John  Hunter,  in  1793  ;  Dr.  John  Mason  Good,  in 
1827;  Dr.  Thomas  Young,  in  1829  ;  and  Sir  Jlstley  Paston  Cooper, 
in  1841.  Sir  Benjamin  Brodie,  Sir  Charles  Bell,  and  Dr.  John  Bell, 
are,  we  believe,  still  living. 

Of  British  artists  and  inventors,  Edward  Somerset,  marquis  of 
Worcester,  died  in  1667  ;  Savary,  and  Newcomen  flourished  in 
1700 ;  James  Watt,  died  in  1819  ;  Sir  Richard  Arkwright,  died  in 
1792  ;  Hargreaves,  and  Crompton,  flourished  in  1767  and  1779  ; 
Rev.  Edmund  Cartwright,  died  in  1824  ;  and  John  Harrison,  died 
in  1776.  The  engineers,  James  Brindley,  died  in  1772  :  John  Smea- 
ton,  in  1792  ;  John  Rennie,  in  1821  ;  and  Thomas  Tel  ford,  in  1834. 
Of  British  architects,  Inigo  Jones,  died  in  1652;  Sir  Christopher 
Wren,  in  1725  ;  James  Stuart,  in  1788  ;  and  Sir  William  Cham- 
bers, in  1796.  Of  British  painters,  William  Hogarth,  died  in  1764; 
Sir  Joshua  Reynolds,  in  1792;  George  Romney,  his  rival,  in  1802  ; 
Sir  Thomas  Lawrence,  in  1830;  Richard  Westall,  in  1836;  and 
David  Wilkie,  we  believe,  is  still  living.  Of  sculptors,  John  Flax- 
man  died  in  1826;  but  Francis  Chantry  and  Richard  Westmacott, 
are  still  the  ornament  of  their  profession.  Among  the  writers  of  music, 
Sir  John  Hawkins,  died  in  1789;  and  Dr.  Charles  Burney,  in  1814. 

§  5.  We  come  next  to  the  Biography  of  Central  Europe;  com- 
mencing, as  in  the  preceding  departments,  with  Belgium,  Holland, 
and  Switzerland.  Of  Dutch  statesmen  and  warriors,  William  L, 


268  BIOGRAPHY. 

prince  of  Orange,  the  originator  of  his  country's  independence,  was 
assassinated,  in  1584.  His  son,  Maurice,  of  Nassau,  prince  of  Orange, 
and  the  second  stadiholder,  died  in  1625  ;  by  whom  Barneveldt,  the 
patriot,  was  put  to  death  in  1619.  John  de  Witt,  the  republican 
stadtholder,  or  pensionary,  fell  by  the  hands  of  a  mob,  in  1672.  Ad- 
miral Michael  Fitz  Adrian  De  Ruyter,  died  in  1676  ;  Admiral  Mar- 
tin Harpertzoon  Van  Tromp,  fell  in  battle,  in  1653;  and  his  son, 
Admiral  Cornelius  Fan  Tromp,  died  in  1691.  Under  fftlliamlV,, 
in  1747,  and  William  V.,  in  1751,  the  stadtholdership  was  declared 
hereditary.  Of  Dutch  jurists,  we  can  only  mention  Hugo  Gro- 
tius,  who  died  in  1645;  Ulrich  Huber,  who  died  in  1694;  and 
Zacharias  Huber,  in  1731.  Of  Dutch  divines,  Desiderius  Erasmus, 
died  in  1536;  James  Arminiu's,  in  1609;  and  John  Drusius,  in 
1616.  Of  Dutch  poets,  Van  der  Loos,  (or  Douza),  died  in  1604; 
Heinse,  in  1655;  Van  Hooft,  also  a  historian,  died  in  1647;  Cats, 
in  1660;  Van  der  Goes,  in  1687;  Van  der  Vondel,  in  1679;  Rot- 
gans,  in  1710  ;  Foot,  in  1733  ;  Van  der  Vliet,  in  1780  ;  and  Nienw- 
land,  in  1794. 

Of  Dutch  mathematicians  and  natural  philosophers,  Ludolph  Van 
Ceulen,  died  in  1610  ;  Gerard  Mercator,  in  1594  ;  Nicolas  Merca- 
tor,  in  1690;  Simon  Stevin,  in  1635;  and  Christopher  Huy gens, 
in  1695.  To  this  class  belong  also  Albert  Girard,  and  Zacharias  Jan- 
sen.  Muschenbroek,  flourished  in  1720 ;  and  Leuwenhoek,  died  in 
1723.  The  chemists  and  physicians,  John  Baptist  van  Helmont, 
died  in  1644  ;  Francis  Sylvius,  in  1672  ;  and  Hermann  Boerhaave, 
in  1738.  Of  Dutch,  including  Flemish  painters,  Jean  de  Bruges, 
(VanEyck],  flourished  in  1410;  Peter  Paul  Rubens,  died  in  1640; 
Anthony  Vandyck,  in.  1641;  David  Teniers,  the  elder,  in  1649; 
Paul  Potter,  in  1654;  Francis  Snyders,  in  1657;  and  Paul  Rem- 
brandt, in  1668.  Caspar  Grayer  died  in  1669;  James  Jordaens,  in 
1678 ;  Gerard  Dow,  (Douw),  a  pupil  of  Rembrandt,  died  in  1680  ; 
and  Albert  Cuyp,  (or  Kuyp),  flourished  in  1690. 

Of  Swiss  patriots  and  warriors,  William  Tell,  died  in  1354 ;  and 
Walter  Fiirst,  Arnold  of  Melchthal,  and  Werner  Stauffacher,  were 
his  coadjutors,  in  achieving  his  country's  independence.  The  brave 
Arnold  von  Winkelried,  fell  in  the  battle  of  Sempach,  in  1386.  Aloys 
Reding,  and  Hirzel  of  Zurich,  were  among  the  opponents  of  the 
French,  in  the  time  of  Bonaparte.  Ulrich  Zuinglius,  (or  Zwingli), 
the  Swiss  reformer,  fell  in  battle,  in  1531.  Of  "Swiss  scholars,  we 
would  here  mention,  Hottinger,  the  philologist,  who  died  in  1667; 
Sulzer,  the  metaphysician,  who  died  in  1779  ;  Bonnet,  also  a  na- 
turalist, who  died  in  1793 ;  Lavater,  the  physiognomist,  who  died 
ia  1801  ;  and  Pestalozzi,  the  predagogist,  who  died  in  1827.  John 
von  Mailer,  the  historian,  died  in  1809 :  John  Charles  Sismondi, 
we  believe,  is  still  living.  Solomon  Gesner,  (or  Gessner),  the  poet, 
died  in  1788.  Theophrastus  Paracelsus,  the  alchemist,  died  in 
1541  ;  and  Conrad  Gesner,  the  naturalist,  died  in  1565.  Albert  von 
Haller,  the  physician,  died  in  1777.  Hans  Holbein,  the  painter,  died 
in  1554  ;  and  Henry  Fuseli,  in  1825.  Several  Swiss  writers,  in  the 
French  language,  have  been  mentioned  under  French  Biography. 

We  shall  commence  German  Biography,  including  Austrian  and 


EUROPEAN.  269 

Prussian,  by  giving  the  following  list  of  the  later  German  emperors, 
with  the  dates  of  their  accession.  They  are,  Rodolph,  of  Hapsburg, 
1273  ;  Adolphus,  of  Nassau,  1291  ;  Albert  I.,  of  Austria,  1298  ; 
Henry  VII.,  of  Luxemburgh,  1309  ;  Lewis  IV.,  the  Bavarian,  1314  ; 
Charles IV., of  Luxemburgh,  1347;  Wenceslaus,  1378;  Rupert,  1400; 
Sigismund,  king  of  Hungary,  1410 ;  .filbert  II.,  of  Austria,  1438  ; 
Frederick  III.,  1440  ;  Maximilian  I.,  1493  ;  Charles  V.,  1519  ;  Fer- 
dinand I.,  1558;  Maximilian  II.,  1564;  Rodolph  II.,  1576;  Mathias, 
1612;  Ferdinand  II.,  1619;  Ferdinand  III.,  1637;  Leopold,  1658; 
Joseph,  1705  ;  Charles  VI.,  1711  ;  Charles  VII.,  1741  ;  Francis  I., 
1745  :  Joseph  II.,  1765  ;  Leopold  II.,  1790  ;  and  Francis  II.,  1792  ; 
who,  in  1804,  assumed  the  title  of  Emperor  of  Austria,  as  already 
mentioned,  (p.  229).  The  kings  of  Prussia,  are  Frederick  I.,  1701 ; 
Frederick  William  I.,  1713:  Frederick  II.,  the  Great,  1740:  Fre- 
derick William  II.,  1786:  and  Frederick  William  III.,  1797. 

Of  German  statesmen  and  warriors,  Berengarius,  duke  of  Friuli, 
and  rival  of  Arnold,  flourished  in  888  :  Philip,  duke  of  Swabia,  and 
rival  of  Otho  of  Saxony,  was  assassinated  in  1208  :  and  Frederick, 
of  Austria,  the  rival  of  Lewis  of  Bavaria,  flourished  in  1330  :  John 
Zisca,  the  formidable  general  of  the  Hussites,  died  in  1424  :  and  John 
Corvinus  Hunniades,  defender  of  Hungary  against  the  Turks,  died 
in  1456.  Frederick,  the  Wise,  elector  of  Saxony,  and  the  friend  of 
Martin  Luther,  died  in  1526:  and  his  nephew,  John  Frederick,  who 
headed  the  league  of  Smalcalden,  died  in  1554.  John  Tzerklas, 
count  of  Tilly,  general  of  the  Catholic  League,  died  in  1632  :  and 
Albert  Wallenstein,  his  predecessor,  was  assassinated,  in  1634. 
Prince  Raymond  Montecuculi,  the  imperial  general  against  Turenne 
and  Conde,  died  in  1680.  Prince  Francis  Eugene,  of  Savoy,  co- 
adjutor of  the  duke  of  Marlborough,  died  in  1736.  Marshal  Maurice 
of  Saxe,  who  served  against  the  Turks,  and  in  the  armies  of  France, 
died  in  1750.  Count  Leopold  Joseph  Daun,  the  Austrian  general, 
opposed  to  Frederick  the  Great,  died  in  1766.  Paul  de  Werner •,  a 
Prussian  general,  died  in  178£  :  and  Marshal  Lebrecht  von  Blucher, 
died  in  1819.  Prince  Schwartzenberg,  the  Austrian  field  marshal, 
died  in  1820  :  but  Prince  Metternich,  is,  we  believe,  still  living. 

Of  German  divines,  John  Huss,  the  reformer,  was  burnt  by  Sigis- 
mund, in  1415 :  and  Jerome,  of  Prague,  his  friend,  shared  his  fate, 
in  1416.  Thomas  a  Kempis,  the  pious,  died  in  1471.  John  CEco- 
lampadius,  the  reformer,  died  in  1531  :  and  Philip  Melanchthon,  the 
friend  of  Luther,  died  in  1560.  Martin  Luther,  the  great  reformer, 
died  in  1546.  Johann  Lorenz  Mosheim,  the  ecclesiastical  historian, 
died  in  1755.  John  Augustus  Ernesti,  the.  theological  critic,  died 
in  1781  :  and  Henry  Gottlob  Tschirner,  the  eloquent  preacher,  died 
in  1828.  Of  metaphysical  philosophers,  Jacob  Bohme,  (or  Bceh- 
rnen),  died  in  1624:  Christian  von  Wolff,  (or  Wolfius),  died  in 
1754:  and  Immanuel  Kant,  of  Prussia,  died  in  1804.  Of  jurists, 
besides  Wolff,  we  would  mention  Baron  Samuel  von  Puffendorf,  who 
died  in  1694. 

Of  German  geographers,  J.  G.  Hassel,  the  most  celebrated,  died 
in  1829.  Martin  Behaim  (or  Behem)  died  at  Lisbon,  in  1506. 
Of  German  historians,  Einard  Eginhard,  secretary  to  Charlemagne, 

z  2 


270  BIOGRAPHY. 

died  in  839;  and  Otto  von  Freyslngen  was  the  grandson  of  Fre- 
derick Barbarossa.  Ottocar  of  Horneck,  who  wrote  in  the  German 
language,  flourished  in  1300;  and  Turmayr,  (Aventinus),  and 
Franke,  were  among  the  early  historians.  John  Christopher  Fre- 
derick von  Schiller,  also  a  poet,  died  in  1805;  and  Berihold  George 
Niebuhr  died  in  1831.  John  Godfrey  von  Herder,  the  critic  and 
poet,  died  in  1803  ;  and  Frederick  von  Schlegel,  also  an  historian, 
died  in  1829.  His  brother,  Augustus  William  Schlegel,  we  believe 
is  still  living. 

Of  the  German  poets,  besides  Schiller  and  Herder,  Henry  of  Val- 
deck,  the  first  of  the  minnesingers,  flourished  in  1180:  and  the  rivals, 
Henry  of  Ofterdingen  and  Wolkram  of  Eschenbach,  flourished 
about  1200.  Of  the  mastersingers,  Hans  Folz  and  Hans  Sachs, 
flourished  about  1450.  Martin  Opitz,  (or  Opitius),  the  Silesian, 
died  in  1639;  Paul  Fleming,  in  1640;  and  Paul  Gerhard,  in 
1676.  Ewald  Christian  of  Kleist,  died  in  1759  ;  Frederick  Hage- 
dorn,  in  1754 ;  John  Christopher  von  Gottsched,  in  1762 ;  Chris- 
tian Frederick  Gellert,  in  1769 ;  Gotthold  Ephraim  Lessing,  in 
1781  ;  and  Gottfried  Augustus  Burger,  died  in  1794.  Frederick 
Gottlieb  Khpstock  died  in  1803;  Christopher  Martin  Wieland,  and 
Theodore  Korner,  in  1813  ;  Count  Frederick  Leopold  Stolberg,  and 
Augustus  von  Kotzebue,  in  1819;  John  Henry  Voss,  in  1826;  and 
John  Wolfgang  von  Goethe,  died  in  1832.  Winkelman,  Tieck,  and 
Tiedge  are,  we  believe,  still  living.  Of  German  novelists,  Meissner 
died  in  1807  ;  Nicolai,  in  1811 ;  and  John  Paul  Pichter  died  in  1825. 

Of  German  mathematicians  and  natural  philosophers,  Gottfried 
Wilhelm,  baron  of  Leibnitz,  died  in  1716;  and  Leonard  Euler,  of 
Swiss  birth,  died  at  St.  Petersburg,  in  1783.  John  Miiller,  called 
Regiomontanus,  died  in  1476  ;  Athanasius  Kircher,  in  1680  ;  Otho 
von  Guericke,  in  1686;  Ehrenfried  Walter  von  Tschirnhausen, 
about  1690  ;  James  Herman,  in  1733  ;  Gabriel  Daniel  Fahrenheit,  in 
1736  ;  John  Ingenhouz,  in  1799  ;  and  Joseph  von  Fraunhofer,  died 
in  1826.  Of  the  astronomers,  Johr^  Bayer  flourished  in  1603; 
John  Kepler  died  in  1630  ;  Tobias  Mayer,  in  1762  ;  Prof.  Harding, 
in  1834  ;  and  Dr.  Olbers  died  in  1840.  Of  the  alchemists,  Albtrtus 
Magnus  died  in  1280;  Basil  Valentine  flourished  about  1420; 
George  Agricola,  in  1530;  and  Nicholas  Sebastian  Brandt,  flou- 
rished in  1669.  John  Joachim  Becher  died  in  1685;  William 
Homberg,  in  1715;  and  George  Ernest  Stahl,  in  1734.  Of  mineral- 
ogists and  geologists,  Lehman,  the  miner,  flourished  in  1756  ;  Abra- 
ham Gottlob  Werner  died  in  1817;  and  Frederick  Mohs  died  in 
1839.  Of  naturalists,  Joachim  Junge  died  in  1657;  John  George 
Grnelin,  in  1755;  Charles  Louis  frilldenoiv,  in  1812;  and  Baron 
Alexander  Humboldt,  we  believe,  is  still  living. 

Of  German  physicians,  Dr.  Maurice  Hoffman,  died  in  1698; 
and  Dr.  Frederick  Hoffman,  in  1742.  John  Frederick  Blu- 
menbach,  the  celebrated  physiologist,  died  in  1840.  Hildanus 
was  a  physician  of  note  ;  and  Dr.  Samuel  Hahneman,  the  homo30- 
pathist,  is,  we  believe,  still  living.  Engelbert  Kampfer,  celebrated 
also  as  a  traveller,  died  in  1716.  Of  German  painters,  Martin 
Schoen  (or  Schoenbauer)  died  in  1486 ;  Michael  Wohlgemuth,  in 


EUROPEAN.  »        271 

1519;  Lucas  Kranach,  in  1553  ;  and  Sir  Godfrey  Kneller,  in  1723. 
Cornelius,  and  the  sculptors,  Tieck,  and  Rauch,  are,  we  believe,  still 
living.  Of  musical  composers,  Handel  died  in  1759;  Mozart,  in 
1792  ;  Haydn,  in  1809;  Weber,  in  1826;  and  Beethoven,  in  1827. 

Under  Danish  Biography,  we  have  room  to  give  the  sovereigns  of 
Denmark,  only  since  its  union  with  Norway  and  Sweden,  in  1438. 
They  are  Christopher  III.,  1438  ;  Christian  I.,  1448;  John  L,  1481  ; 
Christian  II.,  1513;  Frederick!.,  1522;  Christian  III.,  1533;  Fre- 
derick II.,  1559  ;  Christian  IV.,  1588  ;  Frederick  III.,  1648  ;  Chris- 
tian V.,  1670;  Frederick  IV.,  1699  ;  Christian  VI.,  1730;  Frederick 
V.,  1746;  Christian  VII.,  1766;  Frederick  VI.,  1808;  and  Chris- 
tian VIII.,  1839.  Count  Struensee,  the  minister  of  Christian  VII., 
was  beheaded  in  1772  :  the  elder  count  Bernstorffdied  in  the  same 
year;  and  the  younger,  in  1797.  Of  Danish  historians,  Sueno  (or 
Svend  Jlageson,  flourished  in  1188  ;  and  Saxo-Grammalicus,  (Lang 
of  Schonen),  died  in  1204.  Wielandt  died  in  1730  ;  Sneedorf,  in 
1764;  and  Suhm,  in  1799.  Of  literati,  Charles  B.  Tullin  died  in 
1765  ;  and  Baron  Louis  of  Holberg,  of  Norwegian  birth,  in  1754. 
Of  Danish  poets,  Arreboe  died  in  1637;  Bording,  in  1677;  Sches- 
tedt,  in  1698;  Kingo,  in  1703;  Lorterap,  in  1722;  Ewald,  in 
1781  ;  Wessel,  in  1786;  Weyer,  in  1788:  Falsen,  in  1808;  and 
Baggesen,  in  1826.  (Ehlenschlager,  the  poet  and  novelist,  is,  we 
believe,  still  living.  Tycho  Brake,  the  astronomer,  died  in  1601  ; 
and  Longomontanus,  his  pupil,  in  1647.  Olaf  Worm,  (or  Wor- 
mius),  the  mineralogist,  died  in  1654.  Professor  Oersted,  is,  we 
believe,  still  living ;  as  also  Thorwaldsen,  the  sculptor. 

§  6.  We  shall  commence  Swedish  Biography,  with  the  names  and 
dates  of  accession  of  the  Swedish  sovereigns,  since  the  last  union  with 
Denmark.  They  are  Gustavus  I.,  Vasa,  1523  ;  Eric  XIV.,  1560; 
John  III.,  1568;  Sigismund,  king  of  Poland,  1592;  Charles  IX., 
1598  ;  Gustavus  II.  Adolphus,  1612  ;  Christina,  1632  ;  Charles  X., 
1654;  Charles  XL,  1660;  Charles  XII.,  1696;  Frederick  and 
Ulrica,  1718 ;  Adolphus  Frederick,  1751  :  Gustavus  III.,  1771  ; 
Gustavus  IV.,  1792  ;  Charles  XIII.,  1809  ;  and  Charles  XIV.,  (John 
Bernadotte),  in  1818.  General  John  Banier,  (Baner,  or  Banner), 
died  in  1641  ;  and  General  Leonard  Torstenson,  died  in  1651.  The 
chancellor,  Axel  of  Oxenstiern,  minister  of  Gustavus  Adolphus,  died 
in  1654.  Snorro  Sturlason,  the  Icelandic  historian,  died  in  1241  ; 
and  Eric  Pontoppidan,  bishop  of  Bergen,  died  in  1764.  Erik 
Olafsen,  the  Swedish  chronicler,  flourished  in  1490 ;  and  Eric 
Gustavus  Geyer,  (Geijer),  is  a  Swedish  historian  of  the  present  day. 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  founder  of  a  new  religious  sect,  died  in  Lon- 
don, in  1772.  Of  Swedish  poets,  Olaus  or  Olof  Dalin,  died  in  1763  ; 
Madame  Nordenflycht,  in  the  same  year ;  Lidner,  in  1793  ;  Charles 
M.  Bellman,  in  1795;  and  Gyllenborg,  in  1808.  Atterbom  and 
Ling,  are,  we  believe,  still  living.  Among  the  Swedish  novelists  are 
Mork,  and  Livijus.  Of  the  Swedish  chemists,  Bergmann  died  in 
1784;  Scheele,  in  1786;  and  Berzelius  is  still  living.  Charles 
Linnseus,  (Linne),  the  naturalist,  died  in  1778  ;  Artedi,  his  friend, 
the  zoologist,  died  in  1735 ;  and  Dr.  Olaus  Rudbeck,  the  elder,  died 
in  1702. 


272  BIOGRAPHY. 

Under  Polish  Biography,  we  would  mention  the  last  kings  of 
Poland ;  Alexander,  in  1501  ;  Sigismund  I.,  1507  ;  Sigismund  II., 
Augustus,  1548;  Henry  of  Anjou,  1573;  Stephen  Balore,  1576; 
Sigismund  III.,  1587;  Vladislaus  VI.,  1632;  John  II.,  Casimir, 
1648;  Michael,  1669;  John  III.,  Sobieski,  1674;  Augustus  II., 
1697;  Frederick  Augustus,  1734;  and  Stanislaus  Poniatowski,  1764; 
who  was  dethroned  on  the  dismemberment  of  Poland.  Thaddeus 
Kosciusko,  the  Polish  patriot,  died  in  1817,  in  Switzerland  ;  and 
Count  Joseph  Pulaski,  (or  Pulawski),  who  also  aided  the  United 
States,  fell  at  Savannah,  in  1779.  Of  Polish  historians,  Duglosa 
died  in  1480  ;  and  Naruszewicz,  also  a  statesman  and  poet,  died  in 
1796.  Stryikowski,  and  Kobierzyzki,  are  also  Polish  historians. 
Of  Polish  poets,  Kochanowski  died  in  1584;  Krasicki,  in  1802; 
Trembecki,  in  1812;  and  Karpinski,  in  1820.  Nicholas  Coperni- 
cus of  Thorn,  the  Polish  astronomer,  died  in  1543. 

Under  Russian  Biography,  we  have  room  to  mention  only  the 
more  recent  sovereigns,  since  Russia  became  a  prominent  empire. 
They  are  Peter,  the  Great,  sole  monarch,  in  1696;  Catherine  I., 
1725;  Peter  II.,  1727;  Anne,  1730;  Ivan  (or  John)  III.,  1740; 
Elizabeth,  1741;  Peter  III.,  1762  ;  Catherine  II.,  same  year;  Paul, 
1796 ;  Alexander,  1801 ;  and  Nicholas,  1825.  Prince  Gregory  Alex- 
androwitsch  Potemkin,  the  favorite  and  minister  of  Catharine  II.,  died 
in  1791.  Count  Peter  Alexandrowitsch  Romanzoff  died  in  1796; 
Count  Suwaroff-Rimnitzkoy,  (or  Suwarrow),  who  defeated  the 
Turks,  and  opposed  the  French  in  Italy,  died  in  1800;  and  Field 
Marshal  Kutusoff,  died  in  1813.  Krusenstern,  the  circumnavigator, 
is,  we  believe,  still  living.  Nicholas  Karamsin,  the  historian,  died 
in  1826.  Of  the  Russian  poets,  Michael  Wasilowitz  Lomonosoff 
died  in  1765;  and  Gabriel  Romanowich  Derschawin,  died  in  1819. 
OserofF  and  Cheraskoff,  are  also  poets  of  note.  Professor  Peterman 
Simon  Pallas,  the  naturalist,  of  German  birth,  died  in  1811. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

AMERICAN    BIOGRAPHY. 

ON  the  subject  of  American  Biography,  we  feel  it  a  duty  to  be  more 
full  than  in  the  preceding  branches,  so  far  as  we  have  the  means  of 
being  so :  though  unfortunately  the  records  of  Spanish  America  are 
so  imperfect  as  to  present  us  with  only  a  skeleton  of  that  division  of 
the  present  branch.  Under  American  Biography,  will  properly  be 
included  the  names  of  many  persons  born  in  Europe  ;  but  who  came 
to  this  continent  at  an  early  period,  or  here  acquired  distinction. 
The  Biography  of  citizens  of  the  United  States,  being  to  us  much 
the  most  important,  will  naturally  occupy  a  large  portion  of  our 
allotted  space ;  especially  as  our  own  country  has  produced  a  large 
portion  of  all  the  Americans  who  have  yet  acquired  distinction,  in  the 
various  pursuits  of  life. 

§  1.  We  shall  commence  the  section  on  United  States  Biography, 


AMERICAN.  273 

by  giving  the  names  of  our  early  statesmen,  not  celebrated  as  warriors. 
John  Winthrop,  historian,  and  governor  of  Massachusetts,  died  in 
1649;  John  Winthrop,  governor  of  Connecticut,  died  in  1676;  and 
Roger  Williams,  governor  of  Rhode  Island,  died  in  1683.  Lord 
Delaware,  governor  of  Virginia,  died  in  1618  ;  and  Leonard  Calvert, 
first  governor  of  Maryland,  died  in  1676.  William  Penn,  the  first 
governor  of  Pennsylvania,  died  in  1718  ;  William  Burnet,  governor 
of  New  York,  and  afterwards  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1729  ;  James 
Logan,  governor  of  Pennsylvania,  died  in  1751  ;  and  Thomas 
Hutchinson,  historian,  and  governor  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1780. 
Of  military  men,  in  the  Indian  and  French  wars,  Capt.  John  Smith* 
historian,  and  president  of  Virginia,  died  in  1631  ;  Capt.  John  Mason, 
of  Connecticut,  leader  in  the  Pequot  war,  died  in  1673  ;  Capt.  Miles 
Standish,  of  Plymouth,  in  1656  ;  Capt.  Daniel  Henchman,  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, celebrated  in  King  Philip's  war,  died  in  1675  ;  and  CapU 
Samuel  Wadsworth,  of  Massachusetts,  was  slain  in  1676.  General 
William  Phipps,  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1695;  General  William 
Pepperell,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1759;  General  William  Shirley f 
governor  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1771  ;  and  General  William 
Johnson,  of  New  York,  died  in  1774. 

Of  the  statesmen  of  the  Revolution,  Peyton  Randolph,  of  Virginia, 
first  president  of  the  Continental  Congress,  died  in  1775  ;  John  Han- 
cock, of  Massachusetts,  its  second  president,  died  in  1793 ;  Henry 
Laurens,  of  South  Carolina,  its  third  president,  died  in  1792 ;  and 
John  Jay,  of  New  York,  its  fourth  president,  who  was  afterwards 
first  chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  died  in  1829.     Of  the  remain- 
ing presidents  of  that  Congress,  Samuel  Huntington,  of  Connecticut,, 
died  in  1796;   Thomas  MK'ean,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1817;  John 
Hanson,  of  Maryland,  in  1783 ;  Elias  Boudinot,  of  Pennsylvania, 
in   1821  ;    Thomas   Mifffin,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1800 ;    Richard 
Henry  Lee,  the  orator,  of  Virginia,  in  1794 ;  Nathaniel  Gorham, 
of  Massachusetts,  in  1796 ;  Arthur  St.  Clair,  of  Pennsylvania,  in 
1818 ;  and  Cyrus  Griffin,  of  Pennsylvania,  died  in  1810.     Josiah 
Quincy,  the  orator,  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1775 :  and  James  Otis, 
another  patriot  and  orator,  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1783.    Benjamin 
Franklin,  the  patriot  and  philosopher,  died  in  1790.    Patrick  Henry, 
the  orator,  and  governor  of  Virginia,  died  in  1799.     Samuel  Mams, 
of  Massachusetts,  and  Edmund  Pendlcton,  of  Virginia,  died  in  1803 ; 
Arthur  Middleton,  of  South  Carolina,  in  1787;  and  Edward  Rut- 
ledge,  of  South  Carolina,  in  1800.     Fisher  Ames,  the  orator,  of 
Connecticut,  died  in  1808;  Robert  R.  Livingston,  of  New  York, 
died  in  1813 ;  and  Edmund  Randolph,  of  Virginia,  in  the  same  year. 
Robert  Morris,  of  Pennsylvania,  the  financier,  died  in  1806.     John 
Adams,  of  Massachusetts,  second  president  of  the  United  States ; 
and  Thomas  Jefferson,  of  Virginia,  the  third  president,  both  died 
July  4,  1826.     Oliver  Ellsworth,  of  Connecticut,  the  second  chief 
justice  of  the  United  States,  died  in  1807;  and  George  Clinton,  of 
New  York,  vice  president  of  the  United  States,  after  Adams,  Jefferson, 
and  Burr,  died  in  1812.     John  Marshall,  of  Virginia,  the  historian,- 
and  third  chief  justice  of  the  United  States,  died  in  1836. 

Of  statesmen  of  the  Revolution  who  were  also  distinguished  in 
35 


274  BIOGRAPHY. 

arms,  GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  of  Virginia,  commander-in-chief  of  the 
Revolutionary  armies,  and  first  president  of  the  United  States,  was 
born  February  22,  1732  ;  and  died  December  14,  1799.  General 
Alexander  Hamilton,  of  New  York,  fell  in  a  duel,  in  1804;  and 
Colonel  Aaron  Burr,  his  antagonist,  died  in  1836.  General  William 
Moultrie,  of  South  Carolina,  also  an  historian,  died  in  1805.  Colonel 
Timothy  Pickering,  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1829 ;  and  Charles 
C.  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  in  1825.  Of  other  general  officers 
of  the  Revolution,  General  Joseph  Warren,  of  Massachusetts,  fell  at 
Bunker's  Hill,  in  1775  ;  and  General  Richard  Montgomery,  of  New 
York,  fell  at  Quebec,  in  the  same  year.  General  Hugh  Mercer,  of 
Pennsylvania,  fell  at  Princeton,  in  1777.  General  Israel  Putnam, 
of  Connecticut,  died  in  1790  ;  General  Nathaniel  Greene,  of  Rhode 
Island,  in  1786 ;  General  Benjamin  Lincoln,  of  Massachusetts,  in 
1810;  General  Henry  Knox,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1806;  General 
John  Stark,  of  New  Hampshire,  in  1822  ;  General  Ethan  Allen, 
of  Vermont,  in  1789  ;  General  Philip  Schuyler,  of  New  York,  in 
1804  ;  General  Horatio  Gates,  of  New  York,  in  1806 ;  General 
James  Clinton,  of  New  York,  in  1812  ;  General  Anthony  Wayne, 
of  Pennsylvania,  in  1796  ;  General  Otho  H.  Williams,  of  Maryland, 
in  1794  ;  General  Charles  Lee,  of  Virginia,  in  1782  ;  General  Daniel 
Morgan,  of  Virginia,  in  1799 ;  General  Francis  Marion,  of  South 
Carolina,  in  1795  ;  and  General  Thomas  Sumter,  of  South  Carolina, 
died  in  1832.  Of  foreign  officers  who  assisted  our  country,  besides 
La  Fayette,  Kosciusko  and  Pulaski,  already  mentioned,  Baron  De 
Kalb,  of  Germany,  was  slain  near  Camden,  in  1780 ;  and  Baron 
Steuben,  of  Prussia,  died  in  1794.  Capt.  Nicholas  Biddle,  of  the 
Continental  Navy,  fell  in  1778  ;  and  Capt.  John  Paul  Jones,  died 
in  1792. 

Of  officers  distinguished  in  the  war  of  1812,  we  would  first  name 
General  Zebulon  M.  Pike,  of  New  Jersey,  who  fell  at  York  in 
Canada,  in  1813.  General  Henry  Dearborn,  of  Massachusetts,  died 
in  1829;  General  Thomas  Pinckney,  of  South  Carolina,  in  1828; 
General  Jacob  Brown,  of  New  York,  in  1828;  General  James 
Wilkinson,  of  Maryland,  in  1825 ;  General  James  Winchester, 
of  Tennessee,  in  1826;  General  William  H.  Winder,  of  Maryland, 
in  1824 ;  General  John  Strieker,  of  Maryland,  in  1825  ;  General 
George  Izard,  of  South  Carolina,  in  1823  ;  General  Ehazer  W. 
Ripley,  of  New  Hampshire,  in  1839  ;  General  Wade  Hampton,  of 
South  Carolina,  in  1835  ;  and  General  Stephen  Van  Rensselaer,  died 
in  1839.  Generals  Jackson,  Porter,  Macomb,  Gaines,  and  Scott, 
are,  we  believe,  still  living.  Of  distinguished  naval  officers,  in  the 
war  of  1812,  Captain  James  Lawrence  was  slain  in  1813 ;  Captain 
William  Burrows,  and  Captain  William  H.  Mien,  fell  in  the  same 
year;  Commodore  William  Bainbridge,  died  in  1833  ;  Commodore 
Stephen  Decatur,  in  1820  ;  Commodore  Oliver  H.  Perry,  in  1820; 
Commodore  Thomas  McDonough,  in  1825  ;  Commodore  Joshua 
Barney,  in  1818;  and  Commodore  John  Rogers  died  in  1838.  The 
names  of  Barron,  Stewart,  Hull,  Chauncey,  Jones,  Morris,  and  War- 
rington,  now  stand  at  the  head  of  the  list  of  the  United  States  navy. 

Of  statesmen  since  the  times  of  the  Revolution,  James  Madison, 


AMERICAN.  275 

of  Virginia,  the  fourth  president  of  the  United  States,  died  in  1836; 
and  Elbridge  Gerry,  his  associate,  as  vice  president,  died  in  1814. 
James  Monroe,  of  Virginia,  the  fifth  president,  died  in  1831  ;  and 
Daniel  D.  Tompkins,  of  New  York,  his  associate,  as  vice  president, 
died  in  1825.  General  William  Henry  Harrison,  distinguished  in 
the  war  of  1812,  died  in  1841  ;  one  month  after  his  inauguration,  as 
the  ninth  president  of  the  United  States.  De  Witt  Clinton,  of  New 
York,  died  in  1828;  William  H.  Crawford,  of  Georgia,  in  1834; 
and  Robert  Y.  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina,  in  1839.  James  A. 
Bayard,  of  Delaware,  died  in  1815;  Gouverneur  Morris,  of  New 
York,  in  1816;  Caleb  Strong,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1820;  George 
Cabot,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1823;  and  Brockholst  Livingston,  of 
New  York,  in  the  same  year. 

Of  United  States  lawyers,  not  yet  mentioned,  George  Wythe,  of 
Virginia,  died  in  1806;  John  Rutledge,  of  South  Carolina,  in  1800; 
Bashrod  Washington,  of  Virginia,  in  1829  ;  William  Gushing,  of 
Massachusetts,  in  1810;  Alexander  J.  Dallas,  of  Pennsylvania,  in 
1817;  Nathan  Dane,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1835;  Thomas  Addis 
Emmett,  of  New  York,  in  1827 ;  Alexander  C.  Hanson,  of  Mary- 
laud,  in  1806;  Francis  Hopkinson,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1791  ;  Levi 
Lincoln,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1820;  William  Paca,  of  Maryland, 
in  1799  ;  Tapping  Reeve,  of  Connecticut,  in  1823  :  James  Wilson, 
of  Pennsylvania,  in  1798 ;  and  William  Wirt,  of  Pennsylvania, 
died  in  1834. 

Of  United  States  divines,  Rev.  John  Harvard,  of  Massachusetts, 
died  in  1638;  "Rev.  John  Elliot,  missionary  to  the  Indians,  died 
in  1690;  Rev.  Cotton  Mather,  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1728; 
and  Rev.  David  Brainerd,  missionary  to  the  Indians,  died  in  1747. 
Rev.  President  Jonathan  Edwards,  the  elder,  of  Princeton  College, 
died  in  1758;  Rev.  President  Samuel  Johnson,  of  King's,  now 
Columbia  College,  died  in  1772  ;  Rev.  Charles  Chauncy,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, died  in  1787  ;  Rev.  Jeremy  Belknap,  historian,  of  New 
Hampshire,  died  in  1798 ;  Rev.  Presfdent  Jonathan  Edwards,  the 
younger,  of  Union  College,  died  in  1801  ;  Rev.  Samuel  Hopkins, 
of  Connecticut,  founder  of  a  religious  sect,  died  in  1803  ;  and  Rev. 
President  Timothy  Dwight,  of  Yale  College,  died  in  1817.  Rev. 
President  Eleazer  Wheelock,  of  Dartmouth  College,  died  in  1799 ; 
Rev.  Joseph  Bellamy,  of  Connecticut,  died  in  1790  ;  and  Rev.  John 
Blair  Linn,  also  a  poet,  died  in  1804.  Rev.  Jedediah  Morse,  of 
Connecticut,  the  geographer,  died  in  1827.  Bishop  Samuel  Sea- 
bury,  of  Connecticut,  died  in  1796;  Bishop  Benjamin  Moo  re,  of 
New  York,  in  1816;  Bishop  Jo hn  H.  Hobart,  of  New  York,  in 
1830;  and  Rt.  Rev.  William  Wliite,  senior  bishop  of  the  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  Church,  died  in  Philadelphia  in  1836. 

Of  United  States  travellers,  besides  Captain  Smith,  General 
Pike,  and  President  Dwight,  already  mentioned,  John  Ledyard, 
of  Connecticut,  died  in  1789 ;  Jonathan  Carver,  of  Connecticut, 
died  in  1780;  Meriwether  Lewis,  of  Louisiana,  died  in  1809; 
and  William  Clark,  of  Louisiana,  died  in  1838.  Of  United 
States  historians,  not  yet  named,  William  Smith,  of  New  York, 
flourished  in  1757  ;  Samuel  Smith,  of  New  Jersey,  died  in  1776 ; 


276  BIOGRAPHY. 

George  R.  Minot,  of  Massachusetts,  in  1802  ;  William  Gordon,  of 
Massachusetts,  in  1807  ;  Dr.  David  Ramsay,  of  South  Carolina,  in 
1815;  and  Samuel  Williams,  of  Vermont,  died  in  1817.  Rev. 
Mid  Holmes,  of  Massachusetts,  the  annalist,  died  in  1837.  Of 
United  States  poets,  Joel  Barlow,  of  Connecticut,  died  in  1812  ; 
Colonel  David  Humphreys,  of  Connecticut,  in  1818;  and  John 
Trumbull,  of  Connecticut,  died  at  Detroit,  in  1831.  Robert  Treat 
Paine,  of  Massachusetts,  the  second  of  that  name,  died  in  1811. 
Charles  Brockden  Brown,  of  Pennsylvania,  the  novelist,  died  in 
1809.  Many  of  our  distinguished  poets  and  novelists  are  still  living  ; 
some  of  whom  will  be  referred  to  in  our  next  department. 

Among  the  scientific  men  whom  our  country  has  produced,  besides 
the  immortal  Franklin,  Professor  John  Winthrop,  of  Massachusetts, 
the  astronomer,  died  in  1779  ;  David  Rillenhouse,  of  Pennsylvania, 
died  in  1796 ;  Rev.  President  John  Ewing,  of  Pennsylvania,  died 
in  1802 ;  Rev.  President  Samuel  Webber,  of  Massachusetts,  died  in 
1810;  Professor  Alexander  M.  Fisher,  of  Yale  College,  was  lost 
at  sea  in  1822  ;  and  Dr.  Nathaniel  Bowditch,  of  Massachusetts,  died 
in  1838.  Of  American  naturalists,  John  Bartram,  of  Pennsylvania, 
died  in  1777;  Alexander  Wilson,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1813;  Dr. 
Benjamin  S.  Barton,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1815  ;  William  Bar  tram, 
of  Pennsylvania,  died  in  1823  ;  Dr.  John  Godman,  of  Pennsylvania, 
died  in  1830 ;  and  Dr.  Samuel  L.  Mitchell,  of  New  York,  died  in 
1831.  Of  other  distinguished  physicians  of  the  United  States,  Dr. 
Zabdiel  Boylston,  of  Massachusetts,  died  in  1766 ;  Dr.  John  Mor- 
gan, of  Pennsylvania,  in  1789  ;  Dr.  William  Bull,  of  South  Caro- 
lina, in  1791 ;  Dr.  John  Redman  and  Dr.  William  Shippen,  of 
Pennsylvania,  in  1808;  Dr.  Benjamin  Rush,  of  Pennsylvania,  in 
1813;  Dr.  Caspar  Wistar,  of  Pennsylvania,  in  1818;  Dr.  Samuel 
Bard,  of  New  York,  in  1821  ;  Dr.  David  Hosack,  of  New  York,  in 
1835  ;  and  Dr.  Philip  Sing  Physick,  of  Pennsylvania,  died  in  1837. 

In  the  useful,  as  well  as  the  fine  arts,  our  country  has  contributed 
its  share  of  distinguished  names.  Thomas  Godfrey,  of  Pennsylva- 
nia, inventor  of  the  quadrant,  died  in  1746.  Robert  Fulton,  of  New 
York,  the  first  successful  inventor  of  the  steamboat,  died  in  1815; 
and  Oliver  Evans,  of  Pennsylvania,  the  pioneer  in  this  invention, 
died  in  1819.  Eli  Whitney,  of  Massachusetts,  inventor  of  the  cotton 
gin,  died  in  1825.  Of  distinguished  painters,  Edward  G.  Malbone, 
of  Rhode  Island,  died  in  1807 ;  John  Singleton  Copley,  of  Massa- 
chusetts, died  in  1815;  Benjamin  West,  of  Pennsylvania,  after- 
wards president  of  the  English  Royal  Academy,  died  in  1820; 
Charles  Wilson  Peale,  of  Pennsylvania,  also  a  naturalist,  and 
founder  of  the  first  American  Museum,  died  in  1827 ;  and  Gilbert 
Stuart,  of  Rhode  Island,  died  in  1828.  The  numerous  distinguished 
names  of  men  who  still  adorn  our  country,  in  literature,  science,  and 
the  arts,  we  here  forbear  to  repeat. 

§  2.  Our  sketch  of  the  Biography  of  Spanish  and  Portuguese 
America,  will  necessarily  be  very  brief  and  imperfect.  Fernando 
Cortez,  the  conqueror  of  Mexico,  died  neglected,  in  Spain,  in  1554. 
hurrigaray,  and  after  him  Venegas,  were  the  last  Spanish  viceroys, 
before  Mexico  became  independent.  The  priest  Hidalgo,  who 


AMERICAN.  277 

favored  the  revolution,  was  put  to  death  in  1811  ;  and  his  coadjutor, 
Morelos,  was  shot  in  1815.  General  Xavier  Mina,  another  patriot, 
was  shot  in  1817.  Jlugustin  Iturbide,  sometime  emperor  of  Mexi- 
co, was  shot  in  1824.  The  successive  presidents  of  Mexico,  have 
been,  Fernandez  Guadaloupe  Victoria,  (or  Vittoria),  in  1825 ;  Vin- 
cente  Guerrero,  in  1829 ;  Antonio  Lopez  de  Santa  Anna,  in  1833 ; 
and  Anastasio  Bustamente,  in  1837.  Among  other  political  charac- 
ters in  Mexico,  we  would  simply  name  Nicholas  Bravo,  the  first 
vice  president,  and  Negrete,  and  Pedrazas.  In  Central  America,  the 
succession  of  presidents,  has  been,  Manuel  Jose  Arce,  in  1825  ;  and 
Francisco  Morazan,  in  1830;  who  has  since  been  re-elected.  Among 
other  statesmen  of  Central  America,  are,  Beltranena,  Barrundia, 
Prado,  Salazar,  and  Virgil,  all  of  whom  have  held  the  office  of  vice 
president,  in  the  succession  above  named,  (p.  238.)  Inez  de  la 
Cruz,  was  a  Mexican  nun,  and  poet  of  the  18th  century. 

The  monarchs  of  Brazil,  since  it  became  a  distinct  kingdom,  are, 
John  VI.  of  Portugal,  in  1815  ;  Don  Pedro  I.,  the  first  independent 
emperor,  in  1822;  and  Pedro  II.,  in  1831.  Among  the  statesmen 
of  Brazil,  are  the  brothers  Andrade  ;  also  Bonifacio,  Ribeiro,  Cam- 
pos, Da  Gama,  Mello,  and  others.  Among  the  Brazilian  commanders, 
were  admiral  Lord  Cochrane,  now  the  Scotch  earl  of  Dundonald ; 
and  generals  Lima,  and  Brandt.  The  minister,  Conde  da  Barca,  is 
named  as  a  patron  of  science.  Manoel  Ayres  de  Cazal,  is  a  Bra- 
zilian historian ;  and  we  may  mention  as  Brazilian  poets,  Claude 
Manoel  da  Costa,  (or  Corta)  ;  Andre  Nunes  de  Silva  ;  and  Antonio 
Diniz  da  Cruz  e  Silva,  who  flourished  in  1807. 

Ojeda  and  Nicuessa,  to  whom  New  Grenada  was  first  granted, 
flourished  in  1508.  Pedro  Arias  de  Avila,  and  Quesada  and  Benal- 
cazar  were  their  successors  in  the  conquest  of  this  region.  General 
Francisco  Miranda,  of  Caraccas,  who  first  attempted  to  liberate  his 
country  from  the  Spanish  dominion,  died  in  prison,  in  1814,  at  Ca- 
diz, in  Spain.  General  Simon  Bolivar,  the  first  president  of  the 
temporary  republic  of  Colombia,  died  in  1830.  General  Francisco 
de  Paula  Santander,  its  first  vice  president,  was  elected,  in  1832, 
president  of  New  Grenada,  but  died  in  1840;  and  Joachim  Mos- 
quera,  elected  president  of  Colombia  in  1830,  has  since  been  vice 
president  of  New  Grenada ;  of  which  latter  republic  Jose  Ignacio 
de  Marquez  became  president  in  1836.  Among  other  patriots  of 
New  Grenada,  we  would  name  Urdanata,  General  Caicedo,  and 
General  Sucre,  the  victor  at  Pichincha,  and  Ayachuco,  who  was 
assassinated  in  1830.  General  Jose  Antonio  Paez  was  elected  pre- 
sident of  Venezuela,  in  1831;  Dr.  Vargas,  in  1835;  and  General 
Paez  was  re-elected  in  1839.  Navarreto  was  its  first  president. 
Vincente  Rocafuerte  succeeded  General  Flores,  we  believe  in  1838, 
as  president  of  Equador,  or  Equator. 

Of  Peruvian  Biography,  Francisco  Pizarro,  the  conqueror  of 
Peru,  was  assassinated  at  Lima,  in  1541  ;  Diego  Almagro,  his  asso- 
ciate, having  been  put  to  death  in  1537,  by  Ferdinand  Pizarro,  bro- 
ther of  Francisco.  General  Jose  de  San  Martin,  the  liberator  of 
Peru,  was  declared  its  first  president,  or  protector,,  in  1821  ;  and 
General  Jose  La  Mar,  elected  president  in  1822,  was  superseded  by 
57  2  A 


278  BIOGRAPHY. 

Bolivar;  but  re-elected  in  1827.  He  was  deposed  by  La  Fuente ;  and 
General  Gamarra  succeeded  as  president  in  1829;  but  he  was  suc- 
ceeded by  Obregoso,  in  1833.  General  Sucre,  of  Venezuela,  was 
elected  president  of  Bolivia,  or  upper  Peru,  in  1826:  General  Ve- 
lasco  succeeded  him,  in  1828;  General  Blanco,  elected  soon  after, 
was  assassinated  in  1829  ;  and  General  Santa  Cruz  was  elected 
president  in  1829;  as  we  have  already  mentioned  in  the  preceding 
department,  (p.  240).  Among  the  royalist  generals,  opposed  to  the 
revolution  in  Peru,  were  La  Serna,  Valdez,  Canterac,  Rodil,  and 
Olaneta.  Torretagle  first  joined  the  republicans,  but  afterwards 
united  with  the  Spanish  forces. 

Of  Chili,  Pedro  de  Valdivia,  the  first  conqueror,  was  defeated  by 
the  Araucanians,  in  1553  ;  Joseph  Manto  was  the  governor  in  1742  ; 
and  Jlntonio  Gonzago,  in  1770.  Rodriguez  and  the  three  Carreras, 
were  murdered,  at  the  instigation  of  San  Martin,  in  or  about  1817. 
Bernardo  O1  Hi  g  gins  became  the  first  supreme  director,  in  1817  : 
General  Ramon  Freire  succeeded  him  in  1823  ;  and  Admiral  Manuel 
Blanco,  in  1 826.  Don  Jose  Maria  Benevente  was  elected  president 
in  1827;  and  General  Joaquin  Prieto,  in  1831.  The  successive 
vice  presidents  have  been  Pinto,  in  1827;  Vicuna,  in  1829;  and 
Portales,  in  1831,  who  was  assassinated  in  1838. 

Of  La  Plata,  or  Buenos  Ayres,  Pedro  de  Mendoza,  the  first  co- 
lonizer, flourished  in  1553.  Since  the  revolution  in  La  Plata,  the 
successive  heads  of  the  government  have  been,  Liniers,  the  French- 
man, in  1810;  Cisneros,  in  1811,  superseded  the  same  year  by  a 
triumvirate;  Pozadas,  in  1814,  as  supreme  director;  Pueyrredon, 
in  1816;  Rondeau,  in  1819;  Rivadavia,  in  1826;  Dorrego,  in 
Buenos  Ayres,  in  1827,  who  was  shot,  and  superseded  by  General 
Lavalle,  head  of  the  federalists  or  Unitarios,  in  1828  ;  General  Juan 
Jose  Viamont,  in  1829 ;  General  Juan  Manuel  de  Rosas,  in  the  same 
year;  General  Quiroga,  in  1830;  General  Ramon  de  Balcarce,  in 
1833;  General  Viamont,  again  in  1834;  and  General  Rosas,  again 
in  1835.  General  Fructuoso  Ribeira,  (or  Rivera),  was  elected  pre- 
sident of  Uruguay,  in  1833  ;  General  Oribe,  in  1835;  and  the  former 
was  re-elected  in  1836. 


VIII.  DEPARTMENT: 

CALLOGRAPHY. 


IN  the  department  of  Callography,  we  comprehend  a  wide  range 
of  entertaining  and  miscellaneous  literature ;  particularly  Poetry  and 
the  Drama ;  Romances,  Novels,  Tales  and  Fables ;  Essays  and  Let- 
ters ;  and  Orations,  Addresses,  and  Speeches,  not  strictly  belonging  to 
the  other  departments.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  xaA.o$, 
beautiful,  or  xaM-oj,  beauty ;  and  ypa<j>w,  I  write,  or  ypa^,  a  descrip- 
tion. It  corresponds  nearly  to  the  term  Polite  Letters  ;  which  is 
nearly  synonymous  with  the  French  term  Belles  Lettres :  but  both 
of  these  terms  are  generally  used  in  a  more  extensive,  though  rather 
vague  signification.  The  French  have  several  works  giving  general 
views  of  this  department;  among  which  we  may  mention  those  of 
Le  Batteaux,  La  Harpe,  and  the  Countess  D'Hautpoul,  under  the 
title  of  Cours  de  Litterature,  or  Course  of  Literature.  All  that  we 
can  here  attempt,  in  this  department,  will  be  a  brief  allusion  to  some 
of  the  best  works,  as  far  as  we  are  able  to  discriminate.  Works  of 
this  class  are  prominent  subjects  of  criticism  ;  though  the  latter  term, 
as  already  explained,  is  correlative  with  the  whole  extent  of  human 
knowledge,  (p.  37). 

The  study  of  Callography,  unfolds,  to  some  extent,  what  has  been 
termed  a  knowledge  of  the  world,  that  is  of  mankind,  their  characters, 
passions,  and  principles  of  action.  At  the  same  time,  it  requires  a 
considerable  portion  of  such  knowledge,  in  order  to  be  understood 
and  appreciated.  It  may  also  aid  in  storing  the  mind  with  grand  and 
beautiful  ideas  ;  in  warming  the  heart  with  noble  sentiments  ;  and  in 
giving  vivid  impressions  of  scenes  and  events,  which  embody,  as  it 
were,  the  spirit  of  distant  nations  and  past  ages.  While  such  results 
may  be  derived  from  the  best  Callographic  Writings,  it  must  be 
confessed  that  other  works  of  this  class  abound  in  feeble,  false,  or 
unworthy  sentiments  and  ideas ;  such  as  tend  to  enervate  both  the 
memory  and  the  reasoning  powers,  and  to  unfit  the  mind  for  the 
active  duties  of  life.  Some  of  them  are  purposely  designed  to  corrupt 
the  heart,  and  poison  the  fountains  of  all  virtue ;  either  openly,  or 
by  the  most  artful  and  alluring  disguise  ;  and  such  works  have  been 
ruinous  to  many  victims,  by  stimulating  their  passions,  or  sanctioning 
their  crimes.  Even  the  best  works  of  imagination,  we  think,  should 
be  regarded  as  a  luxury,  and  read  only  in  leisure  hours,  for  relaxation 
and  amusement :  but  the  indiscriminate  and  unrestrained  perusal  of 
inferior  works  of  this  class,  is  fatal  to  intellectual  vigor,  and  to  the 
pursuit  of  exact  and  useful  knowledge. 

The  progress  of  Callography,  has  generally  been  concurrent  with 
that  of  the  other  branches  of  literature ;  though  in  early  times  the 

279 


280  CALLOGRAPHY. 

poetic  age  appears  to  have  preceded  the  scientific.  The  world  has 
witnessed  four  remarkable  periods  when  Literature  especially  flou- 
rished, anterior  to  our  own  times.  They  are,  1.  The  Grecian  age, 
from  the  times  of  Pericles  to  those  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  2.  The 
Roman  age,  in  the  days  of  Julius  and  Augustus  Caesar;  3.  The 
Romantic  age,  or  times  of  Leo  X.  in  Italy,  Francis  I.  in  France, 
and  Elizabeth  in  England,  sometimes  called  the  Italian  or  Elizabethan 
age ;  and  4.  The  Gallant  age,  or  times  of  Louis  XIV.  and  Queen 
Anne,  in  which  German  Literature  first  began  to  excite  general  atten- 
tion. Chateaubriand  remarks  that  Homer,  Dante,  Rabelais,  and 
Shakspeare,  are  the  four  great  fountains,  from  which  all  other  writers 
have  more  or  less  derived  their  subjects,  and  imbibed  their  ideas  ;  a 
remark  which,  though  quite  ingenious,  is  true  only  to  a  very  limited 
extent. 

Poetry,  so  named  from  the  Greek  rtot^stj,  is  the  language  of  feeling 
and  imagination :  and  its  proper  subjects  are  the  sublime  and  the 
beautiful,  in  nature  and  morals ; — including  the  human  affections  in 
general,  but  especially  those  which  most  attach  us  to  our  Creator  and 
our  fellow  men ; — religion,  patriotism,  friendship,  and  love.  In  a 
technical  sense,  Poetry  is  understood  to  be  any  composition  formed 
in  regular  verses  or  stanzas  ;  although  many  highly  poetical  compo- 
sitions are  in  the  form  of  prose.  A  verse,  is  a  single  line  of  poetry, 
of  determinate  length  ;  so  called  from  the  Latin  verto,  I  turn,  because 
we  turn  back  from  it  to  the  next  line.  A  stanza,  signifies  several 
lines,  completing  the  poetic  measure,  and  ending  in  a  pause.  The 
word  is  Italian,  but  derived  from  the  Latin  stans,  standing  or  stopping. 
The  distinction  between  rhyme  and  blank  verse,  with  the  common 
poetic  feet,  has  been  already  explained,  in  the  branch  of  General 
Grammar,  (p.  48). 

Epic  or  heroic  poetry,  has  for  its  subject  the  exploits  of  some  hero, 
or  heroes,  of  national  celebrity.  The  plot,  action,  or  fable  of  an  epic 
poem,  is  sometimes  called  an  epopeia;  and  should  possess  the  requi- 
site unity  and  interest :  this  being  regarded  as  the  highest  kind  of 
poetry.  Lyric  poetry,  is  that  kind  which  is  designed  to  be  set  to 
music ;  as  psalms,  hymns,  odes,  and  songs :  and  it  was  originally 
accompanied,  when  sung,  with  the  lyre  or  harp ;  whence  it  derives 
its  name.  Odes,  have  been  classed  as  sacred,  heroic,  moral  or  philo- 
sophical, and  festive,  or  amorous.  Elegiac  poetry,  is  that  employed 
for  solemn  purposes,  or  on  mournful  occasions  ;  as  in  elegies  on 
deceased  friends.  Epitaphs,  or  inscriptions  on  tombstones,  are 
often  elegiac  in  their  character.  Pastoral  poetry,  is  such  as  would 
be  appropriate  to  shepherds,  treating  of  rural  affairs  and  the  social 
affections.  An  idyl  is  a  short  pastoral  poem,  so  named  from  a  Greek 
word  signifying  a  little  image  or  picture:  and  an  eclogue,  is  a  pastoral 
poem,  in  which  shepherds  are  introduced  as  conversing  together. 
Didactic  poetry,  has  for  its  chief  object  to  convey  instruction ;  and 
it  is  almost  exclusively  written  in  verse.  Satiric  poetry,  is  designed 
to  reprove  the  vices,  errors,  and  follies  of  mankind,  by  holding  them 
up  to  censure  or  ridicule.  Descriptive  poetry,  is  that  which  simply 
describes  interesting  objects,  either  mental  or  material.  Romantic 
poetry  is  usually  descriptive  ;  but  its  subjects  are  tales  and  remarkable 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  281 

adventures,  like  those  of  romances,  and  novels  ;  sometimes  probable, 
sometimes  supernatural. 

Dramatic  poetry,  in  prose  or  verse,  is  that  kind  in  which 
various  persons  are  introduced  as  speakers  and  actors :  it  being 
designed  for  rehearsal  on  the  stage  ;  and  its  name  being  derived  from 
a  Greek  word  signifying  action.  A  Tragedy,  is  a  dramatic  poem  or 
play,  of  a  grave  character,  and  usually  having  a  fatal  termination  : 
but  a  Comedy,  is  a  more  sportive  play,  designed  for  amusement  or 
satire.  A  Melodrama,  is  a  dramatic  performance  in  which  songs  are 
introduced ;  and  a  farce,  is  a  minor  play,  usually  performed  after 
one  of  a  graver  cast,  for  the  sake  of  diversion  and  variety.  The 
prologue  is  the  introduction  to  a  play;  and  the  epilogue,  is  the 
concluding  address.  An  Opera,  is  a  drama  set  to  music :  and  a 
Comic  opera,  or  opera  buffa,  is  one  of  a  sportive  kind,  in  contra- 
distinction from  the  opera  seria.  A  pantomime,  is  a  theatrical 
performance  consisting  merely  of  action,  without  words.*  A  cantata, 
is  a  diversified  poem,  intended  to  be  sung.  A  sonnet,  is  a  poem  of 
fourteen  lines  ;  usually  the  amplification  of  some  striking  thought. 
The  first  sonnets  were  those  of  Petrarch.  A  madrigal,  is  a  short 
poem,  of  variable  length  and  construction,  usually  on  some  tender, 
delicate,  or  simple  subject.  An  epigram,  is  a  brief  expression  of 
some  witty  thought,  often,  though  not  always  satirical.  An  acrostic 
is  a  short  poem,  in  which  the  first  letters,  syllables,  or  words,  of  the  suc- 
cessive lines,  taken  together,  form  a  word  or  sentence  by  themselves. 

The  name  Romance,  is  applied  sometimes  to  works  of  fiction 
in  general,  sometimes  to  individual  works  of  this  class  ;  and  some- 
times it  is  used  to  express  the  spirit,  taste,  or  style  in  which 
such  works  are  composed.  It  comes  from  the  mixed  Latin,  or 
Romance  language,  used  by  the  troubadours,  or  minstrels,  of  Pro- 
vence, in  France  ;  whose  compositions  first  received  this  appella- 
tion. The  word  Novel,  from  the  Italian  novella,  a  tale  or  story,  has 
been  more  recently  introduced  in  our  language,  as  applied  to  works 
of  fiction.  A  romance,  is  properly  one  of  the  older  or  more  extra- 
vagant compositions  ;  and  a  novel  is  one  of  the  more  recent  and 
natural,  relating  usually  to  historical  facts,  or  social  life.  The  earliest 
romances,  narrating  the  exploits  of  Arthur  and  his  knights,  or  of 
Charlemagne  and  his  peers,  are  full  of  supernatural  agents  and 
events :  those  of  intermediate  date  also  deal  largely  in  mystery  and 
extravagance ;  but  the  better  class  of  modern  novels,  a  limited  few, 
are  valuable,  as  giving  the  ideas  of  well  informed  writers  concerning 
men  and  manners,  character  and  conduct,  in  the  various  phases  and 
emergencies  of  life.  Some  of  these  works  are  auxiliary  to  geogra- 
phy and  history  ;  presenting  new  views,  or  details,  which  more 
systematic  writers  have  omitted :  but  their  statements  are  always  to 
be  received  with  caution  ;  as  they  often  take  great  liberties  with  the 
facts  of  the  case.  The  name  of  Tales,  is  now  mostly  applied  to 
brief  novels  or  stories,  such  as  those  for  children,  and  those  which 

*  Although,  in  the  following  pages,  mention  is  made  of  the  most  prominent  drama- 
tic compositions ;  it  is  with  the  conviction  that  the  theatre,  as  at  present  conducted, 
is  far  more  injurious  than  beneficial  to  the  best  interests  of  society,  or  of  those  who 
allow  themselves  to  become  its  votaries. 

2  A3 


282  CALLOGRAPHY. 

abound  in  our  lighter  periodicals.  Fables,  or  apologues,  are  also 
fictitious  compositions,  usually  very  short,  but  illustrating  some  im- 
portant truth. 

An  Essay,  is  a  literary  composition,  usually  oflimited  extent,  and 
confined  to  some  particular  topic  ;  though  less  restricted  than  an  ora- 
tion, in  its  construction  and  unity.  A  Disquisition,  is  similar  to  an 
essay,  but  more  formal,  and  supposed  to  be  more  thorough,  in  its 
examination  of  the  subject.  A  Letter,  or  Epistle,  is  the  least 
systematic  kind  of  composition;  being  usually  addressed  by  the 
writer  to  some  friend,  or  friends;  and  written  in  an  easy,  familiar 
style,  on  topics  often  miscellaneous,  or  of  a  personal  character.  Some 
few  systematic  works  are  written  in  the  form  of  letters  ;  but  these 
may  be  more  properly  arranged  under  the  branches  or  subjects  of 
which  they  treat.  Discourses,  are  properly  analyses  or  examina- 
tions of  particular  subjects  ;  their  name  being  derived  from  the  Latin 
discurro,  I  run  through  or  over.  An  Oration,  is  a  methodical  dis- 
course, designed  to  be  spoken  before  a  public  assembly.  Funeral 
orations  are  often  styled  eulogies  ;  (p.  243)  ;  and  political  or  miscel- 
laneous discourses  often  take  the  name  of  speeches.  An  Address, 
is  an  oration  of  less  pretending  character ;  as  the  term  was  originally 
applied  to  a  communication  made  to  a  sovereign  or  other  superior 
party.  Legal  and  Religious  discourses,  or  pleas  and  sermons,  belong, 
we  think,  more  properly  to  the  departments  of  Nomology  and  The- 
ology. Of  the  principles  which  should  govern  such  compositions, 
we  have  already  spoken,  under  the  branch  of  Rhetoric,  (p.  74). 

Of  minor  kinds  of  composition,  besides  those  mentioned  under 
Poetry,  an  Enigma,  popularly  called  a  Riddle,  is  a  description,  or  a 
question,  purposely  obscured  or  concealed,  to  make  the  answer  more 
difficult  of  discovery.  A  Rebus^  is  an  enigmatical  representation  of 
some  name  or  object,  by  means  of  pictures  or  emblems,  instead  of 
words.  A  Charade,  is  a  designation  of  some  particular  word,  by 
means  of  other  words,  which  together  will  compose  it ;  and  which 
latter  are  enigmatically  described,  but  not  expressly  mentioned.  An 
Anagram,  is  a  transposition  of  the  letters  in  a  word  or  phrase,  so  as 
to  form  some  other  word  or  phrase  with  the  same  letters.  A  Pun, 
is  an  expression  containing  some  word  which  has  two  different  signi- 
fications ;  the  contrast  of  which  presents  a  witty  or  ludicrous  idea : 
a  Conundrum,  is  a  question  involving  a  comparison,  the  answer 
to  which  is  a  pun.  A  Proverb,  or  aphorism,  is  a  brief  expression 
of  some  important  truth ;  and  an  Apothem,  (Apophthegm),  is  a 
brief  precept,  or  instructive  remark.  The  termination  ana,  is  applied 
to  the  names  of  distinguished  persons,  as  a  title  to  collections  of  their 
remarkable  sayings ;  as  Johnsoniana  signifies  the  aphorisms  and 
apothems  of  Dr.  Johnson.  A  Dialogue,  or  Colloquy,  is  a  com- 
position in  which  several  persons  are  introduced  as  the  immediate 
speakers;  the  former  term  being  more  appropriate  where  there  are 
several,  and  the  latter  where  there  are  only  two.  In  such  composi- 
tions, a  Soliloquy  denotes  a  part  spoken  by  one  of  the  persons,  sup- 
posed to  be  alone. 

In  the  further  examination  of  Callography,  we  shall  pursue  the 
ethnographical  order,  adopted  in  the  three  preceding  departments ; 


EUCLASSIC.  283 

regarding  the  poetry  and  the  prose  works  of  the  same  nation,  as 
having  a  closer  connection  than  the  poetry  of  one  nation  has  with 
that  of  another.  In  the  minor  subdivisions  of  this  subject,  we  shall 
group  together  works  of  a  similar  character,  though  written  by  differ- 
ent authors  ;  since  the  names  of  the  latter  have  already  been  given  in 
chronological  order,  in  the  department  of  Biography  :  and  their  pro- 
ductions will  be  mentioned  collectively  in  the  Bibliographical  appendix 
to  this  work. 

We  proceed  to  offer  an  outline  of  Callography,  under  the  four 
branches  of  Euclassic,  Oriental,  European,  and  American. 


CHAPTER  I. 

EUCLASSIC    CALLOGRAPHY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Euclassic  Callography,  we  include  the  study  of 
all  the  poetical  and  lighter  prose  works  of  the  ancient  Greeks  and 
Romans  ;  with  all  similar  works,  written  prior  to  modern  times,  in 
the  Greek  and  Latin  languages.  The  poetical  books  of  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures,  and  perhaps  some  fragments  of  other  oriental  poetry, 
are  more  ancient  than  that  included  in  the  present  branch  :  but  their 
connection  with  the  later  oriental  literature,  extending  down  to  the 
present  time,  induces  us  to  preserve  in  this  department  the  order 
adopted  in  the  preceding;  by  assigning  the  first  place  to  Euclassic, 
or  Grecian  and  Roman  literature.  It  should  here  be  remarked,  that 
as  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  Greece  and  Italy  were  in  a  savage  or 
barbarous  state,  the  first  dawn  of  polite  literature  as  well  as  of  science, 
came  to  them  from  the  east,  with  the  colonies  which  migrated  thither, 
especially  from  Phoenicia  and  Egypt.  Hence  the  influence  exerted 
by  the  eastern  mythology  on  that  of  Greece  and  Rome  ;  and  a  similar 
influence  might  doubtless  be  traced  through  all  the  arts,  had  their 
earlier  traditions  and  records  been  preserved. 

§  1.  Grecian  Callography,  consists  chiefly  of  Poetry  ;  with  some 
Fables  and  Tales,  and  Oratorical  and  miscellaneous  productions.  As 
the  great  fountain  of  European  callographics,  it  deserves  particular 
attention,  aside  from  its  intrinsic  merit;  and  it  may  safely  be  said 
that  in  original  and  fertile  genius,  in  beauty  and  sublimity,  the  Gre- 
cian writers  have  never  yet  been  surpassed. 

Among  the  Greeks,  Poetry  appeared  much  sooner  than  prose ; 
perhaps  because  it  was  more  easily  remembered,  in  an  age  when 
writing  was  difficult :  and  the  first  poets  were  also  musicians. 
Their  earliest  poetry  was  lyric  and  sacred,  and  appears  to  have 
originated  in  Thrace.  The  Greeks  regarded  Linus  as  the  inventor  of 
melody,  and  the  first  favorite  of  the  Muses.  Orpheus  and  Musoeus, 
it  is  said,  were  his  pupils ;  and  wrote  dithyrambs,  or  songs  in  honor 
of  Bacchus  ;  of  which  there  remain  only  some  fragments,  of  doubtful 
authenticity.  Paeans,  were  originally  hymns  to  Apollo,  but  after- 
wards addressed  to  other  gods.  The  oracles  of  the  ancient  Sibyls, 
or  prophetesses,  may  also  be  classed  among  the  early  sacred  poetry 


284  CALLOGRAPHY. 

of  the  Greeks.  To  the  sacred  poets,  succeeded  the  rhapsodists,  or 
minstrels ;  who  rehearsed  the  genealogy  of  the  gods,  the  origin  of 
the  world,  and  the  exploits  of  demigods  and  heroes  ;  but  their  rhap- 
sodies were  all  eventually  eclipsed  by  the  compositions  of  Hesiod 
and  Homer. 

The  principal  epic  poems  of  the  Greeks,  are  the  Iliad  and  the 
Odyssey,  both  attributed  to  Homer,  who  is  styled  the  father  of  epic 
poetry.  There  seems  but  little  doubt  that  these  works  were  essen- 
tially composed  by  him ;  though  many  scholars  suppose  that  they 
were  not  committed  to  writing  till  the  times  of  Solon,  or  later.  The 
subject  of  the  Iliad,  is  the  wrath  of  Achilles  against  Agamemnon ; 
the  misfortunes  of  the  Greeks,  on  the  withdrawal  of  the  former  ;  and 
their  success,  in  the  conquest  and  destruction  of  Troy,  on  his  return. 
The  Odyssey,  describes  the  wanderings  of  Ulysses,  after  the  fall  of 
Troy ;  with  his  dangers  and  sufferings,  till  his  safe  return  arid  ree's- 
tablishment  in  his  kingdom,  the  isle  of  Ithaca.  These  works  differ 
so  much  in  subject  and  style,  that  some  writers  have  attributed  them, 
piecemeal,  to  various  rhapsodists,  collectively  styled  the  Homeridx, 
of  whom  Homer  is  admitted  to  have  been  the  chief.  The  Batra- 
chomyomachy,  or  battle  of  the  frogs  and  mice,  a  mock  heroic  poem, 
attributed  to  Homer,  was,  doubtless,  the  work  of  a  later  age.  The 
Theogony  of  Hesiod  has  been  classed  as  an  epic  poem  ;  treating  of 
the  origin  and  acts  of  the  gods  of  Grecian  fable.  The  Jlrgonaulics, 
of  Apollonius  Rhodius,  relating  to  the  Argonautic  Expedition,  is  a 
work  of  some  merit.  The  Perseid,  Thebaid,  and  other  epic  poerns 
of  note,  are  lost :  but  the  Dionysiacs  of  Nonnus,  and  the  Paralipo- 
mena  of  Calaber,  written  in  a  later  age,  are  preserved ;  though  of 
minor  importance.  The  cyclic  poets,  were  imitators  of  Homer,  of 
inferior  note. 

Grecian  lyric  poetry,  was  written  in  a  great  variety  of  metres, 
many  of  which  were  named  from  their  inventors.  Of  the  odes  of 
Sappho,  two  only  have  been  preserved,  remarkable  for  their  warm 
and  tender  feeling;  one  of  them  being  a  hymn  to  Venus.  Many 
odes  of  Anacreon,  have  been  preserved,  most  of  them  in  praise  of 
love,  wine,  and  social  pleasures.  Pindar,  sang,  in  more  lofty  strains, 
the  praises  of  the  victors,  in  the  great  public  games  of  Greece ;  and 
many  of  his  odes  are  still  extant.  The  odes  of  Archilochus,  Alcman, 
Alcseus,  and  others,  have  almost  entirely  perished.  The  poems  called 
scolia,  were  songs  for  social  and  festive  occasions.  Callinus,  of 
Ephesus,  is  said  to  have  written  the  first  poem  in  elegiac  measure, 
which  was  properly  a  lyric ;  but  Mimnermus,  and  Simonides,  are 
regarded  as  the  first  elegiac  poets,  properly  so  called.  Of  Grecian 
pastoral  poetry,  the  invention  of  which  was  attributed  to  Daphnis, 

*  1  .  , .      T    /  .  .  /        ~  /*    *  I'M - *  A...  .  1  .     • 


Song 

Of  Grecian  didactic  poetry,  the  earliest  specimen  is  the  Works 
and  Days  of  Hesiod;  the  first  book  of  which  consists  principally  of 
moral  precepts,  and  the  second  of  rules  of  husbandry ;  concluding 
with  a  repetition  of  precepts  on  the  conduct  of  life.  The  term 
gnomic  poetry,  has  been  applied  to  collections  of  moral  precepts  or 


EUCLASSIC.  285 

aphorisms ;  such  as  those  of  Solon,  and  the  Golden  Verses,  so  called, 
attributed  to  Pythagoras,  but  of  doubtful  authenticity.  Dicrcarchus 
wrote  a  didactic  poem  on  Grecian  geography  ;  Archestratus  another 
on  Gastrology  ;  and  Nicanor  wrote  two  others  on  medical  subjects, 
the  T/ieriaca,  and  Mexipharmaca.  The  poem  of  Aratus  on  Astro- 
nomy, is  mentioned  as  a  superior  production.  Most  of  the  Grecian 
satires,  are  in  the  dramatic  form ;  but  we  may  here  mention  the 
Silloi,  (StMoi),  or  didactic  satires,  of  Timon  of  Philius,  and  others. 
Of  descriptive  poetry,  we  may  instance  Hesiod's  Catalogue  of 
Women,  and  his  Shield  of  Hercules ;  both  of  which  are  supposed 
by  some  writers  to  have  been  parts  of  a  larger  poem,  now  lost. 
The  only  romantic  poems  in  Greek,  which  have  been  preserved, 
belong  to  the  Byzantine  age,  and  are  of  little  merit. 

Dramatic  poetry,  in  Greece,  took  its  rise  from  the  religious  cere- 
monies, in  which  representations  were  introduced  of  some  scene,  or 
action,  relating  to  the  god  in  honor  of  whom  they  were  instituted. 
Thespis  of  Icarus,  in  the  time  of  Solon,  is  said  to  have  invented  tra- 
gedy, and  to  have  introduced  greater  refinement  in  theatrical  amuse- 
ments. He  first  assigned  a  part  of  the  rehearsal  to  an  actor,  in  order 
to  relieve  the  chorus ;  Eschylus  added  a  second  actor,  to  admit  of 
dialogue ;  and  Sophocles  added  a  third,  or  even  a  fourth  speaker,  to 
increase  the  interest  of  the  fable  or  plot.  The  three  great  tragic 
poets  of  Greece,  are  ^Eschylus,  Sophocles,  and  Euripides.  The 
Prometheus  bound,  of  Eschylus  ;  the  CEdipus  Tyrannus,  of  Sopho- 
cles ;  and  the  Medea,  of  Euripides ;  are  regarded  as  their  best  pro- 
ductions. Grecian  comedy,  is  said  to  have  sprung  from  the  choral 
songs  of  villagers  ;  and  Epicharmus  of  Cos,  is  mentioned  as  the 
first  writer  of  comedy,  about  470  B.  C.  Living  persons,  and  public 
characters  were  represented  and  satirized  in  comedy,  until  the  abuse 
of  this  practice  led  to  its  suppression.  Aristophanes  is  the  only  comic 
poet,  of  whose  plays  any  are  still  preserved  complete.  In  his  come- 
dy entitled  the  Clouds,  he  ridiculed  Socrates ;  and  he  attacked  Euri- 
pides, in  another,  entitled  the  rfcharnians.  Of  the  later  comedies 
of  Menander,  only  some  slight  fragments  remain.  The  satirical 
dramas,  of  the  Greeks,  were  a  peculiar  kind,  intermediate  between 
tragedy  and  comedy,  not  generally  satirical  in  the  modern  sense ; 
but  so  named  from  the  chorus  of  satyrs,  introduced  to  enliven  the  per- 
formance. The  Cyclops,  of  Euripides,  is  the  only  specimen  of  this 
kind  which  has  been  preserved. 

The  early  works  of  fiction  in  Greece  related  to  their  mythology : 
and  works  of  romance  were  unknown  until  a  later  period.  The  Cy- 
ropsedia  of  Xenophon,  describing  the  education  of  Cyrus  of  Persia, 
but  supposed  to  contain  more  of  fiction  than  of  fact,  has  been  some- 
times styled  a  political  novel.  The  Milesian  and  Ionian  Tales, 
have  mostly  perished;  but  from  what  is  known  of  them,  we  have 
little  reason  to  regret  their  loss.  The  piece  by  Lucian,  styled  Lucius 
or  the  Jlss,  is  a  specimen  of  this  kind ;  and  his  True  History,  is 
chiefly  a  satire  on  travellers,  who  indulge  in  the  marvellous.  The 
Babylonian  Histories,  or  Loves  of  Rhodane  and  Simonis,  by  Jam- 
blichus  of  Syria,  was  probably  the  most  ancient  romance  proper ; 
and  next  to  it  was  the  Ephesiaca,  by  Xenophon  of  Ephesus.  The 
38 


286  CALLOGRAPHY. 

Choice  of  Hercules,  by  Prodicus,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  fictions 
of  ancient  times.  The  chief  Grecian  fables,  are  those  of  ^Esop, 
originally  composed  in  prose,  but  afterwards  paraphrased  in  verse, 
by^Socrates  and  others.  Of  Grecian  epistles,  or  letters,  which  have 
been  preserved,  a  few  only  are  genuine  ;  among  which  are  some  by 
Isocrates,  Demosthenes,  and  Aristotle.  The  only  amatory  letters 
before  the  time  of  Constantine,  are  those  of  Alciphron. 

Of  Grecian  eloquence,  Athens  was  the  great  school  and  theatre, 
commencing  as  early  as  the  times  of  Solon.  The  orations  of  Pisis- 
tratus  and  Themistocles,  of  Pericles  and  Alcibiades,  were  highly 
praised,  but  are  lost.  Lysias,  is  celebrated  for  his  Funeral  oration, 
over  the  Athenians  slain  under  the  command  of  Iphicrates  ;  and  Iso- 
crates, for  his  Panegyric,  pronounced  at  the  Olympic  games,  and 
his  Panalhenaic,  or  eulogy  of  the  Athenians.  The  orations  of 
Isaeus,  are  chiefly  legal,  relating  to  inheritances.  Those  of  Demos- 
thenes include  the  Olynthiacs,  and  Philippics,  directed  against 
Philip  of  Macedon  ;  besides  many  judicial,  and  several  political 
speeches;  of  which  that  Concerning  the  Crown,  in  defence  of 
Ctesiphon,  and  of  his  own  policy  against  Philip,  is  regarded  as  the 
best.  The  previous  oration  of  ^Eschines,  against  Ctesiphon,  who 
had  advised  the  Athenians  to  present  a  golden  crown  to  Demosthenes, 
was  unfortunate  for  its  author,  and  led  to  his  banishment  from  Athens. 
We  have  only  room  to  add  that  the  Dialogues  of  Plato  are  philo- 
sophical, and  the  characters  well  sustained;  similar  to  which  is  the 
Picture,  by  Cebes,  (Cebetis  Tabula),  an  allegoric;;!  dialogue,  of  ex- 
cellent tendency.  Lucian's  Dialogues  of  the  Gods,  and  of  the 
Dead,  are  rather  satirical  than  philosophical ;  but  written  in  a  bold 
and  vigorous  style  and  spirit. 

§  2.  Roman  Callography,  is  chiefly  derived  from  Grecian  models ; 
to  which  it  is  inferior  in  originality,  but  equal  in  interest  and  import- 
ance. The  Romans  paid  but  little  attention  to  literature,  until  after 
their  conquest  of  Greece  ;  the  arts  and  productions  of  which,  in- 
spired them  with  taste,  and  furnished  them  in  part  with  subjects  for 
composition.  The  most  flourishing  period  of  Roman  literature,  was 
in  the  last  ages  of  the  republic,  and  the  reigns  of  the  first  emperors, 
especially  that  of  Augustus.  Its  decline  was  hastened  by  luxury 
and  tyranny,  and,  ultimately,  by  the  invasions  of  the  northern  horde 
of  barbarous  nations.  The  literature  of  the  middle  ages,  being 
chiefly  in  the  Latin  language,  may  properly  be  associated  with  that 
of  Rome,  though  of  minor  importance. 

The  first  Roman  epic  poet,  is  said  to  have  been  Ennius  ;  whose 
poem,  entitled  Annals,  is  rather  a  chronicle  in  verse,  than  a  regular 
epic;  being  devoted  to  a  description  of  Roman  exploits,  down  to  his 
own  times ;  and  drawn,  perhaps,  from  national  ballads,  which  were 
common  at  an  earlier  period.  The  chief  epic  poem  of  the  Romans, 
is  the  JEneid,  of  Virgil ;  which  describes  the  adventures  of  ^Eneas, 
from  his  leaving  Troy  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Greeks,  until  his 
final  settlement  in  Italy,  as  the  supposed  ancestor  of  the  Roman 
nation.  The  poem  of  Lucius  Varius,  celebrating  the  exploits  of 
Augustus  and  Agrippa,  is,  with  several  other  minor  epics,  totally 
lost.  Lucan's  Pharsalia,  ranked  as  an  epic  poem,  describes  the 


EUCLASSIC.  287 

wars  of  Pompey  and  Cassar  :  the  Jlrgonautica,  of  Valerius  Flaccus, 
describes  the  Argonautic  expedition  :  the  Punica,  of  Silius  Italicus, 
treats  of  the  second  Punic  war :  and  the  Thebaid  and  Achilleid  of 
Statins,  relate  respectively  to  the  contest  of  the  Theban  brothers, 
Eteocles  and  Polynices ;  and  the  adventures  of  Achilles,  before  the 
Trojan  war.  The  Gigantomachy,  of  Claudian,  and  the  rfntoniad, 
of  Gordian,  belong  to  a  later  age ;  and  the  Christiad,  is  a  modern 
Latin  poem,  written  by  Mark  Jerome  Vida,  who  died  in  1566. 

Roman  lyric  poetry,  seems  to  have  commenced  with  Catullus, 
who  wrote  a  few  odes  ;  but  the  odes  of  Horace,  amatory,  convivial, 
moral,  and  political,  rank,  in  grace  and  spirit,  second  only  to  those 
of  the  Grecian  Pindar.  The  Silvx,  of  Statins,  contains  two  odes  of 
merit ;  subsequent  to  which  the  only  lyrics  of  note  were  the  hymns 
of  the  Christians,  commencing  with  those  of  Hilarius  and  Pruden- 
tius.  The  chief  elegies,  of  the  Romans,  are  those  of  Catullus, 
Gallus,  Tibullus,  and  Propertius ;  most  of  which  have  been  pre- 
served. The  Tristia,  of  Ovid,  belong  to  this  class.  Of  Roman 
pastoral  poetry,  the  Bucolics  of  Virgil,  chiefly  eclogues,  are  very 
beautiful,  though  mostly  imitations  ;  as  are  also  the  later  eclogues  of 
Calpurnius.  The  idyls  of  Ausonius  and  Claudian,  are  not  of  a 
pastoral  character. 

The  earliest  Roman  didactic  poems,  were  probably  those  of  En- 
nius,  entitled  Phagetica,  on  diet  and  eatables  ;  and  Epicarmus,  a 
translation,  concerning  the  nature  of  things.  The  poem  of  Lucre- 
tius, On,  the  Nature  of  Things,  is  a  digest  of  the  Epicurean  phi- 
losophy ;  and  the  Georgics,  of  Virgil,  is  a  beautiful  didactic  poem 
relating  chiefly  to  agriculture.  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  and  Fasti, 
are  chiefly  mythological,  derived  from  Greek  books  now  lost ;  and 
hence  they  are  more  valuable.  Horace's  Art  of  Poetry,  may  be 
mentioned  in  this  class,  as  a  superior  production.  The  poem  enti- 
tled JEtna,  is  attributed  by  some  to  Cornelius  Severus ;  but  by 
others  to  Lucilius  Junior.  There  are  also  poems  by  Atacinus,  on 

Geography,  and  navigation;  by  Columella,  on  gardening;  by  Palla- 
ius,  on  grafting  ;  by  Maurus,  on  grammar ;  and  by  Vida,  in  later 
times,  on  the  art  of  poetry.  Of  Roman  satires,  the  earliest  were 
those  of  Ennius  and  Pacuvius,  chiefly  of  a  comic  character.  Lu- 
cilius introduced  a  more  grave  and  severe  style  ;  but  the  satires  of 
Horace  are  considered  superior.  The  Menippean  satires  of  Varro, 
and  Petronius,  and  the  more  caustic  ones  of  Persius  and  Juvenal, 
exhibit  in  a  strong  light  the  vices  of  declining  Rome.  The  epigrams 
of  Martial  surpass  those  of  Catullus,  and  have  much  point  and  spirit; 
but  they  are  too  often  tainted  with  licentiousness. 

The  earliest  dramatic  performances  in  Rome,  were  those  of  the 
Tuscan  Hlstriones ;  who  sang  and  danced  to  the  music  of  the  flute. 
The  ,/lttelane  Fables,  were  a  rude  kind  of  comedy  or  farce,  so 
named  from  Atella,  a  city  of  the  Osci ;  hence  also  named  Oscan 
plays.  Regular  dramatic  pieces  were  first  exhibited  in  Rome,  about 
240  B.  C.,  by  Livius  Andronicus  ;  who  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  Roman  tragedy.  Tragedies  were  also  written  by  Ennius,  Pacu- 
vius, Attius  and  Naevius  ;  but  they  are  chiefly  borrowed  from  the 
Greek.  The  best  Roman  tragedies,  including  Medea,  and  The  Tro- 


288  CALLOGRAPHY. 

jans,  are  attributed  to  Seneca,  the  philosopher.  The  comedies  of 
Plautus,  among  which  are  Amphitryon,  and  the  Boastful  Soldier, 
and  those  of  Terence,  more  refined,  of  which  the  Andria  is  deemed 
the  best,  were  long  popular  in  Rome,  till  superseded  by  gladiatorial 
and  other  shows.  Some  fragments  of  comedies  by  Caecilius  are  also 
preserved,  and  possess  some  merit. 

Into  the  wide  field  of  Romance,  the  Romans  seem  scarcely  to 
have  entered.  The  Metamorphosis,  or  Golden  Ass,  of  Apuleius, 
analogous  to  the  Milesian  Tales,  describes  a  youth  named  Lucius,  as 
being  changed  into  an  ass,  to  punish  his  vices  and  presumption,  but 
restored  again  by  resorting  to  the  mysteries  of  Isis.  The  Satyricon, 
of  Petronius  Arbiter,  describes  the  love  adventures  of  Encolpius,  a 
young  freedman  ;  and  thus  portrays  the  character  of  the  times  ;  being 
at  the  same  time  a  satire  and  romance.  Of  Roman  fables,  the 
principal  are  those  of  Phaedrus,  partly  translated  from  ^Esop,  but 
containing  many  new  ones  written  in  the  same  style  and  spirit.  Avi- 
anus  also  wrote  fables  in  verse,  and  Titianus  in  prose.  The  epistles, 
or  letters,  of  Roman  writers,  are  numerous.  The  most  valuable,  are 
those  of  Cicero ;  many  of  which  are  letters  of  business,  addressed 
to  the  great  men  of  that  age ;  and  with  them  are  preserved  several 
letters  of  Julius  Caesar,  and  others.  Pliny  the  younger,  left  many 
letters,  of  value ;  some  of  which  are  descriptive ;  others,  like  those 
of  Seneca,  are  moral  or  philosophical.  We  have  also  letters  of 
minor  interest  by  Fronto,  Symmachus,  Sidonius,  and  others. 

Roman  oratory,  as  well  as  poetry,  seems  to  have  been  first  care- 
fully cultivated  in  imitation  of  the  Greeks;  to  whose  manner,  Cato, 
himself  an  orator,  was  strongly  opposed.  Antony,  the  grandfather 
of  Mark  Antony,  was  surnamed  the  Orator,  from  his  eloquence  ;  and 
Crassus,  died  of  a  fever,  from  the  excitement  of  delivering  a  powerful 
oration  before  the  senate.  Their  orations,  like  those  of  the  celebrated 
Hortensius,  the  early  rival  of  Cicero,  are  now  lost.  Cicero,  has  ever 
been  regarded  as  the  first  of  Roman  orators ;  ranking  with  the  Gre- 
cian Demosthenes.  His  most  celebrated  orations  are  those  against 
Mark  Antony,  called  Philippics  ;  those  against  Verres  ;  those  against 
Cataline ;  and  those  in  opposition  to  the  Agrarian  law ;  all  of  which 
fortunately  have  been  preserved.  Next  to  these,  in  interest,  should 
be  mentioned  the  Panegyric,  so  called,  of  Pliny,  the  younger ;  in 
praise  of  the  emperor  Trajan.  His  other  orations  are  lost.  Seneca 
and  Quintilian  should  be  mentioned  rather  as  rhetoricians  than  ora- 
tors ;  and  the  last  remains  of  Roman  oratory,  the  panegyrics  of  the 
later  emperors,  are  valuable  only  as  auxiliaries  to  history,  in  illustrat- 
ing the  decline  of  the  empire. 


CHAPTER  II. 

ORIENTAL    CALLOGRAPHY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Oriental  Callography,  we  include  the  poetry  and 
romance  of  the  oriental  or  eastern  nations,  both  ancient  and«  modern. 


ORIENTAL.  280 

It  is  a  wide  field  of  research,  which  has  hitherto  been  very  imperfectly 
investigated,  but  is  attracting  increased  attention.  The  literature  of 
the  orientals  is  surprizingly  extensive,  when  it  is  considered  that  the 
greater  part  of  it  is  preserved  in  manuscript:  but  of  many  of  its 
valuable  works  few  copies  exist ;  and  but  a  small  portion  has 
yet  been  translated  into  the  European  tongues.  While  there  are 
strong  resemblances  between  these  works  and  those  of  European 
writers,  there  are  also  striking  differences ;  such  as  to  excite  much 
interest  in  the  study  and  comparison,  in  those  who  once  commence 
it.  Much  of  the  oriental  poetry  relates  to  history,  mythology,  geo- 
graphy, and  politics  ;  and  is  important  in  illustrating  the  knowledge 
of  these  subjects  possessed  by  the  oriental  nations.  Their  romantic 
and  imaginative  poetry  is  very  rich ;  sometimes  delicate  and  natural,, 
but  often  gorgeous  and  bombastic. 

Ancient  Egypt,  we  believe,  has  left  no  poems  or  romances  o» 
record  ;  though  some  of  its  hieroglyphics  are  doubtless  highly  poetical. 
The  ancient  Hebrew  poetry  is  chiefly,  if  not  solely,  comprised  in  the 
Sacred  Scriptures  ;  and  its  study  belongs  therefore  to  the  department 
of  Theology.  It  is  remarkable  that  the  Mohamedan  nations  gene- 
rally, though  rich  in  imaginative  writings,  have  no  dramatic  poetry ; 
owing,  perhaps,  to  their  peculiar  social  institutions.  The  literature 
of  the  East,  so  far  as  it  is  known  to  us,  is  principally  confined  to 
the  Arabic,  Turkish,  Persian,  Sanscrit,  and  Chinese  languages  ;  the 
callographic  writings  in  which,  we  proceed  to  notice,  in  the  order 
here  named. 

§  1.  Arabian  Callography,  belongs  mostly  to  the  middle  ages; 
and  may  be  regarded  as  filling  the  chasm  which  exists  between  the 
literature  of  ancient,  and  that  of  modern  Europe.  At  a  time  when 
learning  was  almost  eradicated  from  Christendom,  it  flourished  at 
Cordova  and  Bagdad,  then  the  great  seats  of  Mohamedan  power. 
The  caliphs  Haroon  al  Rasheed,  Al  Mamun,  Al  Mansur,  and  Motas- 
sem  were  among  its  patrons,  and,  as  early  as  the  ninth  century  of  our 
era,  the  Arabians  had  translated  the  writings  of  Euclid,  Diophantus, 
Hippocrates,  Galen,  Theophrastus,  Aristotle,  Pliny,  and  others ; 
some  of  which  have  been  preserved  to  us  through  their  means. 

Arabian  poetry,  dates  back  to  an  earlier  period  than  the  origin  of 
the  Mohamedan  religion.  In  the  fairs  held  at  Mecca  and  Okadh, 
about  A.  D.  500,  poetical  contests  took  place,  and  the  prize  poems 
were  hung  up  in  the  caaba  or  temple,  written  in  letters  of  gold. 
Seven  of  these,  collectively  called  the  Moallacat,  (Moallakath,  or 
hung  up),  have  become  particularly  celebrated.  Their  authors  were 
Amralkeis,  Tharafah,  Toheir,  Lebid,  Antara,  Amru  (Ben  Kalthun), 
and  Hareth,  called  the  Arabian  Pleiades  ;  who  sang  of  religion, 
patriotism,  love,  and  revenge,  in  highly  impassioned  strains.  These 
poems  are  preserved  in  the  Greater  Hamasah  or  Anthology,  a  select 
collection  of  poems,  compiled  by  Abu  Temam,  A.  D.  830 ;  and  also 
in  the  Lesser  Hamasah,  compiled  by  Bochteri,  in  880.  Among  the 
Arabians.,  Turks,  and  Persians,  a  gazelle,  or  casside,  is  a  poem,  the 
alternate  lines  of  which  rhyme  together  throughout  the  piece ;  and  a 
choice  collection  of  poems,  they  call  a  divan. 

The  elegies  of  Motenabbi,  are  noted   for  their  tenderness:  and. 
37  2B 


290  CALLOGRAPHY. 

those  of  Tograi,  (or  Thograi),  vizier  of  Bagdad,  are  held  in  high 
repute  The  idyls  of  Abu  Beer  are  much  esteemed,  as  also  the  Song 
of  Al  Nasaphi.  The  Dha  Argiouzat  of  Al  Gazi,  contains  every 
Arabic  word  in  which  the  letter  Dh  occurs.  The  Lamiats  of  Tograi, 
Shafari,  and  Abu  Mansur,  have  every  line  ending  in  L ;  the  Bordah 
of  Ibn  Zadun,  has  every  line  closing  with  the  letter  M  ;  and  m  his 
Nuniat,  each  line  ends  with  the  letter  N.  The  poem  of  Abi'1-olae, 
in  praise  of  Prince  Said,  and  the  later  poems  of  Faredh,  are  mentioned 
as  particularly  beautiful.  So  also  is  the  volume  by  Abu'l  Cassem, 
entitled  Particles  of  Gold.  D'Herbelot,  in  his  Bibliotheque  Orien- 
tale,  enumerates  upwards  of  thirty  Arabian  poets,  and  their  works;  of 
which  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak  farther. 

The  epic  poetry  of  the  Arabians,  being  all  of  a  romantic  character, 
we  reserved  for  the  present  place.  Admai's  (or  Asmai's)  great 
heroic  romance,  Antara's  Life,  describes  the  exploits  of  Antara,  (or 
Andar),  an  Arabian  prince,  whom  we  have  already  mentioned  as  one 
of  the  poetical  Pleiades.  The  Mecamat,  (Makamat),  or  Sessions, 
by  Ithiel  Hariri,  is  a  romantic  history  of  a  knight  errant:  and  the 
Natural  Man,  by  Ibn  Tophail,  is  a  philosophical  romance  of  great 
interest.  The  Life  of  Timur,  (Tamerlane),  by  Ebn  Arabshah,  is 
regarded  by  Sir  William  Jones  as  an  epic  or  heroic  poem  of  great 
merit :  but  the  great  storehouse  of  Arabian  romance,  is  Jllf  Lail  u 
Lail,  or  the  thousand  nights  and  one  night,  commonly  known  as  the 
Arabian  Nights  Entertainments ;  a  collection  of  wild  and  beautiful  tales, 
said  to  have  been  translated  from  the  Persian,  in  the  times  of  the  caliph 
Al  Mansur,  and  now  translated  into  most  of  the  European  tongues. 
The  fables  of  Lokman,  were  written,  it  is  believed, 'since  the  rise  of 
Mohamedanism ;  and  they  have  found  more  favour  in  Europe  than 
at  home. 

Of  Turkish  Callography,  we  have  very  little  to  say,  except  that 
it  appears  to  be  quite  meagre.  The  romantic  poem  entitled  Chosroes 
and  Shereen,  by  Molla  Khosrew,  is,  we  believe,  derived  from  the 
Persian.  The  principal  lyric  poet  of  the  Turkish  language,  is  Baki, 
whose  divan,  or  collection  of  odes  and  songs,  contains  many  beau- 
ties. They  have  also  an  Anthology,  of  choice  poems,  collected  by 
Latifi  and  Tschelebi ;  besides  other  minor  poems,  among  which  are 
the  songs  of  Mesihi,  mentioned  by  Sir  William  Jones.  The  paucity 
of  Turkish  literature  is  owing  perhaps  in  part  to  the  abundance  of  the 
Arabic  and  Persian ;  of  which  the  Turks  are  fond,  and  which  sup- 
plies the  place  of  a  national  literature  of  their  own. 

§  2.  Persian  Callography,  closely  resembles  the  Arabian,  both  in 
style  and  subjects  ;  unless,  perhaps,  it  is  more  devoted  to  luxury  and 
the  tender  passions.  It  abounds,  however,  in  pure  and  beautiful 
sentiments  ;  numerous  specimens  of  which  are  furnished  in  the  trans- 
lations, by  Sir  William  Jones  and  others.  The  Persians  have  one 
great  epic  poem,  as  distinct  from  the  romantic;  or  rather  a  collection 
of  epics,  Called  the  Shah  Nameh,  (Shanamah),  or  Book  of  Kings, 
begun,  it  is  said,  by  Dakiki,  continued  by  Ansari,  but  completed  by 
Ferdusi,  to  whom  the  whole  work  is  commonly  attributed.  It  is  a 
poetical  history  of  Persia,  in  detached  portions,  extending  from  Nour- 
shivan  to  Yezdegerd ;  and  signalizing  the  exploits  of  Rustem,  (or 


ORIENTAL.  291 

Rustan),  the  Hercules  of  Persia.  The  history  of  Alexander  the 
Great,  entitled  Iskander-Nameh,  is  a  favourite  subject  in  Persia ; 
and  has  been  written  by  Nizanii ;  by  Mir  Ali,  of  Shirvan  ;  by  Achmed 
of  Kirvan  ;  by  Emir  Soliraan;  and  by  Jami;  the  first  and  last  of 
whom  have  best  succeeded.  Ahmedi  composed  a  heroic  poem,  on 
the  actions  of  Tamerlane. 

Among  the  Persian  lyric  poems-,  are  those  of  Ansari,  Essedi,  and 
Anvari,  (orEnweri),  whose  cassides  are  unsurpassed.  The  odes  of 
Khakani,  (or  Chakani),  are  spirited  and  sublime :  and  those  of  Mir 
Chosru,  (or  Emir  Khosrou),  are  very  elegant.  The  divan,  of  Hafiz, 
contains  many  sprightly  odes  and  songs,  chiefly  anacreontic.  There 
are  also  books  of  odes,  or  divans,  by  Jami,  Ahli,  Saib,  Arsi,  Casim, 
Shahi,  Hatefi,  Senai,  Shefali,  and  others.  The  Gulistan,  or  bed  of 
roses,  and  the  Bostan,  or  garden,  of  Sadi,  are  longer  poems,  highly 
praised,  both  for  style  and  morality.  Jarnis  Beharistan,  or  mansion 
of  the  spring,  as  also  his  Chain  of  gold,  Gift  of  the  noble,  and  Man- 
ners of  the  just,  are  moral  and  didactic  poems,  like  those  of  Sadi. 
The  Lawful  magic,  and  the  Taper  and  the  moth,  by  Ahli;  the  Se- 
crets of  lovers,  the  Seven  faces,  and  the  Treasure  of  secrets,  by  Ni- 
zami ;  and  the  Junction  of  two  seas,  Beauty  and  love,  the  Conqueror 
and  triumpher,  by  Catebi,  we  have  barely  room  to  mention.  The 
Pend-Nameh,  of  Attar,  a  contemporary  of  Sadi,  is  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  proverbs :  and  the  Kilat  el  Metnavi,  (or  Masnavi),  of  Gela- 
leddin  Roumi,  surnamed  Balkhi,  treats  of  religion,  history,  morals, 
and  politics,  with  great  energy  and  richness.  Reshidi's  Enchanted 
gardens,  is  a  treatise  on  the  art  of  poetry. 

Of  Persian  romantic  poetry,  and  romance,  the  story  of  Leila  and 
Meinoun,  (or  Laila  and  Mejnoun),  has  been  written  by  Nizami, 
Hatifi,  Jami,  and  others.  Nizami  also  wrote  the  loves  of  Chosru 
and  Shirin,  (or  Chosrou  and  Schirin)  ;  and  Jami  wrote  Joseph  and 
Zuleika,  (Jussuf  or  Yusuf  and  Zuleica),  as  also  Selman  and  Msal ; 
both  of  which  are  contained  in  his  collection  of  seven  poems,  called 
the  Seven  stars  of  the  bear.  Baharam  and  Gulendam,  is  a  roman- 
tic poem  by  Catebi;  and  there  are  long  poems  by  Chosrou,  Abubatha, 
and  Nani,  probably  of  a  romantic  character.  The  Thousand  and  one 
Nights,  is  said  to  have  been  written  by  Humai,  a  Persian  queen ; 
and  the  Thousand  and  one  Days,  in  imitation  of  it,  is  devoted  to  the 
praise  of  men,  as  the  former  is  to  the  vindication  of  women.  The 
Bahar  Damich,  or  garden  of  knowledge,  by  Doollah,  or  Oollah  ;  the 
Tooti-Nameh,  (Tuti-nama),  or  tales  of  a  parrot,  and  the  Tales  of 
Bakhtyar,  and  the  Ten  Viziers,  are  also  of  a  romantic  character. 
The  Hatim  Tai,  is  a  popular  romance  on  the  adventures  of  Hatim ; 
and  the  Heft  Peiker,  by  Nizami,  relates  to  the  adventures  of  Beh- 
ram.  The  Bos  fan  i  Khyal,  or  garden  of  imagination,  is  an  historical 
romance.  The  fables  of  Pilpay,  so  called,  have  been  translated 
into  Persian  by  Rudigi,  (or  Roudeki),  under  the  title  of  Anwar  So- 
heili ;  and  there  are  other  translations  of  the  same. 

§  3.  Hindoo  Callography,  is  chiefly  based  on  the  Hindoo  My- 
thology, as  comprehended  in  the  sacred  books,  in  the  Sanscrit  tongue, 
which  we  have  already  mentioned  in  the  department  of  Theology, 
(p.  133).  It  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  the  Brahmins  ;  and  has  been 


CALLOGRAPHY. 

but  recently  cultivated  by  European  scholars.  The  oldest  poem  of 
the  Hindoos,  is  said  to  be  the  Ramayana,  (or  Ramayon),  by  Val- 
miki,  (or  Balmiki),  describing  the  exploits  of  Rama,  or  Ramatshandra, 
king  of  Ayodya,  supposed  to  be  an  incarnation  of  Vishnoo ;  who 
wrought  wonders  in  rescuing  his  beloved  Sita.  Next  to  this  is  the 
Maha-bhdrata,  (or  Mahabharat),  by  Vyasa,  which  treats  of  the  wars 
of  the  Curavas  and  Puravas,  (or  Kurus  and  Pandus),  two  branches 
of  the  race  of  Bharata,  who  strove  for  the  sovereignty  of  India,  it  is 
said,  1391  B.  C.  In  this  war,  gods,  and  giants,  and  heroes,  particu- 
larly Crishna,  (Krishnoo),  are  represented  as  taking  part ;  and  the 
episode  called  Raghu-vansa,  gives  a  distinct  history  of  the  race  of 
Crishna.  These  are  both  sacred  poems,  and  rank  next  to  the  Vedas. 
The  Gita  Govinda,  by  Djaga  Deva,  (or  Jayadeva),  and  the  Bhaga- 
vata,  or  Bagavadam,  which  is  one  of  the  Puranas,  and  attributed  to 
Vyasa :  both  also  relate  to  the  life  and  exploits  of  Krishnoo.  The 
Cumara  Sambhava,  (or  Koumara),  by  Calidasa,  is  an  epic  poem  on 
the  birth  of  Cartica,  or  Kumara,  the  physician  of  the  gods  ;  and  Ca- 
lidas  also  wrote  a  Raghuvansa,  or  children  of  the  sun,  perhaps  the 
one  already  mentioned,  besides  the  Meghaduta,  or  cloud  messenger, 
and  the  Nalodaya,  or  rise  of  Nala,  both  elegant  love  tales.  The 
poem  called  Bhatti,  is  a  popular  epic,  by  Pandita ;  and  the  Rasa- 
manjari,  by  Misra,  is  an  analysis  of  love.  The  meeting  of  Jlrjoun 
and  Seva,  is  described  by  Djana  Radjah  ;  but  the  subject  of  the  Ka- 
dambari,  by  Bhattu  Bana,  we  have  been  unable  to  ascertain.  The 
Puranas,  being  among  the  sacred  poems,  we  shall  not  here  attempt  to 
describe.  The  Manava  Dharma  Shastra,  or  Institutes  of  Menu, 
embrace  not  only  the  Hindoo  laws,  but  morals  and  mythology. 

Of  Hindoo  romance,  we  would  mention  the  Vrihatcatha,  and  the 
Cat9 ha  Saritsagara,  both  collections  of  tales  by  Somadeva ;  the 
former  in  verse  ;  also  Singhasana,  or  the  throne  of  Vicramaditya, 
consisting  of  tales  supposed  to  have  been  related  by  the  images  sur 
rounding  the  throne ;  and  finally  the  Suca  Saptati,  or  seventy  tales 
of  a  parrot,  from  which  the  Persians  probably  borrowed  their  Tooti- 
nameh.  The  Hitopadesa  of  Vishnu  Sarman,  is  a  collection  of  ele- 
gant fables,  so  connected  as  to  form  a  code  of  moral  and  political 
instruction  :  and  Sir  William  Jones  supposes  that  their  title,  abbre- 
viated and  corrupted  in  Persian,  was  mistaken  for  the  name  of  a 
person  ;  but  that  no  such  person  as  Pilpay  ever  existed.  Of  Hindoo 
dramatic  poems,  or  Natacas,  the  Sacontala,  (Sokuntolo),  or  Fatal 
Ring,  by  Calidasa,  is  regarded  as  the  best  performance ;  and  next  to 
it  is  his  Urvasi,  (Ourvasi  Vikrama),  or  the  heroism  of  Urvasi.  The 
Ketriabali,  or  pearl  necklace,  by  Ilersadeva ;  the  Prabodha  C/ian- 
drodaya,  or  rising  moon  of  knowledge,  by  Misra;  the  Mafia  Na- 
taca,  or  great  drama,  by  Misra  Murari ;  and  the  Hasyarnava,  or  sea 
of  laughter,  a  farce  by  Jagadiswara,  (or  Bhaltatcharia),  are  all  dra- 
matic productions  of  interest  and  value.  So  are  Malati  and  Mad- 
hava,  (or  Malheva),  and  the  Malignant  Child,  the  Rape  of  Usha,  the 
Taming  of  Durvasas,  the  Seizure  of  the  Lock,  and  others,  by 
unknown  authors. 

§  4.  Of  Chinese  Callography,  we  have  very  little  to  say.  The 
Chinese  have  considerable  poetry ;  much  of  which  appears  to  treat 


EUROPEAN.  293 

of  their  formal  systems  of  morals  and  politics  ;  though  some  of  it  is 
highly  imaginative,  arising  in  part  from  the  structure  of  their  lan- 
guage. The  most  ancient  and  approved  of  the  Chinese  poetry,  is 
the  Shee  King,  (or  Shi  Kin),  a  collection  of  three  hundred  odes, 
composed  or  preserved  by  Confucius,  and  many  of  them  in  praise 
of  the  early  princes  of  China.  The  Tsoo-tsee,  and  the  Shan-hay- 
king,  are  poems  on  philosophical  and  romantic  subjects  ;  and  the 
San-t see-king,  consisting  of  verses  of  three  syllables,  is  one  of  their 
elementary  books  for  the  young.  Among  the  poems  of  the  late 
emperor  Kien-long,  is  one  on  the  city  of  Mougden,  the  capital  of 
Mantchooria.  We  believe  that  Soolo  and  Kien-gan,  are  also  the 
names  of  Chinese  poets.  Among  other  dramatic  productions,  the 
Chinese  have  a  collection  entitled  the  Hundred  plays  of  Yuen; 
chiefly  historical;  among  which  are  the  Heir  in  old  age,  and  the 
Chalk  ring  or  circle.  Two  plays  of  this  collection,  The  Orphan  of 
China,  and  the  Sorrows  of  Han,  have  been  translated  into  English. 
Of  Chinese  romance,  we  may  mention  Haou-kew-chuen,  or  the 
Fortunate  Union ;  an  imperfect  translation  of  which,  has  been  incor- 
rectly entitled  the  Pleasing  History.  It  relates  to  the  trials  and 
happy  marriage  of  Teihchungyn,  (or  Tingsing),  and  the  beautiful 
Shueypingsing.  King-ping-moey,  is  the  title  of  another  romance,  in 
which  Symengking,  the  wealthy  hero,  marries  six  wives.  The  three 
Lins  are  the  principal  personages  in  another  novel,  in  praise  of 
virtue:  but  whether  Yu-keao-le,  (or  lu-kiao-li),  is  the  title  of  this, 
or  of  another  one,  we  have  not  been  able  to  discover.  In  another 
novel,  the  hero,  Tchouangtse,  (or  Tcho-ang-tse),  finds  his  wife 
unfaithful,  and,  after  her  death,  becomes  a  famous  philosopher.  This 
is  said  to  have  been  the  original  of  Voltaire's  Zadig. 


CHAPTER  III. 

EUROPEAN  CALLOGRAPHY. 

THE  Polite  Literature  of  Modern  Europe,  though  of  later  growth 
than  either  of  the  preceding  branches,  and  formed  in  some  degree  on 
the  model  of  the  ancient  classics,  is  not  to  be  regarded  as  inferior  to 
them,  either  in  extent  and  variety  of  subjects,  or  in  grandeur  and 
beauty  of  sentiment  and  style,  or  even  in  its  intrinsic  importance. 
We  have  no  hesitation  in  placing  Dante  and  Milton  in  the  same 
exalted  rank  with  Homer  and  Virgil :  and  if  the  present  branch  can- 
not furnish  exact  parallels  to  all  the  great  writers  of  antiquity,  it  can 
at  least  produce  those  of  equal  merit,  and  in  still  more  various  kinds 
of  composition. 

Modern  European  Callography  originated  in  the  middle  ages,  com- 
mencing, we  believe,  with  the  songs  of  the  German  Minnesingers, 
and  of  the  Proven$al  or  Romance  poets,  in  France  and  Italy.  It 
fed  upon  the  remains  of  Euclassic  literature;  the  preservation  of 
which  is  due  in  no  small  degree  to  the  labors  of  the  ecclesiastics, 
sheltered,  in  their  convents,  from  the  storms  of  war  and  the  revolu- 

2B  2 


294  CALLOGRAPHY. 

lions  of  states.  Hence  it  was  that  the  term  clerk,  from  the  Latin 
dericus,  a  clergyman,  came  to  signify  a  writer,  or  scholar.  The 
decline  of  the  feudal  system,  and  the  consolidation  of  society,  were 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  literature ;  but  it  did  not  reach  its  matu- 
rity till  the  invention  of  printing  enhanced  the  value  of  literary  fame, 
by  spreading  it  to  the  four  winds  of  heaven,  and  wafting  back  the 
echo  to  reward  the  author's  labours.  The  Reformation  widened 
the  field  of  literary  research  ;  the  Discovery  of  America  presented 
new  themes  for  inspiration  ;  and  the  number  of  competitors  was 
increased  by  those  eastern  scholars  who  took  refuge  in  Christendom 
when  the  Byzantine  empire  was  subdued  by  the  Turks.  No  wonder 
then  that  a  fresh  harvest  was  reaped ;  worthy  of  the  age,  the  labors, 
and  the  circumstances,  which  produced  it. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  European  Callography,  in  the  order  adopted 
in  the  preceding  departments. 

§  1.  Italian  Callography ',  may  be  regarded  as  commencing  with 
the  love  songs,  composed  at  the  court  of  Sicily ;  the  oldest  compo- 
sitions which  have  been  preserved  in  the  Italian  language.  Still,  the 
Latin  was  deemed  the  only  dignified  language  of  literature,  till  the 
vulgar  tongue,  so  called,  was  ennobled  by  the  great  work  of  Dante, 
and  thenceforward  met  with  public  favor.  The  Divina  Commedia, 
of  Dante,  is  an  allegorical  and  didactic,  rather  than  epic  poem  ; 
descfibing  an  imaginary  visit  of  Dante,  conducted  by  Virgil,  to  Hell, 
to  Purgatory,  and  to  Heaven,  or  Paradise ;  with  a  description  of 
each,  and  of  its  inhabitants,  founded  partly  on  Mythology,  but  prin- 
cipally on  the  dogmas  of  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  This  poem 
has  passed  through  nearly  sixty  editions,  and  has  had  more  commen- 
tators than  any  other  work  written  since  the  revival  of  letters  in  Eu- 
rope. The  Dettamondo  of  Uberti,  describing  the  universe,  and  the 
Quadriregio,  of  Frezzi,  on  the  empires  of  love,  Satan,  virtue,  and 
vice,  are  inferior  imitations  of  Dante. 

Petrarch's  Africa,  was  written  in  Latin ;  but  the  first  epic  poems 
in  Italian,  were  La  Theseide,  and  //  Filostrato ;  both  by  Boccacio; 
both  now  almost  forgotten.  The  Morgante  Maggiore,  of  Pulci, 
narrating  the  exploits  of  Roland  or  Orlando,  with  Riaaldo,  and  the 
giant  Morgante,  probably  suggested  the  Orlando  Inamorato  of  Boi- 
ardo;  and  this,  in  its  turn,  led  to  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso ;  an  epic 
and  romantic  poem,  on  the  exploits  of  Roland,  one  of  Charlemagne's 
paladins,  or  knights  errant,  who  fell  in  the  battle  of  Roncesvalles. 
The  Orlando  Amoroso,  of  Berni,  was  written  in  a  more  sportive  vein. 
The  Armida,  of  Bernardo  Tasso,  and  the  Rinaldo,  of  his  son  Tor- 
quato  Tasso,  are  both  respectable  productions ;  but  the  latter  writer 
is  immortalized  by  his  Gerusalemme  Liberata,  or  Jerusalem  Deli- 
vered ;  the  noblest  of  Italian  epics;  describing  the  exploits  of  Godfrey 
of  Bouillon,  and  his  associates,  in  the  first  crusade.  Trissino's  Italia 
Liberata,  or  Italy  delivered  from  the  Goths,  is  a  similar  but  inferior 
production ;  and  the  Adone,  or  Adonis,  of  Marini,  is  of  little  repute. 

Of  Italian  lyric  poetry,  the  canzoni,  or  ballads,  and  the  sonetti,  or 
sonnets,  of  Petrarch,  are  the  most  celebrated.  The  latter  are  mostly 
devoted  to  his  love  for  the  virtuous  Laura ;  but  the  former  are  patriotic 
and  religious.  The  sonnets  of  Lorenzo  di  Medici,  are  in  imitation 


EUROPEAN.  295 

of  those  of  Petrarch ;  and  those  of  Uberti,  are  highly  esteemed,  as 
also  the  later  ones  of  Bembo  and  Frugoni.  Of  pastoral  poetry,  the 
Arcadia,  of  Sannazaro,  contains  some  beautiful  idyls;  the  Sagrifizio, 
or  Sacrifice,  by  Beccari,  was  the  first  Italian  pastoral  in  a  dramatic 
form  ;  and  the  Ammta,  of  Tasso,  is  a  beautiful  pastoral  drama,  in 
which  shepherds  and  shepherdesses  are  the  speakers.  The  Pastor 
Fido  or  Faithful  Shepherd,  by  Guarini,  is  similar  to  the  Aminta ; 
alike  original  and  beautiful,  though  perhaps  less  critically  composed. 
Of  descriptive  poems,  we  would  mention  the  Jlmbra,  of  Lorenzo  di 
Medici,  in  praise  of  his  gardens ;  the  Tournament,  of  Politiano ; 
the  Sette  Giornate,  or  Seven  Days  of  Creation,  by  Tasso ;  and  the 
Coltivazione,  of  Allemanni,  a  descriptive  and  didactic  poem  on 
Agriculture. 

Of  Italian  dramatic  poetry,  the  Sophonisba,  of  Trissino,  was  the 
first  regular  tragedy ;  and  next  to  it  was  the  Rosmonda,  or  Rosamond, 
of  Rucellai.  The  Jocasta,  of  Dolce,  and  the  Orbecche,  of  Cinzio, 
(or  Cintio),  are  among  the  older  tragedies  of  merit.  Tasso  wrote  one 
tragedy,  entitled  Torrismondo :  and  that  of  Merope,  by  MafTei,  suggest- 
ed those  on  the  same  subject  by  Alfieri  and  Voltaire.  Of  the  numerous 
tragedies  of  Alfieri,  the  best  are  probably  those  entitled  Saul,  and 
Mel,  both  from  Scripture  History  ;  the  latter  of  which,  intermediate 
between  a  tragedy  and  opera,  was  called  by  its  author  a  tramelogedia. 
The  Galeotto  Manfredi,  of  Monti,  is  a  more  recent  tragedy  of  note. 
Goldoni  excelled  chiefly  in  comedy;  but  his  Belisarius,  is  a  valuable 
tragedy.  The  first  opera,  was  composed  by  Rinuccini,  about  1594 ; 
and  the  first  performed  at  Naples  was  in  1615  :  but  the  best  of  the 
early  operas  was  probably  that  of  Apostolo  Zeno,  entitled  IS  Ing  anno 
Felice,  or  the  Fortunate  Stratagem,  performed  at  Venice  in  1695. 
The  operas  of  Metastasio  are  unsurpassed  :  among  them  are  his 
Didone  Jlbbandonata,  or  Dido  Forsaken  ;  La  Clemenzia  di  Tito,  or 

the  Lem- 

early  Italian  comedies,  are  the  Virginia, 
of  Accolti ;  and  La  Mandragora,  and  La  Clizia,  by  Macchiavelli : 
but  the  most  esteemed,  are  those  of  Goldoni,  the  first  of  which  was 
La  Donna  di  garbo,  or  the  Lady  of  merit.  Those  of  Avelloni  are 
also  popular. 

Of  Italian  romantic  poetry,  and  romance,  some  of  the  oldest 
specimens  are  the  Jlspramonte,  by  an  unknown  author ;  Giron  il 
Cortese,  or  Giron  the  Courteous,  by  Alamanni ;  and  the  J2madis, 
by  Bernardo  Tasso  ;  all  of  them  tales  of  chivalry  and  magic.  The 
oldest  collection  of  Italian  prose  tales,  extant,  is  the  Centi  Novelli 
Jlnticlie,  or  Hundred  ancient  stories,  by  unknown  authors.  Boccacio 
wrote  two  novels ;  one  entitled  Fiammetta  ;  the  other  called  Filo- 
copo ;  both  chiefly  amatory :  and  Macchiavelli  is  the  author  of 
Belfagor,  a  satirical  novel  against  scolding  women.  Here  may  be 
mentioned  the  tales  of  Boccacio,  Sacchetti,  and  Giovanni ;  none  of 
which  can  be  recommended  as  worthy  of  general  perusal.  Giraldo 
Cinzio  also  wrote  a  collection  entitled  the  Hundred  Fables;  most  of 
which  are  mere  stories.  The  historical  species  of  romance  has  lately 
been  introduced  into  Italy  by  Manzoni,  in  I  Promessi  Sposi,  pub- 
lished by  him  in  1827.  In  oratory,  we  have  the  published  orations 


the  Clemency  of  Titus  ;  and  Hypsipyle,  or  the  conspiracy  of  i 
nian  women.     Among  the  early  Italian  comedies,  are  the  I 


296  CALLOGRAPHY. 

of  Badoaro,  Lollio,  and  others  ;  but  Italy  has  produced  few  orators 
of  distinction. 

The  older  Spanish  poetry,  consists  chiefly  of  ballads,  or  metrical 
romances,  many  of  which  are  preserved  in  the  Romancer o  General 
collected  by  Florez  ;  but  their  authors  are  in  many  cases  unknown. 
The  earliest  poem  worthy  of  notice  here,  is  El  Poema  del  Cid,  a 
brief  epic  and  romantic  composition,  written  about  1150,  by  an 
unknown  hand,  and  narrating  the  exploits  of  Don  Rodrigo,  called  the 
Cid,  who  fought  against  the  Moors.  The  Historia  de  los  Vandos, 
is  a  romantic  chronicle,  in  verse,  of  the  Moorish  heroes,  the  Zegris 
and  Abencerrages  of  Grenada.  The  Jiraucana,  by  Ercilla  y  Zuniga, 
is  an  epic  poem,  of  historical  value  ;  describing  the  subjugation  of  the 
Araucanian  Indians,  and  their  struggles  to  regain  their  independence. 

Of  Spanish  lyric  poetry,  a  large  collection  of  old  songs  is  con- 
tained in  the  Concionero  General,  collected  by  Baena  and  Castillo. 
The  sonnets  and  songs  of  Boscan,  and  the  sonnets  and  eclogues  of 
Garcilaso  de  la  Vega,  are  highly  valued,  though  partly  formed  on  the 
Italian  model.  Montemayor  and  Miranda,  though  Portuguese,  wrote 
also  some  excellent  pastorals,  in  Spanish.  The  Diana  of  the  former 
is  a  pastoral  romance.  The  odes  of  Herrera,  and  the  canticles  of 
Luis  de  Leon,  are  said  to  be  rich  in  sentiment  and  diction.  The 
Galatea,  of  Cervantes,  is  of  a  pastoral  character ;  and  the  Spaniards 
have  pastorals  also  by  Enzina,  and  others.  La  Gaya  Ciencia,  or 
the  Gay  Science,  by  Villena,  is  a  didactic  poem  on  the  art  of  poetry. 
El  Labyrintho,  or  Las  Trecientas,  The  Labyrinth,  or  Three  Hun- 
dred stanzas,  by  Juan  de  Mena,  is  an  allegorical  picture  of  human 
life,  in  imitation  of  Dante.  The  Centiloquio,  or  Hundred  Maxims, 
by  Mendoza  of  Santillana,  is  a  didactic  poem  on  morals  and  politics  ; 
and  his  Doctrinal  de  Privados,  or  Manual  of  Favorites,  contains 
moral  lessons  for  courtiers. 

Spanish  dramatic  poetry,  may  be  regarded  as  commencing  with 
the  Mingo  Rebulgo,  a  satiric  pastoral  play ;  and  the  dramatic  ro- 
mance of  La  Celestina,  or  Calixtus  and  Melibcea.  The  earliest  dra- 
matic performances,  were  probably  the  Mysteries,  so  called,  repre- 
senting scripture  scenes,  exhibited  as  religious  ceremonies  ;  and  these 
suggested  the  Jlutos  Sacramentales,  or  religious  dramas,  of  the  later 
writers.  Cervantes  wrote  nearly  thirty  dramatic  pieces,  of  which 
only  two  now  remain.  They  are  Numantia,  a  tragedy ;  and  Life 
in  Algiers,  a  comedy.  Lopez  de  Vega  wrote  eighteen  hundred  co- 
medies, and  four  hundred  religious  dramas;  of  which  more  than 
three  hundred  were  printed.  Among  the  best  of  them,  are,  La 
Discreta  Venganga,  or  the  Discreet  Revenge,  and  Lo  Cierto  por  lo 
Dudoso,  the  Certain  for  the  Doubtful.  They  are  lively  and  inge- 
nious ;  whereas  the  one  hundred  and  eighty  dramas  of  Calderon,  are 
said  to  be  monotonous,  and  to  breathe  forth  the  intolerant  spirit  of  the 
Inquisition.  His  Devotion  to  the  Cross,  and  Inflexible  Prince,  are 
mentioned  as  specimens  of  his  style.  The  tragedy  of  Rachel,  by 
Garcias  de  la  Huerta,  is  a  later  production  of  superior  merit. 

The  oldest  romance,  worthy  of  notice,  in  the  Spanish  language, 
if  we  except  the  tales  of  the  Cid,  is  said  to  be  that  of  Amadis  de 
Gaul;  a  tale  of  chivalry,  supposed  to  have  been  written  about  1300, 


EUROPEAN.  297 

by  Lobeira,  a  Portuguese.  El  Conde  Lucanor,  or  the  Count  Luca- 
nor,  by  Prince  Juan  Manuel,  contains  excellent  precepts  for  princes ; 
and  is  regarded  as  the  first  pure  model  of  the  Spanish  language. 
Count  Jllarcos,  is  a  tragic  novel,  the  author  of  which  we  are  unable  to 
name.  The  comic  romance,  Lazarillo  de  Tormes,  by  the  statesman 
Mendoza,  and  the  Don  Guzman  de  JMfarache,  or  Spanish  Rogue, 
by  Aleman,  are  said  to  have  suggested  the  French  novel  of  Gil  Bias, 
by  Le  Sage.  These  were  followed  by  the  romances  of  Timoneda, 
and  Montalvan ;  of  some  repute :  but  the  most  celebrated  Spanish 
novel  is  the  Don  Quixotte,  of  Cervantes ;  which  is  at  the  same  time 
a  satire  on  the  absurdities  of  chivalry,  a  striking  moral  picture  of 
human  life,  and  a  pure  model  of  the  Spanish  language.  Cervantes 
wrote  another  novel,  entitled  Persiles  and  Sismunda  ;  and  an  earlier 
collection  of  Exemplary  Novels,  or  tales,  of  a  moral  character.  The 
Life  of  Friar  Gerund,  by  the  Jesuit  de  1'Isla,  under  the  assumed 
name  of  Lobon  de  Salazar,  is  a  spirited  satire  on  the  bad  preaching 
of  the  monks,  suggested  by  Don  Quixotte.  The  fables  of  Yriarte, 
are  possessed  of  some  originality  and  merit ;  but  in  the  field  of  ora- 
tory, we  believe  that  the  Spaniards  have  few  productions. 

Of  Portuguese  poetry,  the  principal  epic  is  the  rfs  Lusiadas,  (or 
Os  Lusiados),  the  Lusiad  of  Camoens  ;  which  relates  to  the  disco- 
veries and  conquests  of  his  countrymen  in  the  east,  particularly  those 
of  Vasco  da  Gama,  in  his  first  voyage  to  India :  but  it  has  been  ob- 
served that  Camoens's  chief  hero  was  his  country.  The  Contestabre 
de  Portugal,  by  Lobo,  is  a  prosaic  poem,  the  hero  of  which  is  Pe- 
reira,  the  High  Constable  of  the  kingdom :  and  the  JVaufragio,  by 
Corte  Real,  relates  to  the  shipwreck  and  sufferings  of  De  Sousa,  on 
the  coast  of  Africa.  Corte  Real  also  wrote  an  epic  poem  on  the 
Siege  of  Diu,  (or  Dio),  and  its  defence  by  Mascarenhas.  The 
Fountain  of  Aganippe,  by  Faria  y  Souza,  is  considered  inferior ;  as 
also  the  Henriqueida,  of  Meneses  count  of  Ericeyra,  in  praise  of  the 
first  king  of  Portugal.  The  Ulysses,  of  Castro,  and  the  Malacca 
Conquistada,  of  Sa  y  Menesez,  are  regarded  as  works  of  merit ;  as 
also  the  Ouraguay,  of  Basilio  da  Gama,  describing  the  conquest  of 
Paraguay. 

Of  Portuguese  lyric  poetry,  the  odes  and  epistles  of  Ferreira,  have 
been  compared  to  those  of  Horace ;  and  are  doubtless  excellent. 
Camoens  wrote  some  sonnets  and  canzonets  ;  and  we  have  recent 
odes  by  Manoel ;  and  canzonets  by  Bocage.  The  pastoral  poems 
of  Ribeyro,  had  many  imitators ;  and  led  to  numerous  other  works 
of  this  class.  Falcao,  (or  Falcum),  was  one  of  his  imitators,  but 
his  inferior.  The  pastorals  of  Andrade  Caminha,  and  Bernardes  Pi- 
menta,  are  still  less  regarded ;  and  the  pastoral  romances  of  Lobo, 
are  said  to  be  very  monotonous.  The  elegies  of  Bacellar,  and  the 
comic  poems  of  Freire  de  Andrade,  are  also  of  minor  importance. 
The  dramatic  poems  of  Gil  Vicente,  were  probably  the  best  early 
ones  in  Portuguese,  and  served  as  models  not  only  to  Camoens,  but 
also  to  the  two  great  Spanish  dramatists.  Camoens  wrote  the  Am- 
phitryons,  Seleucus,  and  Filodemo,  or  Philodemus,  the  latter  of  a 
pastoral  character ;  and  Miranda  wrote  two  Portuguese  comedies, 
Os  Esfrangeiros,  or  the  Strangers,  and  Os  Villalpandios,  the  Vill- 
38 


298  CALLOGRAPHY. 

alpands  ;  though  his  other  works,  like  those  of  Montemayor,  are  in 
Spanish.  The  tragedy  of  Inez  de  Castro,  by  Ferreira,  is  one  of 
deep  interest ;  and  the  Osmia,  of  the  countess  Vimieiro,  was  crowned 
by  the  Portuguese  Academy,  in  1788.  Ferreira  de  Vasconcellos 
wrote  several  comedies  of  some  merit. 

Of  Portuguese  romance,  next  to  the  Jlmadis  de  Gaul,  written  in 
Spanish  by  Lobeira,  we  would  mention  the  Mtnina  e  Moga,  (or 
Moza),  the  Innocent  Maiden,  a  chivalric  romance  by  Ribeyro ;  the 
oldest  prose  specimen  of  the  Portuguese  language.  The  Palmer  of 
England,  by  Moraez,  and  the  Happy  Freeman,  by  an  unknown 
author,  are  among  the  older  novels  ;  as  also  the  Emperor  Clarimond, 
by  Barhas,  (or  Barros) ;  which,  though  wanting  in  invention,  is  writ- 
ten in  a  pleasing  style.  The  History  of  Charlemagne  and  his 
Twelve  Peers,  by  Carvalho,  is  bombastic,  but  amusing ;  and  the 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table,  by  Ferreira  de  Vasconcellos,  is  a 
work  of  similar  character. 

§  2.  French  Callography,  may  be  regarded  as  commencing  with 
the  poetry  of  the  Troubadours,  or  minstrels  of  Province,  written  in 
the  Provencal  or  Romance  language;  which,  however,  differs  mate- 
rially from  the  modern  French,  (p.  60).  They  called  poetry  the 
Gay  Science ;  and  their  short  poems,  called  sirventes,  pastourelles, 
or  novelles,  treat  chiefly  of  war  and  love.  Such  were  the  produc- 
tions of  William,  count  of  Poitou,  called  the  first  Troubadour;  and 
of  Thibaut,  king  of  Navarre  and  count  of  Champagne,  who  sang 
the  praises  of  Queen  Blanche  of  Castile. 

The  Troubadours  appeared  in  the  north  of  France,  about  the  time 
of  Philip  Augustus  ;  and  were  there  called  Trouveurs,  using  the 
Romance- Wallon,  or  Norman  French  language.  The  first  of  these 
was  Gasse,  or  Wace,  who  wrote  Le  Brut,  the  Romance  of  Brutus, 
or  the  Book  of  the  Britons  ;  a  fabulous  poetical  history  of  the  kings 
of  England,  dated  1155.  The  Knight  of  the  Lion,  is  another 
romance  of  the  same  age,  but  we  know  not  the  author,  nor  whether 
it  was  in  prose  or  in  verse.  Chretien  de  Troyes,  another  trouveur, 
wrote  the  Romance  of  Saint  Greaal,  a  poem  on  the  holy  cup,  from 
which  the  Messiah  drank  during  his  crucifixion,  fabled  to  have  been 
afterwards  carried  to  England,  and  owned  by  the  Knights  of  the 
Round  Table.  This,  and  the  poem  of  Alexander  the  Great,  by 
Alexander  de  Bernay,  Lambert  Di  Cors,  and  others,  were  written 
about  the  year  1200.  The  Romance  of  the  Rose,  begun  by  Lorris 
about  1250,  and  finished  by  Meun,  or  Mehun  Clopinel,  about  1300, 
is  an  allegorical  poem  on  love  ;  of  which  the  title  is  said  to  be  the 
most  beautiful  part.  Creuze  de  Lesser's  Chevaliers  de  la  Table 
Rondd  has  been  praised  as  a  romantic  epic  of  merit. 

Of  French  tpi c  poems,  the  oldest,  we  believe,  is  the  Clovis  of 
Desmarets  ;  rich  in  conception,  but  borrowing  its  incongruous  ma- 
chinery, partly  from  Christianity,  and  partly  from  romance  and 
enchantment.  The  JJlaric,  or  Rome  Delivered,  of  Scnderi ;  the 
St.  Louis,  or  Holy  Crown  Reconquered,  of  Le  Moine  ;  the  Pucelle, 
or  Jonn  of  Arc,  of  Chapelain  ;  the  CJnldebrande,  of  Saint  Garde  ; 
the  Moses,  of  Saint  Armant ;  and  the  Petreide,  of  Thomas;  are 
considered  as  inferior  works,  which  we  can  here  no  farther  notice. 


EUROPEAN.  299 

The  principal  French  epic  poem,  is  the  Henriade,  of  Voltaire; 
describing  the  events  connected  with  the  establishment  of  Henry  IV. 
on  the  French  throne.  It  is  rich  in  language,  and  correct  in  descrip- 
tion ;  but  deficient  in  inspiration  or  fervor ;  and  the  allegorical  per- 
sonages, introduced  in  it,  produce  an  unpleasant  impression.  The 
Colombiade,  of  Madame  du  Boccage,  describing  the  introduction  of 
Christianity  in  America,  contains  some  fine  descriptions  ;  but  it  is 
deficient  in  spirit.  The  Joseph,  of  Bitaube,  is  an  heroic  poem  ;  but 
the  Pucdle,  of  Voltaire,  the  Lutrin,  of  Boileau,  and  the  Vert  Vert, 
of  Gresset,  are  mock  heroics,  of  little  worth.  Fenelon's  Telemaque, 
and  Chateaubriand's  Martyrs,  are  sometimes  ranked  as  epics,  though 
both  written  in  prose.  The  former  is  a  work  of  superior  merit. 

Of  French  lyric  poetry,  the  pastourellcs  and  rondeaux  of  Frois- 
sart  the  chronicler,  are  of  some  note ;  though  inferior  to  the  more 
touching  chansons  of  Clotilde  du  Vallon-Chalys,  (Surville  by  mar- 
riage). Of  the  numerous  poems  of  Marot,  only  a  few  are  worth 
preserving.  Ronsard,  Jodelle  and  Bellay,  who  with  their  associates 
were  called  the  French  Pleiades,  wrote  many  sonnets,  in  the  Italian 
style.  Desportes  was  more  natural ;  but  inferior  to  Malherbe,  who 
is  regarded  as  the  best  of  the  French  lyrists.  The  eclogues  of  Sar- 
razan,  have  some  originality ;  those  of  Racan,  are  correct  and  digni- 
fied ;  the  idyls  of  Madame  Deshoulieres,  are  tender  and  spirited ; 
and  the  eclogues  of  Segrais  pure  and  natural.  The  eclogues  of  Fon- 
tenelle,  are  delicate ;  and  the  idyls  of  Chenier,  and  the  elegies  of 
Bertin,  are  highly  regarded.  The  sacred  odes,  or  psalms,  of  J.  B. 
Rousseau,  are  full,  and  occasionally  glowing;  as  are  also  the  sacred 
odes  of  Pompignan.  The  odes  of  Lebrnn,  and  Lamartine,  have 
poetic  inspiration ;  nor  can  we  here  omit  Madame  Dufresnoy,  whose 
Last  Moments  of  Bayard,  was  crowned  by  the  Academy,  in  1815. 
The  recent  chansons,  or  songs  of  Beranger,  are  among  the  most 
popular  French  poems. 

Of  French  descriptive  and  didactic  poems,  we  would  mention 
Brebeuf's  Entretiens  Solitaires,  or  Solitary  Conversations,  as  one 
of  the  earliest  of  note.  The  poems  by  Louis  Racine,  La  Grace, 
and  especially  La  Religion,  are  considered  works  of  merit.  Boileau's 
Art  Poetique,  is  highly  critical  and  polished;  but  wanting  in  feeling. 
Voltaire's  Desastre  de  Lisbonne,  contains  some  vivid  descriptions  ; 
but  his  Discours  sur  VHomme,  or  Essay  on  Man,  and  his  La  Re- 
ligion Naturelle,  are,  we  apprehend,  works  of  a  dangerous  tendency. 
Dulard's  Grandeur  de  Dieu,  or  Greatness  of  God  in  the  Wonders 
of  Nature,  is  a  poem  of  merit.  Legouve's  poem,  Le  Merit e  des 
Femmes,  in  praise  of  women,  is  full  of  sensibility  and  delicacy  ;  Le 
Genie  de  VHomme,  by  Chenedolle,  is  strong  and  correct ;  and  Les 
Trois  rfges,  by  Roux,  is  also  a  superior  work.  The  Seasons,  by 
St.  Lambert,  and  the  Months,  by  Roucher,  are  imitations  of  Thom- 
son. The  poems  of  Delille,  are  highly  esteemed ;  and  among  them 
are  Les  Jardins,  or  the  Gardens  ;  L'Homme  des  Champs,  or  the 
Man  of  the  Fields ;  La  Malheur  et  La  Pitie,  or  Misfortune  and 
Pity ;  and  La  Conversation.  His  L1  Imagination,  is  rich  in 
description ;  and  his  Poeme  de  la  Nature,  is  a  work  of  great  erudi- 
tion. David,  by  Coetlogon,  is  a  sublime  production  ;  as  are  also 


300  CALLOGRAPHY. 

Lamartine's  Mort  de  Socrate,  or  Death  of  Socrates;  and  his  Chute 
$un  Ange,  or  Fall  of  an  Angel ;  which  is  of  a  wilder  character. 
Le  Brim's  poem,  La  Nature,  is  valuable  ;  and  there  are  also  poems 
on  Theatrical  Declamation,  by  Dorat;  on  Painting,  by  Lemierre  ; 
on  Astronomy,  by  Guidin  ;  on  Navigation,  by  Esmenard  ;  and  on 
Agriculture,  by  Rosset.  Among  the  French  writers  of  satire,  were 
Boileau,  Regnier,  Gilbert,  and  Le  Roy.  The  most  noted  French 
fables,  are  those  of  La  Fontaine. 

French  dramatic  poetry,  may  be  regarded  as  commencing  with 
the  dialogues  of  Faydit,  and  other  troubadours,  first  called  comediens. 
To  these  succeeded  the  plays  called  mysteries ;  representing  scrip- 
ture subjects;  but  degrading  them  to  the  level  of  the  vulgar  taste. 
Next  followed  the  moralities,  so  called  ;  and  the  farces  of  the  Clerks 
of  the  Bazoche ;  and  to  these  succeeded  the  follies  of  the  Lads 
without  care  ;  a  society  which  took  this  name,  and  performed  comic 
pieces.  The  Captive  Cleopatra,  of  Jodelle,  performed  in  1552,  was 
probably  the  first  French  Tragedy  of  note  or  influence;  arid  his 
Dido,  contains  great  beauties.  The  Sophonisba,  of  Mairet,  and  the 
Marianne,  of  Tristan  the  Hermit,  are  less  natural ;  but  La  Famine, 
by  Gamier,  exhibits  great  force.  The  tragedies  of  Corneille,  excel 
in  force  and  dignity ;  though  sometimes  faulty  in  the  plot.  His 
Medea,  was  his  first,  and  the  Cid,  is  considered  his  best.  Racine,  is 
polished  and  elegant,  but  wants  fire  and  inspiration.  Les  Freres 
Ennemis,  the  Inimical  Brothers,  was  his  first  tragedy ;  but  his 
Andromache,  and  Athalie,  are  regarded  as  superior.  Voltaire,  is 
the  third  great  tragic  poet  of  the  French  ;  and  his  Zaire,  Mahomet, 
and  Alzire,  have  been  much  admired.  The  Rhadamiste,  and  other 
tragedies  of  Crebillon  ;  the  Omasis  in  Egypt,  of  Baour  Lormian  ; 
the  Charles  IX.,  of  Chenier ;  the  Templars,  by  Renouard  ;  the 
Artaxerce,  by  Delrieu ;  the  Pama,  of  Delavigne  ;  and  the  Crom- 
well, of  Victor  Hugo ;  are  tragedies  of  note,  and  all  that  we  have 
room  to  name. 

The  oldest  French  comedy,  worthy  of  mention,  is  the  Avocat 
Patelin,  first  represented  about  1480,  by  the  Clerks  of  the  Bazoche. 
The  great  comic  poet  of  the  French  is  Moliere  ;  whose  free  invention, 
and  ready  humor,  have  perhaps  never  been  surpassed.  L'Etourdi, 
or  the  Wild  Fellow,  first  gave  him  celebrity ;  and  his  Tartuffe,  and 
Misanthrope,  are  said  to  have  become  models  of  the  higher  comedy. 
We  have  farther  room  to  mention  only  La  Metromanie,  by  Piron ; 
Le  Tresor,  by  Andrieux  ;  Le  Joueur,  by  Regnard ;  L'Ami  de  tout 
le  Monde,  by  Le  Grande ;  Le  Mechant,  by  Gresset ;  Le  Glorieux, 
by  Destouches  ;  and  Les  Chateaux  en  Espagne,  by  D'Harleville ; 
as  among  the  best  productions  of  this  class.  The  first  French  opera 
writer,  was  Qninault;  whose  Armide,  appeared  in  1686.  The 
comic  operas,  originated  in  the  vaudevilles,  or  sprightly  songs,  at 
the  fairs,  after  the  prohibition  of  comedies,  in  1707.  Favart  first  gave 
them  a  higher  character ;  and  the  Barber  of  Seville,  and  Marriage 
of  Figaro,  by  Beaumarchais,  are  among  the  most  celebrated. 

The  earliest  French  romances,  in  prose,  were  those  relating  to 
King  Arthur  and  the  Knights  of  the  Round  Table  ;  of  which  Tristan 
de  Leonois,  (or  le  Lionnais),  by  Chretien  de  Troyes,  and  Launcekt 


EUROPEAN.  301 

du  Lac,  by  Godfrey  de  Ligny,  were  written  about  the  year  1200. 
To  these  succeeded  the  romances  of  Charlemagne  and  the  Twelve 
Peers  of  France ;  one  of  which,  is  The  Chronicle,  falsely  attributed 
to  Turpin :  and  another,  entitled  Huon  de  Bordeaux,  was  of  later 
origin.  The  tales  of  magic  and  chivalry,  called  fabliaux,  were 
probably  borrowed,  in  part  at  least,  from  the  Arabs.  Gargantua 
and  Pantagruel,  by  Rabelais,  is  a  satirical  romance,  witty,  but 
coarse.  The  Jlstree,  or  Astrea,  of  D'Urfe,  is  a  pastoral  romance, 
relating  to  the  court  of  Henry  the  Great.  The  Grand  Cyrus,  and 
the  Clelia  and  Cleopatra,  of  M'lle.  de  Scuderi,  are  said  to  be  feeble 
and  affected  ;  but  the  historical  novels  of  M'lle.  de  la  Force,  are  more 
natural.  The  Contes  de  ma  Mere  VOye,  or  tales  of  Mother  Goose, 
by  Perrault,  had  their  day  of  applause  ;  but  the  Princesse  de  Cleves, 
and  the  Zayde,  (Zaide),  of  the  Countess  de  la  Fayette,  are  works  of 
value.  The  Gil  Bias,  of  Le  Sage,  and  his  Diable  Boiteux,  have 
been  much  admired  ;  but  the  Candide,  and  Zadig,  of  Voltaire,  are 
more  satirical  and  misanthropic.  The  Nouvelle  Heloise,  and  the 
Emile,  of  J.  J.  Rousseau,  display  the  weak  character  of  their 
author:  but  the  Marianne,  of  Marivaux,  is  refined  and  natural ;  and 
the  Belisaire,  of  Marmontel,  is  said  to  be  good.  The  Paul  and 
Virginia,  and  the  Indian  Cabin,  of  St.  Pierre  ;  and  the  Atala,  Rene, 
and  Martyrs,  of  Chateaubriand,  are  extensively  admired.  The 
Corinne,  and  Delphine,  of  Madame  de  Stael ;  the  Siege  of  Rochelle, 
and  Adda  and  Theodore,  of  Madame  de  Genlis;  the  Elisabeth,  and 
Mathilde,  of  Madame  Cottin  ;  and  the  Caroline  de  Lichtfield,  of 
Madame  de  Montolieu  ;  are  also  worthy  of  mention,  and  are  all  that 
we  have  room  to  name.  Of  French  epistles  or  letters,  we  barely 
name  those  of  the  Marchioness  de  Sevigne  ;  of  M'lle.  de  1'Espi- 
nasse  ;  and  of  Madame  Deffand ;  as  models  and  specimens.  The 
essays  of  Montaigne,  and  the  funeral  orations  of  Bossuet,  are  very 
highly  esteemed. 

§  3.  British  Callography,  we  are  proud  to  say,  is  rich  and  unsur- 
passed in  every  important  class  of  polite  literature.  English  poetry, 
may  be  considered  as  originating  with  Spenser  and  Gower,  and 
reaching  its  acme  with  Shakspeare  and  Milton.  Chaucer's  Court 
of  Love,  is  the  oldest  English  poem  extant;  and  his  Canterbury 
Tales,  resemble  those  of  the  Troubadours.  Gower's  Confessio 
Amantis,  or  Confession  of  a  Lover,  written  in  Latin,  was  one  of 
the  first  books  printed  in  England.  Spenser's  Fairy  Queen,  a  tale 
of  magic  and  chivalry,  has  great  beauties,  though  incomplete,  and 
seemingly  deficient  in  unity.  It  is  a  series  of  allegories,  in  praise 
of  the  virtues ;  rich  in  imagination,  facile  in  diction,  and  abounding 
in  romantic  incident,  sublimity,  and  pathos.  Davenant's  Gondibert, 
is  also  a  romantic  poem  of  considerable  interest.  Dryden's  Palamon 
and  Jlrcite,  is  a  tale  of  Grecian  times ;  and  Thomson's  Castle  of 
Indolence,  is  an  allegorical  poem,  in  imitation  of  Spenser. 

The  poem  of  Giles  Fletcher,  which  might  be  entitled  the  Messiad ; 
including  Christ's  Victory  in  Heaven,  Triumph  on  Earth,  Triumph 
over  Death,  and  Triumph  after  Death ;  may  be  ranked  as  an  heroic 
poem  of  merit :  but  the  chief  epic  poem,  in  our  language,  is  Milton's 
Paradise  Lost ;  which  describes,  in  the  sublimest  strains,  the  dis- 

2C 


302  CALLOGRAPHY. 

obedience  of  our  first  parents,  with  its  deplorable  consequences,  and 
the  promised  restoration  of  our  race  to  the  Divine  favor.  Milton's 
Paradise  Regained,  relating  to  the  events  of  our  Saviour's  life,  has 
less  inspiration,  and  is  less  admired.  Blackmore's  poem  on  the 
Creation,  is  elaborate,  but  tame  ;  and  his  Prince  Arthur,  and  King 
Alfred,  are  heroic  poems  of  minor  note.  Ths  Leonidas,  of  Glover, 
is  a  respectable  production  ;  but,  like  the  Epigoniad,  of  Wilkie,  has 
fallen  into  neglect.  The  Fingal  and  Temora,  attributed  to  Ossian, 
but  collected  and  compiled  by  Macpherson,  may  be  regarded  as  an 
epic  poem,  relating  to  the  deliverance  of  Erin  from  Swaran,  king  of 
Lochlin,  by  Fingal,  the  father  of  Ossian. 

Of  English  lyric  poetry,  other  than  psalms  and  hymns,  we  would 
mention  Drummond's  sonnets,  and  Habington's  poems  to  Castara,  as 
among  the  earliest  and  best.  The  odes  and  other  poems  of  Cowley  and 
Waller,  we  cannot  admire.  Dryden's  Alexander's  Feast,  an  ode  for 
St.  Cecilia's  Day,  is  masterly  ;  and  superior  to  those  of  Addison,  and 
Congreve,  on  the  same  theme.  Pope's  Messiah,  a  sacred  eclogue, 
and  his  Universal  Prayer,  are  noble  productions.  Collins's  Ode  on 
the  Passions,  is  of  the  first  order :  and  some  of  Gray's  odes,  as  his 
Hymn  to  Adversity,  are,  we  think,  superior.  T.  Warton's  ode  on 
the  Crusade,  and  Mason's  odes,  to  Memory,  and  to  Independence, 
are  worthy  of  praise ;  as  also  Mrs.  Barbauld's  ode  to  Remorse. 
Wordsworth's  Lyrical  Ballads,  have  found  strong  admirers  ;  and 
Coleridge's  Sibylline  Leaves,  contain  many  good  poems  of  a  lyrical 
character.  Bowles's  Sonnets,  are  also  good  ;  but  Burns's  Scottish 
Songs,  and  Moore's  Irish  Melodies,  are  among  those  collections 
which  have  met  with  the  most  general  favor.  Mrs.  Hemans's  poems 
belong  mostly  to  this  class,  and  deserve  high  praise.  Of  elegiac 
poetry,  we  would  mention  Lord  Lyttelton's  Monody  on  the  death 
of  his  wife  ;  Shenstone's  Elegy  on  a  melancholy  event ;  and  Gray's 
Elegy,  written  in  a  country  churchyard  ;  as  models  of  their  kind. 
Of  pastoral  poetry,  Spenser's  Shepherd's  Calendar,  and  Wither's 
Shepherd's  Hunting,  are  among  the  oldest  specimens  of  interest. 
Britfannia's  Pastorals,  by  Browne,  are  quaint,  but  original  ;  Gay's 
Shepherd's  Week,  descends  to  rustic  themes  and  style;  but  Shen- 
stone's Pastoral  Ballad,  is  a  truly  elegant  production.  Lyttelton's 
Progress  of  Love,  in  four  eclogues,  is  ornate  and  attractive ;  and 
Allan  Ramsay's  Gentle  Shepherd,  is  a  beautiful  picture  of  Scotch 
pastoral  life.  Collins's  Oriental  Eclogues,  finely  describe  Asiatic 
pomp;  and  the  City  Eclogues,  of  Lady  Montague,  assisted  by  Pope, 
and  Gay,  present  a  striking  picture  of  city  life. 

Of  English  descriptive  poetry,  Drayton's  Poly-olbion,  is  a  minute 
description  of  England,  with  many  striking  episodes.  Phineas 
Fletcher's  Purple  Island,  is  an  allegorical  description  of  man,  phy- 
sically and  mentally  considered.  Milton's  L' Allegro,  and  //  Pen- 
seroso,  are  vivid  pictures  of  cheerfulness  and  melancholy.  Gay's 
Trivia,  or  walking  in  London,  and  his  Rural  Sports,  like  Somer- 
ville's  Chase,  and  Field  Sports,  and  Savage's  Wanderer,  are  re- 
spectable poems  of  this  class.  Goldsmith's  Traveller,  and  Deserted 
Village,  are  peculiarly  beautiful;  and  Pope's  Windsor  Forest, 
Dyer's  Grongar  Hill,  Denham's  Cooper's  Hill,  and  Roscoe's  Mount 


EUROPEAN.  303 

Pleasant,  are  charming  descriptions.  Dyer's  Ruins  of  Rome,  Ad- 
dison's  Letter  from  Italy,  and  especially  Rogers's  Italy,  are  choice 
and  instructive  poems.  Falconer's  Shipwreck,  is  a  well  drawn  and 
affecting  picture  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  Campbell's  Gertrude 
of  Wyoming.  Bloomfield's  Farmer  Boy,  though  simple,  has  excited 
much  interest ;  and  Burns's  Cotter's  Saturday  Night,  is  one  of  our 
sweetest  poems.  Wordsworth's  Excursion,  and  Grahame's  Sab- 
bath, and  Sabbath  Walks,  are  fine  productions ;  and  Parnell's  little 
poem,  the  Hermit,  should  not  be  forgotten.  Thomson's  poem  on 
the  Seasons,  is  natural  and  beautiful ;  and  Akenside's  Pleasures  of 
the  Imagination,  Rogers's  Pleasures  of  Memory,  and  Campbell's 
Pleasures  of  Hope,  cannot  fail  to  be  read  with  pleasure  and  improve- 
ment. The  Triumph  of  Peace,  and  the  Empire  of  Neptune,  by 
Hughes,  like  the  Brittania,  and  the  poem  on  Liberty,  by  Thomson, 
are  national  or  patriotic  poems  of  merit.  Dryden's  Jlstrsca  Redux, 
and  Jlbsalorn  and  Jlchitophel,  are  in  praise  of  Charles  II. ;  his  Jln- 
nus  Mirabilis,  treats  of  the  Great  Fire  in  London,  and  the  Dutch 
War;  and  Addison's  Campaign,  describes  the  battle  of  Blenheim. 

Of  English  didactic  poetry,  Tusser's  Good  Husbandry,  is  one  of 
the  oldest  specimens,  quaint  but  valuable.  Gascoigne's  Fruits  of 
War,  is  well  argued  and  noble  ;  and  Greville's  (Lord  Brooke's)  poem 
on  Human  Learning,  is  one  of  merit ;  as  also  Daniel's  Musophilus, 
in  defence  of  learning.  The  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  by  Davies, 
is  an  admirable  argument ;  and  Prior's  Alma,  or  Progress  of  the 
Mind,  is  a  popular  poem,  superior  to  his  Solomon,  or  the  Vanity  of 
the  World,  which  is  wanting  in  force.  The  Spleen,  a  poem  by 
Green,  gives  good  directions  for  preserving  cheerfulness ;  and  Arm- 
strong's Jlrt  of  Preserving  Health,  is  an  excellent  treatise  on  Hy- 
gienics. John  Philips's  Pomona,  a  poem  on  Cider,  is  amusing  and 
practical;  and  Darwin's  Botanic  Garden,  is  worthy  of  the  horticul- 
turist's perusal.  Pope's  Essay  on  Criticism,  is  superior ;  and 
Churchill's  Eosciad,  is  a  good  criticism  on  theatrical  performances. 
Ambrose  Philips  wrote  a  poem  on  Education  ;  and  Stillingfleet  one 
on  Conversation.  Pope's  Essay  on  Man,  has  been  widely  read  ;  and 
his  Moral  Essays,  are  rich  in  thought  and  diction.  Cowper's  Task, 
is  a  valuable  and  instructive  poem;  and  Beattie's  J/zVis/re/,  is  noble  and 
sublime.  Young's  Complaint,  or  Night  Thoughts,  is  a  deeply  pious 
production;  and  Pollok's  Course  of  Time,  is  a  lofty  flight  of  genius. 
The  poems  of  Heber,  White,  and  Miss  Hannah  More,  are  chiefly 
didactic,  and  very  beautiful.  Of  satirical  poetry,  Butler's  Hudibras, 
in  ridicule  of  the  dissenters  in  Cromwell's  time,  is  witty,  but  coarse 
and  vulgar.  Pope's  Dunciad,  and  GifFord's  Baviad,  and  Mseviad, 
are  satires  on  bad,  but  conceited  writers.  Byron's  English  Bards 
and  Scotch  Reviewers,  is  a  similar  satire,  but  unjustly  severe.  Young 
left  seven  satires  on  the  Universal  Passion,  or  the  love  of  fame.  The 
satires  of  Wolcot,  (Peter  Pindar),  against  George  III.,  are  of  little 
worth. 

Of  English  dramatic  poetry,  the  great  and  early  master  is  Shak- 
speare  ;  whose  truth  to  nature  and  richness  of  imagination  have  pro- 
bably never  been  surpassed.  Of  his  tragedies,  we  would  mention 
Romeo  and  Juliet,  Hamlet,  King  Lear,  Macbeth,  and  Othello  ;  and 


304  CALLOGRAPHY. 

of  his  lighter  pieces,  the  Tempest,  sm&  Midsummer  Night's  Dream, 
as  among  the  best.  Of  Ben  Jonson,  Shakspeare's  worthy  contem- 
porary, the  best  dramas  are  the  Alchemist,  Epicene,  and  Volpone; 
full  of  energy  and  humor.  Beaumont  and  Fletcher,  wrote  many 
plays,  but  very  few  of  them  can  be  recommended  for  perusal.  Mil- 
ton's Comus,  and  Samson  Agonistes,  are  worthy  of  his  fame. 
Dryden's  Ml  for  Love,  and  his  Don  Sebastian,  are  energetic,  but 
rather  bombastic.  Otway's  Orphan,  and  his  Venice  Preserved,  are 
deep  tragedies,  though  obnoxious  to  criticism.  Lee's  Theodosius, 
is  rather  extravagant ;  but  Howe's  Jane  Shore,  and  his  Fair  Peni- 
tent, are  noble  and  spirited  productions.  Congreve's  Mourning 
Bride,  has  considerable  merit.  Dr.  Young's  Revenge,  is  energetic, 
but  deeply  tragic.  Addison's  Cato,  is  beautiful,  though  rather  frigid  ; 
and  Thomson's  Tancred  and  Sigismunda,  has  the  same  fault. 
Home's  Douglas,  is  a  tragedy  of  great  merit.  We  have  farther 
room  to  name  only  Sheridan's  Pizarro  ;  Moore's  Gamester ;  Miss 
Hannah  More's  Percy;  Brooke's  Guslavus  Vasa ;  Gibber's  Xime- 
na;  and  Hughes's  Siege  of  Damascus  ;  as  superior  tragedies:  and 
of  comedies,  Dodsley's  King  and  Miller  of  Mansjield ;  Goldsmith's 
She  Stoops  to  Conquer;  Hoadley's  Suspicious  Husband;  and 
Sheridan's  Rivals ;  may  be  added  as  works  of  note.  Gay's  Beg' 
gar's  Opera,  is  among  the  famed  productions  of  its  class. 

Of  English  romantic  poetry,  we  have  spoken  in  part  at  the  com- 
mencement of  this  section.  Crabbe's  collection  of  Tales,  is  gene- 
rally interesting ;  and  Prior's  Henry  and  Emma,  is  a  sweet  poem 
of  its  kind.  So  is  Goldsmith's  Edwin  and  Angelina.  Most  of 
Sir  Walter  Scott's  poems  are  of  this  class  ;  as  The  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel;  Marmion ;  The  Lady  of  the  Lake ;  The  Vision  of 
Don  Roderick;  Eokeby ;  The  Lord  of  the  Isles ;  and  others  of 
minor  note.  Here  also  we  would  class  many  of  Byron's  poems,  as 
Childe  Harold's  Pilgrimage;  The  Giaour;  The  Bride  of  My- 
dos ;  The  Corsair;  Lara;  The  Siege  of  Corinth;  The  Pri- 
soner of  Chillon  ;  Beppo ;  Mazeppa;  and  others.  Next  to  these 
we  mention  Southey's  poems,  Thalaba ;  Madoc ;  The  Curse 
of  Kehama;  and  Roderick.  Moore's  Lalla  Rookh,  and  Loves  of 
the  Angels,  are  imaginative  and  pleasftig :  and  Wordsworth's  Peter 
Bell,  and  his  Waggoner,  are  tales  of  interest.  We  have  only  room 
to  name  farther  Shelley's  Revolt  of  Islam,  zndJHastor;  Keats's^n- 
dymion,  and  Isabella;  Montgomery's  Wanderer  of  Switzerland; 
Bowles's  Missionary;  Miss  Landon's Improvisatrice,  and  Trouba- 
dour ;  Coleridge's  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner,  and  Christabel ; 
and  Professor  Wilson's  City  of  the  Plague,  and  Isle  of  Palms  ;  as 
prominent  poems  of  this  class. 

The  earliest  romances,  relating  to,  or  written  in  England,  were  in 
the  French  language,  introduced  by  the  Norman  conquerors;  and 
have  been  referred  to  under  French  Callography.  (p.  298).  The 
oldest  one,  not  translated  from  the  French,  is  probably  the  metrical 
romance  of  Sir  Tristram,  by  Thomas  of  Ercildoun ;  which  has 
been  edited  by  Sir  Walter  Scott.  The  Romances  relating  to  Arthur 
and  Charlemagne,  were  followed  by  those  called  classical,  applying 
ancient  names  to  the  characters  and  manners  of  the  crusaders.  Sir 


EUROPEAN.  305 

Philip  Sidney's  Arcadia,  is  a  pastoral  romance,  of  great  beauty ; 
but  Sir  Thomas  More's  Utopia,  describing  an  imaginary  land  of  per- 
fection, had  a  political  object.  Boyle's  Parthenissa,  and  Mrs.  Man- 
ley's  rftalantis,  were  perhaps  the  first  English  novels  relating  to  the 
fashionable  life  of  their  times.  Richardson's  novels,  Pamela,  Cla- 
rissa Harlowe,  and  Sir  Charles  Grandison,  are  attempts  to  paint 
perfection  ;  but  have  considerable  merit.  Fielding's  novels,  including 
Tom  Jones,  and  Smollet's  novels,  including  Roderick  Random, 
portray  scenes  of  common  and  low  life  with  force,  but  too  often 
descend  to  vulgarity.  Dr.  Johnson's  Rasselas,  is  a  philosophical 
tale  ;  and  Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakejield,  is  natural  and  beautiful ; 
one  of  the  best  works  of  its  kind.  Of  Sterne's  Tristram  Shandy, 
we  think  less  favorably.  Mrs.  Radcliffe's  novels,  including  the  Mys- 
teries of  Udolpho,  and  the  Italian,  are  chiefly  tales  of  terror ;  and 
still  worse  are  M.  G.  Lewis's  Ambrosio  or  the  Monk,  Walker's 
Three  Spaniards,  and  Maturin's  Melmoth  or  the  Wanderer.  Mrs. 
Roche's  novels  are  chiefly  sentimental ;  of  which  the  best  is  perhaps 
the  Children  of  the  Abbey.  Miss  Jane  Porter's  Thaddeus  of  War  saw  * 
and  Scottish  Chiefs,  are  pleasing  compositions  ;  perhaps  superior  to- 
the  Don  Sebastian,  and  other  novels,  of  Miss  Anna  Maria  Porter, 
her  sister.  Evelina,  Camilla,  and  other  novels  by  Miss  Burney, 
(Mrs.  Darblay),  and  especially  Miss  Edgeworth's  novels,  including 
Belinda,  and  Helen,  are  superior  in  style  and  sentiment.  Mrs. 
Holland's  novels,  including  the  Son  of  a  Genius,  are  beautiful  and 
instructive.  D'Israeli's  Vivian  Grey,  and  Young  Duke ;  Bulwer's 
Devereux,  Rienzi,  and  other  novels ;  and  Marryat's  Peter  Simple, 
Jacob  Faithful,  and  other  productions,  are  powerful  descriptions,  but 
of  doubtful  tendency.  Of  James's  novels,  Darnley,  Philip  Augustus, 
Richelieu,  Attila  and  others,  we  think  favorably  ;  but  the  great 
novelist  of  our  language  is  Sir  Walter  Scott ;  of  whose  novels,  more 
than  five-and-twenty  in  number,  Guy  Mannering,  The  Antiquary, 
The  Heart  of  Mid  Lothian,  and  Ivanhoe,  are  among  those  which 
we  prefer. 

Of  English  essays,  those  found  in  Johnson's  Rambler,  and  Idler; 
in  Addison's  Spectator  ;  in  Mackenzie's  Mirror,  and  Lounger  ;  and 
in  Cumberland's  Connoisseur,  are  among  the  more  celebrated.  The 
letters  of  Lord  Shaftsbury  and  Mr.  Harris  are  philosophical  treatises. 
Those  of  Pope  are  rather  pedantic  ;  those  of  Swift  unaffected,  but  they 
show  his  character  in  no  favorable  light.  The  letters  of  Bolingbroke, 
of  Dr.  Arbuthnot,  and  of  Bishop  Atterbury,  are  said  to  be  superior. 
Cowper's  letters  are  beautiful,  and  exhibit  an  attractive  character. 
As  prominent  British  orators,  we  would  name  Chatham,  Pitt,  Fox, 
Burke,  and  Sheridan  among  the  statesmen  ;  and  Knox,  Tillotson, 
Butler,  Sherlock,  Barrow,  Heber,  Hall,  and  Chalmers,  among  the 
divines. 

§  4.  Of  Dutch  Callography,  which  is  limited  in  extent,  and  of 
minor  importance,  we  must  speak  very  briefly.  The  first  poets  of 
note,  in  the  Dutch  language,  were  Van  Der  Doos,  (or  Douza),  who 
wrote  the  Annals  of  Holland  in  verse  ;  and  the  Heinse,  (or  Heinsius, 
father  and  son),  who  wrote  however  chiefly  in  the  classic  tongues. 
The  poems  of  Cats  are  said  to  be  spirited  and  pious ;  those  of  Van 
39  2  c  2 


306  CALLOGRAPHY. 

Der  Goes,  elegant  and  correct.  Of  Dutch  epic  poems,  we  may 
mention  the  Mam  and  Eve,  of  Van  Der  Vondel  ;  who  also  wrote 
satires,  eulogies,  and  tragedies.  The  William  III.,  is  an  epic  poem 
by  Rotgans ;  and  another  entitled  Germanicus,  is  by  an  unknown 
authoress.  Van  Der  Vleit  wrote  a  poem  entitled  The  Spaniards  in 
Rotterdam,  chiefly  historical.  The  odes  of  Van  Brceckhuyzen,  and 
Moonen,  and  the  idyls  of  Wellekens,  are  much  esteemed  ;  as  are  also 
the  poems  of  Foot  and  of  Nieuwland. 

German  Callography,  is  chiefly  the  growth  of  recent  times  ; 
during  which,  sound  criticism  has  secured  to  it  a  confirmed  national 
character.  The  heroic  songs  of  the  ancient  Germans,  mentioned  by 
Tacitus,  and  sung  in  the  days  of  Attila,  are  lost.  Of  the  biblical 
poems,  which  originated  with  the  introduction  of  Christianity, 
Oitfried's  Harmony  of  the  Gospels,  written  in  verse,  in  the  time 
of  Lewis  the  German,  is  the  most  important.  To  these  poems 
succeeded  those  of  the  Minnesingers,  or  amatory  poets,  the  first  of 
whom  was  Henry  of  Veldeck,  already  mentioned  under  Biography. 
They  are  also  called  Suabian  poets  ;  because  they  flourished  under 
the  Suabian  or  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  and  wrote  in  the  Suabian 
dialect.  They  were  mostly  knights  or  nobles,  and  sang  chiefly  of 
virtuous  love,  in  connection  with  chivalric  and  pastoral  themes. 

The  oldest  epic  poem,  of  the  Germans,  is  the  Nibelungenlied, 
or  song  of  the  Nibelungs  ;  narrating  the  tragic  fate  of  Giinther,  an 
ancient  chief  of  the  Nibelungs,  (a  tribe  of  Burgundians),  with  the 
destruction  of  that  tribe,  about  A.  D.  440.  Next  to  this,  is  the 
ffeldenbuch,  or  book  of  heroes,  also  arranged  and  compiled  by  the 
Minnesingers,  and  relating  to  the  times  of  Attila  and  the  irruption 
of  the  Germans  into  the  Roman  empire.  The  Teuerdank,  by  Pfin- 
zing,  is  a  romantic  epic,  of  whicli  the  emperor  Maximilian  I.  is  the 
hero.  The  Oberon  of  Wieland,  is  a  romantic  epic,  founded  on  a 
tale  of  chivalry,  in  which  fairies  and  elves  are  introduced  as  the 
machinery.  Burger's  Leonora,  is  a  similar  composition,  in  which 
ghosts  and  sorcerers  perform  a  part.  Goethe's  Hermann  and  Doro- 
thea, is  rather  a  tale,  than  an  epic  poem  ;  but  of  deep  interest. 
Schulze  wrote  The  Enchanted  Rose,  and  Cecilia,  classed  as  romantic 
poems  approaching  the  epic  character.  Gessner's  Death  of  Mel, 
is  a  beautiful  epic  or  rather  descriptive  composition,  though  written 
in  prose :  and  the  Messiad,  by  Klopstock,  relating  to  the  life  of  our 
Saviour,  is  said  to  be  full  of  sublime  inspiration. 

Of  German  lyric  and  pastoral  poetry,  the  hymns  and  sacred 
poems  of  Martin  Luther  and  his  successors,  animated  and  vigorous, 
fluent  and  original,  served  as  a  model  of  the  German  language. 
There  are  said  to  be  more  than  thirty  thousand  hymns  in  this 
language,  by  more  than  five  hundred  authors.  The  sacred  odes,  or 
psalms,  of  Klopstock,  are  of  a  high  order;  the  hymns  of  Gerhard 
are  full  of  deep  piety,  and  those  of  Novalis,  have  much  feeling  and 
spirit.  The  lyrical  poems  of  Opitz,  are  said  to  want  originality, 
but  are  well  written.  The  idyls  of  the  Swiss  Gessner,  are  character- 
ized by  purity  and  truth;  and  those  of  Voss  are  beautiful, particularly 
that  entitled  Louisa.  The  elegies  of  Holty,  are  said  to  be  in  a 
romantic  vein ;  but  the  war  songs  of  Korner,  breathe  the  loftiest 


EUROPEAN.  307 

strain  of  feeling  and  of  patriotism.  We  have  also  beautiful  ballads, 
or  lyrical  compositions,  by  Goethe,  Schiller,  Herder,  Uhland,  and 
others  ;  and  the  Minnelieder,  or  love-songs  of  the  Minnesingers, 
have  been  collected  by  Tieck.  The  Urania  of  Tiedge  is  said  to  be 
of  a  lyrical  and  didactic  character.  Haller's  poem  on  The  Alps,  is 
a  fine  description  ;  and  his  ethical  poems  are  of  great  value.  Hage- 
dorn's  poem  On  Happiness,  contains  excellent  morality;  and  his 
fables  are  superior.  Gellert  also  wrote  fables,  and  didactic  poetry. 
Kleist's  Vernal  Season,  is  said  to  be  a  fine  production.  Among  the 
earlier  satirical  poems,  are  Reineckc  der  Fuchs,  or  Reynard  the 
Fox,  by  Henry  of  Alckmaer;  the  Narrenschiff,  or  Ship  of  Fools, 
by  Sebastian  Brand  ;  and  other  similar  productions. 

German  dramatic  poetry,  originated  with  the  Mast er sin g er s $ 
who  formed  poetical  fraternities  in  some  of  the  German  cities,  about 
the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century.  Their  first  productions  were 
religious  poems  ;  but  Hans  Rosenpliit,  Hans  Folz,  and  especially 
Hans  Sachs,  wrote  numerous  pieces  for  the  theatre.  Among  those 
of  Folz,  are  Solomon  und  MarcoJf,  and  Der  Arzt  und  der  Kranke. 
The  dramas  of  Gottsched,  are  said  to  be  formal  and  inferior.  Les- 
sing,  who  wrote  didactically  on  the  theatre,  is  the  author  of  Sarah 
Thompson,  a  tragedy,  and  Minna  von  Barnhelm,  a  military  comedy. 
The  tragedies  of  Schiller,  including  his  Mary  Stuart,  Wallenstein, 
and  William  Tell,  are  among  the  best  in  the  German  language. 
Uhland's  Duke  Ernest  of  Suabia,  and  Louis  of  Bavaria,  are  re- 
spectable dramas.  The  tragedies  of  Werner,  including  his  Luther, 
and  Attila,  are  much  esteemed ;  but  those  of  Goethe  are  perhaps 
the  most  read;  including  his  Gortz  von  Berlichingen ;  Faust; 
Iphigenia;  Count  of  E gmont ;  and  Tasso.  The  dramas  of  Kotze- 
bue,  mostly  comedies,  are  regarded  as  inferior. 

Of  German  romantic  poetry,  besides  the  romantic  epics  already 
named,  some  of  the  most  popular  productions  are  the  Melusine  ;  and 
Magalone ;  and  the  famous  Till  Eulenspiegel,  or  German  rogue, 
which  last  has  been  attributed  to  Dr.  Murner,  but  is  probably  of  an 
earlier  date.  Herder's  romantic  poems,  including  the  Cid,  Voices  of 
the  Nations,  and  Legends,  are  highly  praised ;  but  those  of  Wieland, 
among  which  are  Gandolin,  Endymion,  and  Ganymede,  are,  to  say 
the  least,  highly  extravagant.  Lessing's  Nathan  the  Wise,  is,  we 
believe,  a  poem  of  the  romantic  kind.  Goethe's  Hermann  and  Do- 
rothea, is  much  admired ;  and  the  romantic  poems  of  Schwab,  and 
Tieck  are  said  to  be  superior. 

Of  German  romance,  in  prose,  many  specimens  have  been  handed 
down  from  the  days  of  chivalry ;  which  we  have  no  room  to  men- 
tion. Lohenstein's  Jlrminius  and  Thusuelda,  is  said  to  be  vigorous, 
but  bombastic  and  conceited.  The  Swiss  physician  Haller,  wrote 
three  political  novels  in  German,  entitled  Usong  ;  Alfred  the  Great; 
and  Fabius  and  Cato  ;  designed  to  compare  the  different  forms  of 
government.  Gellert's  Swedish  Countess,  was  the  first  German 
^ovel  devoted  to  a  description  of  domestic  life.  Wieland,  besides  his 
roj  i./Jc  poems,  wrote  several  novels  in  prose;  of  which  his  Jlga- 
thon,  is  the  best  known ;  though  its  philosophy  should  be  received 
with  caution.  Engel's  Lorenz  Stark,  is  a  masterly  picture  of  life 


308  CALLOGRAPHY. 

and  manners  ;  and  the  Alcibiades,  and  Bianco,  Capello,  of  Meissner, 
are  striking  and  elegant.  Nicolai's  Sebaldus  Nothanker,  and  other 
novels,  are  less  esteemed.  Jung's  Theobald  der  Schwarmer,  is 
mystical  and  unnatural ;  and  Heinrich  von  Ofterdingen,  by  Novalis, 
is  a  similar  work,  though  in  a  lofty  style.  Miller's  Sigwart,  is  a 
sentimental  novel ;  but  Pestalozzi's  Lienhardt  und  Gertrude,  de- 
scribes humble  life  with  truth  and  feeling.  The  Hesperus,  Titan, 
and  other  novels  of  Paul  Richter  are  both  moral  and  entertaining. 
Goethe's  Wilhelm  Meister,  and  Sorrows  of  Werter,  have  been  much 
read  ;  and  Kotzebue's  lldegerte  and  Zaida,  are  worthy  of  mention, 
though  less  admired. 

The  earliest  Danish  poets,  were  the  Scalds,  or  minstrels,  who 
sang,  in  blank  verse,  the  exploits  of  their  leaders,  and  the  praises  of 
their  nation.  The  oldest  Danish  poem  extant,  is  the  epic  of  the 
Skyldingians  ;  which  belongs  to  the  age  of  chivalry.  The  modern 
poetry  of  the  Danes,  may  be  said  to  have  commenced  with  Arreboe, 
in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Kingo  celebrated  the 
exploits  of  the  Danish  Kings,  in  an  heroic  poem  ;  and  Ingemann  has 
written  an  allegorical  epic,  entitled  The  Black  Knights,  resembling 
Spencer's  Fairy  Queen.  The  epic  poem  by  Herz,  on  the  Deliver- 
ance of  Israel,  obtained  a  prize  from  the  society  of  the  fine  arts  ;  and 
Ewald's  Death  of  Balder,  is  also  a  work  of  genius.  The  lyric  poems 
of  Ewald,  Weyer,  Brun,  and  Baggesen,  are  said  to  be  superior ;  as 
also  the  comic  and  satiric  poems  of  Holberg,  Guldberg,  and  Wessel. 

The  Danish  tragedies  of  Rahbeck,  and  Weyer,  are  said  to  be 
good,  and  the  Itolfot  Ewald,  is  a  work  of  genius.  The  tragedies  of 
CEhlenschlager,  including  Hakon  Jarl,  Planatoke,  and  Axle  and 
Walburg;  as  also  Ingemann's  Massaniello,  and  his  Blanca,  are  highly 
celebrated.  Of  Danish  comedies,  those  of  Holberg,  and  Wessel,  are 
said  to  be  the  best.  Holberg  is  regarded  as  the  first  of  the  modern 
Danish  literati.  His  Peder  Paars,  a  comico-heroic  poem,  first  es- 
tablished his  fame ;  and  his  Nicholas  Klimm's  Subterraneous 
Travels,  a  satirical  and  humorous  romance,  has  been  extremely 
popular. 

Here  perhaps  should  be  mentioned  the  Edda,  a  mythological  and 
heroic  poem,  or  rather  collection  of  poems,  said  to  have  been  com- 
posed by  the  Norwegians  in  Iceland,  as  early  as  A.D.  1 100 ;  and  from 
which  an  abridgment  or  digest,  called  the  Younger  Edda,  was  after- 
wards made  by  Snorro  Sturleson.  Among  those  parts  of  it  which 
have  been  published,  are  the  Voluspae,  or  prophecies,  and  Hava- 
maal,  or  elevated  conversation. 

Of  the  early  Swedish  poetry,  chiefly  songs  of  the  Scalds,  few  spe- 
cimens remain  ;  and  the  chief  literature  of  this  country  is  very  recent. 
The  national  taste  has  been  improved  by  a  society  called  the  Friends 
of  Science,  founded  at  Upsal,  by  Atterbom,  in  1803.  Dalin  wrote 
entertaining  poems,  in  the  French  style  ;  and  Madame  Nordenflicht's 
lyrics  gained  her  the  title  of  the  Swedish  Sappho.  The  poems  of 
Lidner,  have  much  feeling  and  elevation ;  and  those  of  Thorild,  are 
of  a  noble  character.  The  lyrics  of  Bellman,  are  said  to  be  unsur- 
passed, and  his  descriptions  of  Swedish  life  and  manners  very  correct. 
Atterbom  opposed  the  French  style,  in  some  minor  poems  of  merit. 


EUROPEAN.  309 

The  lyric  and  pastoral  poems  of  Tegner,  display  high  genius  ;  Fran- 
cen's  idyls  are  worthy  of  mention  ;  and  the  Dikter  von  Euphrosynet 
by  C.  Julia  Nyberg,  are  lyric  poems  replete  with  tenderness  and 
beauty. 

Gyllenborg  wrote  an  historical  epic  poem,  in  the  Swedish  language, 
entitled  Taget  b'fver  Bait,  as  also  a  didactic  poem,  Forsb'k  om  Skal- 
deconsten,  both  of  which  are  highly  praised,  The  drama,  in  Swe- 
den, has  been  but  little  cultivated.  Ling  is  perhaps  the  best  dramatic 
poet ;  and  his  Agnes,  has  some  striking  passages.  Of  Swedish 
novels,  those  of  Livijus,  including  his  Knight  of  St.  Jbrrn,  and 
Pique  Dame,  are  perhaps  the  best.  Those  of  Mork,  among  which 
are  jldalrik  and  Gothilda,  and  Thekla,  are  also  deemed  worthy  of 
mention ;  and  these  are  all  that  we  have  room  to  name. 

§  5.  Of  Polish  Callography,  the  oldest  and  finest  monument  are 
the  works  of  Kochanowski,  including  psalms,  elegies,  epigrams,  and 
a  didactic  poem  on  chess.  The  lyrics  of  Grochowski,  the  idyls  of 
Simonowicz,  the  odes  of  Woronicz,  and  the  odes  and  elegies  of 
Karpinski,  are  highly  esteemed.  Of  epic  poems,  the  Poles  have  the 
Jagellonida,  by  Tomascewski,  on  the  Union  of  Lithuania  with 
Poland ;  and  the  Monomachy,  or  War  of  the  Monks,  by  Krasicki, 
archbishop  of  Guesna.  Krasicki  also  wrote  the  Mycheid,  or  Souriad, 
a  mock  heroic,  which  relates  how  mice  and  rats  devoured  king  Po- 
piel ;  and  the  War  of  Choczin,  which  is  rather  historical  than  epic. 
Trembecki  was  distinguished  as  a  lyric,  fabulistic,  and  didactic  poet ; 
Zachowitsch,  for  his  fables  and  tales ;  and  Niemcewicz,  for  patriotic 
songs.  Poland  has  numerous  dramatic  poems,  among  which  are 
those  of  Bielawski,  Zablocki,  Felinski,  Osinski,  and  others.  Bogus- 
lawski's  Krakoiviani  i  Gorali,  is  an  interesting  drama,  from  the 
number  of  its  patriotic  songs.  There  are  Polish  romances,  by  Skar- 
beck ;  and  the  Jan.  Y.  Tenczyna,  of  Niemcewicz  is  an  historical 
novel,  in  imitation  of  those  of  Scott. 

Of  Russian  Callography,  one  of  the  older  specimens  is  the 
Expedition  of  Igor,  an  heroic  poem  written  in  the  twelfth  century. 
Lomonosoff  wrote  an  epic,  entitled  Peter  the  Great;  and  Keraskoff 
wrote  two  epics,  the  Conquest  of  Kasan,  and  Wladimir  the  Great; 
which  are  said  to  be  deficient  in  interest,  though  well  Written. 
PetrofTs  national  odes,  and  BatjuschkofTs  lyrics  and  elegies,  display 
fine  taste  and  imagination.  Derschawin's  Ode  to  the  Deity,  and  his 
Waterfall,  are  poems  of  great  merit.  Dmitrieff  wrote  odes,  and 
fables  ;  the  latter  imitated  from  La  Fontaine.  The  fables  of  Chem- 
nitzer,  and  of  Kriloff,  are  original,  and  highly  esteemed.  Keraskoff 
wrote,  besides  his  epics,  a  didactic  poem  called  Fruits  of  the  Sciences; 
and  Bagdanowitsch  wrote  a  romantic  poem-  entitled  Psyche  ;  the  idea 
of  which  was  borrowed  from  the  classics.  The  theatre,  was  intro- 
duced into  Russia,  in  1758.  Sumarokoff  wrote  the  first  regular 
tragedy ;  and  those  of  Oseroff  are  high  in  public  favor.  The  older 
Russian  tales,  relate  chiefly  to  Wladimir  I.  and  his  knights  ;  who 
are  to  the  Russians  what  Charlemagne  was  to  the  French,  and  Arthur 
to  the  British.  Of  the  Russian  novelists,  we  can  only  name  Karam- 
sin,  Shukoffsky,  and  Benizky. 


310  CALLOGRAPHY. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

AMERICAN    CALLOGRAPHY. 

THE  Polite  Literature  of  the  United  States,  though  limited  in 
extent,  is,  we  think,  not  unworthy  of  a  youthful  nation.  The  sub- 
jugation of  a  new  country,  the  development  of  its  physical  resources, 
and  the  acquisition  of  property,  have  necessarily  preceded  the  culti- 
vation of  that  taste  in  the  fine  arts,  which  wealth  and  leisure  alone 
can  foster,  and  without  which,  genius  must  languish  in  obscurity  and 
neglect.  But  we  indulge  the  hope  that  henceforward,  wealth  and 
leisure  will  be  less  devoted  to  gaudy  show  ;  and  that  taste  and  genius 
will  be  more  highly  appreciated,  and  more  adequately  rewarded, 
by  those  who  possess  the  requisite  means.  We  may  remark  that 
although  less  polite  literature  might  have  been  written,  perhaps  even 
more  of  it  might  have  been  preserved,  by  our  countrymen,  had  not 
our  language  been  so  rich  already  in  this  department. 

Of  American  epic  poetry,  Dwight's  Conquest  of  Canaan,  describ- 
ing the  establishment  of  the  Jews  in  the  Holy  Land,  is  perhaps  the 
oldest  and  best  specimen.  Barlow's  Vision  of  Columbus,  which 
was  afterwards  enlarged  under  the  title  of  the  Columbiad,  is,  we 
think,  a  poem  of  considerable  merit,  on  the  Discovery  of  America, 
and  the  future  glory  of  the  United  States.  The  Fredoniad,  by 
Emmons,  describing  at  large  th'e  events  of  the  Last  War  with 
Great  Britain,  falls  below  the  dignity  of  an  epic  poem,  and  has 
been  but  little  read.  Adams's  Madoc,  relating  to  a  Welsh  prince  of 
that  name,  who  is  supposed  to  have  discovered  America,  is  a  digni- 
fied poem,  but  has  not  met  with  general  attention.  TrumbulPs  Mac 
Fingal,  is  a  mock  heroic  poem,  written  in  favor  of  the  Revolution ; 
and  the  Jlnarchiad,  by  Lemuel  Hopkins  and  others,  was  designed  to 
further  the  adoption  of  the  Federal  Constitution. 

Of  American  lyric  poetry,  the  patriotic  songs  of  Hopkinson  and 
others,  had  a  marked  influence  during  our  struggle  for  Independence. 
The  Jldims  and  Liberty,  of  Robert  Treat  Paine,  and  especially  the 
Hail  Columbia,  of  Judge  Hopkinson,  are  among  those  happy  efforts 
which  have  acquired  a  national  renown  ;  and  next  and  similar  to 
them  we  would  mention  the  Star  Spangled  Banner,  by  Francis  Key, 
and  the  American  Flag,  by  Drake,  as  among  the  noblest  effusions  of 
patriotism.  Humphrey's  Address  to  the  Revolutionary  Army,  and 
other  patriotic  poems ;  Freneau's  Address  of  Columbus  to  Ferdi- 
nand;  and  Ladd's  Address  to  the  Sun,  a  Runick  Ode;  are  among 
the  older  and  valuable  specimens  of  American  poetry.  We  would 
mention  Percival's  Ode  to  Music,  and  Ode  to  Freedom ;  Bryant's 
Forest  Hymn,  Hymn  to  Death,  and  Thanatopsis  ;  Sprague's  'Shak- 
speareOde;  Halleck's Marco  Bozzari* ;  Brooks's  Greece;  Everett's 
Alaric;  Mrs.  Sigourney's  Napoleon's  Epitaph,  and  Lady  Jane  Grey  ; 
Dana's  Dying  Raven;  Woodwork's  Bucket;  Willis's  Confessional, 
and  Table  of  Emerald;  Brainard's  Epithalamium.;  Whittier's  New 
England;  Peabody's  Hymn  of  Nature;  Clark's  Last  Prayer  of 


AMERICAN.  311 

Queen  Mary  ;  Mellen's  Bugle  ;  Dawes's  Spirit  of  Beauty  ;  Pier- 
pont's  Mrs  of  Palestine;  and  Longfellow's  Voices  of  the  Night; 
as  worthy  specimens  of  poetry,  chiefly  lyrical. 

Of  American  descriptive,  and  didactic  poetry,  one  of  the  oldest 
specimens  is  Folger's  Looking  Glass  for  the  Times,  written  as  early 
as  1676.  Wiggles  worth's  Day  of  Doom,  created  a  strong  sensation  ; 
but  Godfrey's  Court  of  Fancy,  attracted  little  notice.  R.  T.  Paine's 
Invention  of  Letters  ;  Linn's  Powers  of  Genius,  and  Valerian  ;  and 
Lathrop's  Vision  of  Canonicus,  are  valuable  works.  Dr.  Dwight's 
Greenfield  Hill,  is  a  beautiful  poem  of  this  class.  Barlow's  Hasty 
Pudding,  and  his  Conspiracy  of  the  Kings,  are,  we  believe,  of  a 
satirical  or  political  character.  Livingston's  Philosophical  Solitude, 
has  met  with  little  notice.  Trumbull's  Progress  of  Dullness,  and 
Dwight's  Triumph  of  Infidelity,  are  satirical  poems  of  a  high  cha- 
racter. Osborne's  Thanksgiving,  is  a  touching  description  of  that 
social  New  England  festival.  Mrs.  Sigourney's  Zinzendorf,  relates 
to  a  nobleman  of  that  name  who  became  a  Moravian  Missionary  to 
the  Indians.  Hillhouse's  Vision  of  Judgment,  and  Mellen's  Mar- 
tyr's Triumph,  are  sublime  productipns  ;  and  Bryant's  Jlges, 
exhibits  the  power  and  purity  of  its  author.  Percival's  Voyage 
of  Life,  and  Consumption,  are  also  excellent.  Lunt's  poem  on 
Life,  and  Bacon's  on  Man,  are,  we  think,  worthy  of  mention.  Of 
Romantic  poems,  we  would  name  Percival's  Wreck,  his  Prometheus, 
and  The  Suicide ;  Halleck's  Fanny  and  Mnwick  Castle ;  Drake's 
Culprit  Fay;  Willis's  Mclanie;  Dawes's  Geraldine ;  Mitchell's 
Indecision;  Miss  Davidson's  Amir  Khan;  and,  we  believe,  Dana's 
Bucaneer,  Whittier's  Minstrel  Girl,  and  Sand's  Yamoyden.  Eve- 
rest's Babylon;  Hill's  Ruins  oj "Athens ;  and  Rees's  Battle  of 
Saratoga;  are,  we  believe,  descriptive  poems.  Several  of  Willis's 
scriptural  poems,  as  JephthaWs  Daughter,  and  Hagar  in  the  Wil- 
derness, are  beautifully  descriptive  and  didactic ;  and  this  character 
belongs  generally  to  the  poems  of  Mrs.  Sigourney  and  Bryant. 

Of  American  dramatic  poetry,  the  first  specimen  was  probably  the 
Prince  of  Parthia,  by  Thomas  Godfrey,  Jr. ;  and  next  to  it  was 
Leecock's  Disappointment,  a  comic  opera,  printed  in  1767.  Mrs. 
M.  Warren,  of  Boston,  wrote  The  Mulateur,  The  Group,  T7ie 
Blockheads,  and  The  Motley  Assembly  ;  political  plays,  during  the 
Revolution.  Her  tragedies,  the  Sack  of  Rome,  and  the  Ladies  of 
Castile,  we  believe,  were  written  at  a  later  date.  W.  Dunlap  wrote 
or  translated  nearly  fifty  pieces,  including  The  Archers  of  Switzer- 
land, the  Voice  of  Nature,  and  Andre,  a  tragedy,  founded  on  the  fate 
of  Major  Andre.  Colonel  Humphreys  wrote  the  Widow  of  Mala- 
bar, a  tragedy,  from  the  French ;  and  Rev.  John  Blair  Linn  wrote 
Bourville  Castle,  and  we  believe  other  dramatic  pieces.  We  must 
not  omit  to  notice  Lathy's  Reparation,  a  comedy ;  D.  Everett's 
Daranzel;  W.  Jones's  Independence;  W.  C.  White's  Clergyman's 
Daughter,  and  Poor  Lodger ;  J.  N.  Baker's  Marmion,  and  Su- 
perstition; C.  J.  Ingersoll's  tragedies,  Edwy  and  Elgiva,  and  Ju- 
lian; and  D.  P.  Brown's  Sertorius,  and  Prophet  of  St.  Paul1 8. 
Among  other  works  of  merit  are  Willis's  Tortesa,  the  Usurer  ; 


312  CALLOGRAPHY. 

Epes  Sergeant's  Velasco ;  and  especially  Dawes's  Jlthenia  of  Da- 
mascus: but  the  tragedies  of  Hillhouse,  called  Hadad,  Percy's 
Masque,  and  Demelria,  are  perhaps  the  best  which  our  country  has 
yet  produced. 

Of  American  Romance,  in  prose,  the  first  production  appears  to 
have  been  The  Foresters,  by  Dr.  Belknap  of  Boston,  first  published 
in  1787,  in  the  Columbian  Magazine,  Philadelphia.  It  relates  to 
our  colonial  history,  and  may  be  regarded  as  a  continuation  of  Ar- 
buthnot's  John  Bull.  Tyler's  Algerine  Captive,  published  in  1797, 
is  a  genuine  novel,  though  founded  on  facts.  The  first  professed 
novelist,  Charles  Brockden  Brown,  wrote  Wieland,  Ormond,  Ar- 
thur Mervyn,  Edgar  Huntley,  Clara  Howard,  and  Jane  Talbot ; 
works  of  genius  and  merit,  though  not  of  the  most  recent  school. 
Washington  Irving's  Knickerbocker's  History  of  New  York;  and 
his  Jonathan  Oldstyle's  Letters,  Salmagundi,  Sketch  Book,  Brace- 
bridge  Hall,  Tales  of  a  Traveller,  and  Jllhambra,  are  also  classed 
as  works  of  fiction,  and  are  unsurpassed  in  style  and  character. 
Wirt's  Old  Bachelor,  and  British  Spy,  are  also  standard  works  of 
this  class.  Dennie's  Female  Quixotism;  Mrs.  Foster's  Board- 
ing School,  and  Coquette ;  and  Mrs.  Rowson's  Rebecca,  and  Sarah, 
have  met  with  less  notice.  Cooper's  novels,  have  been  generally 
read  and  admired  ;  particularly  The  Spy,  T7ie  Pioneers,  The  Pilot, 
The  Last  of  the  Mohicans,  The  Prairie,  and  The  Red  Rover.  We 
would  also  mention  Paulding's  Dutchman's  Fireside,  and  Westward 
Ho!  ;  Flint's  Francis  Berrian ;  Kennedy's  Swalloio  Barn,  and 
Horseshoe  Robinson;  Bird's  Hawk  of  Hawks  Hollow,  Calavar, 
and  Peter  Pilgrim ;  Ingraham's  Southwest,  Lajitte,  and  Burton  ; 
Simms's  Yemassee,  Guy  Rivers,  and  Mellichamp  ;  Fay's  Norman 
Lesley,  and  Countess  Ida;  Tuckerman's  Isabel  or  Sicily ;  and 
Longfellow's  Hyperion;  as  worthy  specimens  of  American  romance, 
generally  evincing  talent  and  taste.  Miss  Sedgwick's  New  Eng- 
land Tale,  Redwood,  Hope  Leslie,  Clarence,  and  The.  Linwoods, 
are  beautiful  and  natural ;  and  her  recent  minor  tales  are  fraught  with 
excellent  instruction.  The  Hobomok,  Rebels,  and  Wilderness,  of 
Mrs.  Child,  (formerly  Miss  Francis) ;  as  also  Miss  Leslie's  Pencil 
Sketches,  and  Jllthea  Vernon,  are  entertaining  productions  ;  the  last 
of  this  class  which  we  have  room  to  name. 

Among  the  best  productions  of  American  eloquence,  it  is  to  be 
regretted  that  most  of  the  speeches  of  Patrick  Henry,  Edmund  Ran- 
dolph, James  Otis,  Samuel  Adarns,  and  other  Revolutionary  worthies, 
have  not  been  written  out  and  preserved.  Those  of  Fisher  Ames, 
Hamilton,  and  Jefferson,  are,  we  believe,  mostly  published  with 
their  works.  A  selection  from  the  numerous  eulogies  of  Washing- 
ton,  by  various  orators,  would  of  itself  form  an  interesting  volume. 
The  speeches  and  addresses  of  Clay,  Webster,  and  Everett,  have 
been  published  in  separate  volumes,  and  are,  we  think,  models  of 
their  kind. 


THIRD  PROVINCE ; 

PHYSICONOMY. 


IN  the  province  of  Physiconomy,  we  would  include  those  studies 
which  relate  more  immediately  to  the  material  world ;  its  forms  and 
structure  ;  its  agencies  and  changes ;  its  composition  and  varied  rela- 
tions ;  including  those  of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Greek  ^ucftj,  nature :  and  »xytoj,  law ;  signifying 
literally  the  Laws  of  Nature ;  using  this  term,  as  it  is  often  used,  to 
designate  the  world  of  matter,  or  material  objects  collectively  con- 
sidered. In  this  province  we  comprehend  the  departments  of 
Mathematics,  or  the  study  of  numbers  and  magnitudes ;  Jlcrophy- 
sics,  or  Natural  Philosophy,  relating  chiefly  to  natural  phenomena ; 
Idiophysics,  or  Natural  History,  treating  chiefly  of  natural  produc- 
tions ;  and  rfndrophysics,  or  the  Medical  Sciences,  relating  chiefly 
to  the  human  frame,  that  microcosm,  or  minor  world,  the  last  and 
highest  material  production  of  the  great  Creator.  The  reasons  for 
arranging  these  departments  in  the  above  mentioned  order,  having 
already  been  stated,  need  not  here  be  repeated.  (See  pp.  34  and  35.) 


40  3D  313 


IX.  DEPARTMENT: 

MATHEMATICS. 


THE  department  of  Mathematics,  includes  the  study  of  numbers 
and  magnitudes  ;  and  hence  it  is  sometimes  termed,  the  science  of 
quantity.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek  juov0av«,  I  learn :  and  was 
applied  to  it,  because  the  ancients  considered  this  department,  in 
reference  to  its  various  uses,  as  the  basis  of  all  learning.  As  it  finds 
its  highest  applications  in  the  investigation  of  the  laws  of  nature,  we 
have  here  considered  it  as  chiefly  introductory  to  their  study  ;  and  as 
belonging  to  the  same  province  of  human  knowledge.  As  the 
science  of  quantity,  it  is  applicable  to  all  quantities  which  can  be 
measured  by  a  standard  unit,  and  thus  expressed  by  numbers  or  mag- 
nitudes. There  are  objects,  such  as  feeling  or  thought,  which  may 
vary  in  intensity,  but  which  we  have  not  the  means  of  measuring. 
We  cannot  say  that  we  love  one  person  exactly  twice  as  much  as 
another ;  or  that  one  man  is  four  times  as  wise  as  another  ;  since  love 
and  wisdom  aie  not  mathematical  quantities.  But  we  can  measure 
time,  by  seconds,  days,  or  years  ;  space,  by  inches,  yards,  or  miles  ; 
and  motion,  by  the  space  passed  over  in  a  given  unit  of  time.  Such 
quantities,  therefore,  may  be  expressed  by  numbers,  and  subjected  to 
Mathematical  calculations. 

Mathematics,  as  a  general  science,  is  often  subdivided  into  Pure,  and 
Mixed.  Pure  Mathematics,  relates  to  numbers,  figures,  or  magnitudes 
abstractly,  and  without  any  necessary  reference  to  material  or  tangible 
objects  :  but  Mixed  Mathematics,  is  the  application  of  the  former  to 
natural  objects ;  as  matter,  space,  time,  motion,  and  the  like,  which, 
though  subject  to  mathematical  relations,  involve  other  principles, 
depending  on  the  laws  of  nature.  Thus,  Mechanics,  Astronomy, 
Navigation,  Music,  and  other  sciences,  are  sometimes  included  under 
the  name  of  Mathematics :  but  we  would  here  restrict  the  term  to 
the  Pure  Mathematics,  with  some  occasional  applications ;  as  being 
sufficiently  extensive  and  important  to  constitute  one  department  of 
human  knowledge.  It  should  not  be  forgotten  that  new  mathemati- 
cal principles  and  problems  have  led  to  new  discoveries  in  nature,  or 
inventions  in  the  arts ;  and  these,  in  their  turn,  have  led  to  other  new 
principles  and  problems  in  Mathematics. 

The  question  may  here  arise,  into  how  many  branches  this  depart- 
ment should  be  divided.  The  branches  of  Arithmetic,  Algebra,  and 
Geometry,  are  generally  recognized  as  distinct  and  elementary ;  while 
Trigonometry  is  sometimes  connected  with  the  latter,  and  sometimes 
regarded  as  a  distinct  branch.  Considering,  however,  that  Trigo- 
nometry is  an  application  of  Algebra  to  certain  Geometrical  figures, 
we  have  no  hesitation  in  associating  it  with  Conic  Sections,  in  the 
branch  of  Analytic  Geometry.  The  study  of  Descriptive  Geometry, 
314 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  315 

or  the  delineation  of  objects  geometrically,  as  it  involves  no  other  prin- 
ciples than  those  of  Elementary  Geometry,  and  differs  chiefly  in  the 
mode  of  applying  those  principles,  we  would  include  in  the  same 
branch,  under  the  common  name  of  Geometry.  There  remains  only 
the  science  of  Fluxions,  as  it  was  named  by  Newton,  or  the  Differen- 
tial and  Integral  Calculus,  as  it  has  been  named  by  the  French  mathe- 
maticians, to  complete  the  list  of  branches  in  this  department. 

The  History  of  Mathematics,  may,  we  think,  be  referred  chiefly 
to  that  of  its  individual  branches.  The  knowledge  of  the  ancients, 
in  this  department,  was  evidently  far  inferior  to  that  of  the  moderns. 
Although  they  reckoned  by  tens;  a  fact  which  is  adduced,  among 
others,  as  proving  the  common  origin  of  the  nations  thus  reckoning; 
yet  they  did  not  use,  and  probably  were  not  acquainted  with  the  deci- 
mal notation  which  has  so  greatly  simplified  our  modern  Arithmetic.  In 
Elementary  Geometry,  and  the  Conic  Sections  deduced  therefrom, 
the  knowledge  of  the  Greeks  would  bear  a  comparison  with  that  of 
modern  times  ;  but  in  these  branches  only,  of  the  Pure  Mathematics. 
Some  of  their  most  learned  works  were  destroyed  in  the  Alexandrian 
Library,  or  during  the  dark  ages ;  but  others  were  preserved  by  the 
Arabians  themselves,  when  a  milder  dynasty  succeeded ;  and  the 
Greek  works  collected  and  translated  into  Arabic,  by  order  of  the 
Caliph  Al  Mamun,  have  supplied  much  of  the  information  which  we 
now  possess,  concerning  ancient  science,  (p.  289.) 

To  the  Arabians,  we  are  indebted,  for  the  introduction  of  the  De- 
cimal Notation,  and  for  the  science  of  Algebra ;  which  they  appear 
to  have  transmitted  rather  than  invented ;  as  we  shall  have  occasion 
to  show,  in  treating  of  the  individual  branches.  Their  mathematics, 
being  introduced  by  the  Moors  into  Spain,  was  zealously  cultivated 
by  Alphonso  of  Castile ;  and  from  thence  it  was  introduced  into 
France,  as  early  as  A.  D.  970,  by  Gerbert,  who  afterwards  became 
Pope  Sylvester  II.  It  was  disseminated  in  Italy,  about  A.  D.  1228, 
by  Camillus  Leonard,  a  rich  merchant  of  Pisa,  who  had  travelled  in 
the  East;  and  at  about  the  same  time,  John  of  Halifax,  or  Sacro- 
bosco,  of  England,  wrote  a  treatise  on  the  Arithmetic  of  the  Arabs. 
From  that  period  to  the  present,  the  progress  of  mathematics  has 
been  continuous  ;  and  the  greatest  natitms  of  Europe  have  been  com- 
petitors for  the  honor  of  its  new  discoveries  and  inventions. 

The  invention  of  Analytic  Geometry,  by  Descartes,  and  of  Coor- 
dinates, by  Maclaurin,  has  greatly  extended  our  means  of  investigating 
curves,  and  curved  surfaces  in  general,  as  well  as  their  included  solids. 
The  invention  of  Logarithms,  by  Napier,  has  simplified,  in  a  won- 
derful degree,  the  higher  numerical  calculations,  which  before  were 
extremely  tedious.  The  invention  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  by 
Monge,  has  given  us  a  complete  method  of  representing  and  mea- 
suring geometrical  magnitudes,  and  forms  ;  the  applications  of  which 
are  of  great  practical  value.  And  especially,  the  invention  of  Flux- 
ions, or  the  Calculus,  almost  simultaneously  by  Newton  and  Leibnitz, 
has  opened  the  way  to  a  new  and  wide  range  of  mathematical  investiga- 
tion, quite  beyond  the  reach  of  ancient  science,  and  which  has  served, 
in  skilful  hands,  to  detect  and  explain  various  laws  of  nature  that 
before  seemed  absurd  or  contradictory. 


316  MATHEMATICS. 

We  proceed  to  speak  more  particularly  of  the  individual  branches 
of  Mathematics  ;  commencing  with  Arithmetic,  taking  next  Algebra, 
Geometry,  and  Analytic  Geometry,  or  Ancylometry,  and  concluding 
with  the  Calculus,  or  Rheometry. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ARITHMETIC. 

ARITHMETIC  is  that  branch  of  Mathematics  which  treats  of  calcula- 
tion by  means  of  the  Arabic  numerals,  or  ordinary  characters  repre- 
senting numbers.  Its  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  apt^^oj,  a 
number;  and  it  is  regarded  as  a  science,  when  we  study  its  theory 
or  principles  ;  but  as  an  art,  when  we  apply  it  in  practice.  From 
its  constant  application  to  other  sciences,  and  to  the  common  pursuits 
of  life,  it  is  one  of  the  most  useful  branches  of  knowledge,  among 
those  which  are  necessary  to  complete  an  elementary  education.  It 
is  much  to  be  regretted  that  in  teaching  its  rules,  attention  is  not  more 
generally  paid  to  the  theory  or  reasons  on  which  those  rules  are 
founded ;  both  as  rendering  them  more  intelligible,  and  as  serving  to 
discipline  the  mind. 

The  invention  of  Arithmetic,  is  attributed  by  Josephus  to  the  He- 
brews ;  by  Strabo,  to  the  Phcenicians ;  and  by  others  to  the  Egyp- 
tians, Chaldeans,  or  Indians.  Its  first  principles,  were  evidently 
known,  at  a  very  early  period,  by  the  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians, 
from  whom  the  Hebrews  and  Phoenicians  doubtless  received  them. 
They  were  introduced  into  Greece,  by  Thales,  and  Pythagoras ;  both 
of  whom  travelled  among  the  nations  just  named  ;  doubtless  acquiring, 
as  well  as  communicating  knowledge.  Pythagoras  either  invented 
or  borrowed  the  Multiplication  Table,  about  520  B.  C. :  and,  in 
some  books,  it  is  still  called  by  his  name.  Much  of  the  Arithmetic 
of  Pythagoras,  and  the  other  philosophers,  related  to  imaginary  mys- 
tical properties  of  numbers  ;  such  as  the  Tetrachys,  or  most  perfect 
number,  (36  or  40),  to  which  they  attributed  wonderful  virtues.  The 
Sieve  of  Eratosthenes,  was  a  contrivance  for  finding  the  series  of 
Prime  numbers,  by  successively  cancelling  all  those  which  admit  of 
exact  division :  and  the  properties  of  Square  numbers,  were  the 
subject  of  many  problems  invented  by  Diophantus. 

We  have  already  remarked  that  although  the  ancients  reckoned  by 
tens,  they  did  not  use  our  modern  Decimal  notation.  The  Greeks 
used  the  first  letters  of  their  alphabet  for  the  successive  numbers  as 
far  as  ten  ;  but  the  next  letter  stood  for  20,  and  the  next  for  30,  thus 
proceeding  as  far  as  100 ;  after  which  the  next  letter  stood  for  200, 
and  so  on  to  1000,  which  was  represented  by  the  first  letter  of  the 
alphabet,  with  a  dash  beneath  it.  Three  additional  characters,  how- 
ever, were  used  in  this  scheme,  as  already  explained,  (p.  56.)  They 
also  used  numerals,  similar  to  the  Roman,  though  not  the  same.  The 
Roman  numerals  probably  originated  as  follows.  They  expressed 
the  numbers  from  one  to  five,  by  straight  marks,  which  afterwards 
took  the  form  of  the  letter  I.  Five  was  expressed  by  two  straight 


ARITHMETIC.  317 

marks,  meeting  in  the  shape  of  the  letter  V.  Ten,  being  expressed 
by  two  V's,  one  of  them  inverted,  would  form  the  letter  X.  Fifty, 
being  expressed  by  two  straight  marks  in  a  new  position,  would 
form  the  letter  L,  which  might  also  have  been  derived  from  the  lower 
half  of  the  letter  C  :  but  C  and  M  were  more  probably  abbreviations 
of  centum  and  mille,  the  Latin  words  for  100  and  1000. 

Early  in  the  second  century  of  our  Era,  Ptolemy  introduced  the 
Sexagesimal  notation;  which  probably  originated  in  India,  where 
it  is  still  used.  From  1  to  59,  the  numbers  were  expressed  by  the 
Roman  numerals  ;  but  60  was  represented  by  I  with  a  dash  on  the 
right,  (F) ;  twice  60  by  (II'),  and  so  on  to  60  times  60,  which  was 
represented  by  I  with  two  dashes,  (I")  ;  and  so  onward.  Hence  came 
our  division  of  the  hour  and  degree  into  60  minutes,  and  of  the  minute 
into  60  seconds.  The  Decimal  notation,  already  noticed,  as  intro- 
duced by  the  Arabians,  is  proved  by  Montucla,  almost  conclusively, 
to  have  been  invented  in  India,  before  the  Arabian  conquests.  The 
first  European  writer  who  is  known  to  have  employed  this  system, 
was  Jordanus  Nemorarius,  A.  D.  1230  :  but  it  was  not  applied  to 
fractions  till  nearly  300  years  thereafter.  The  rules  of  False  Posi- 
tion, were  also  borrowed  from  the  Arabians. 

We  shall  treat  further  of  Arithmetic,  under  the  heads  of,  1,  Ground 
Rules  ;  2,  Denominate  Numbers ;  3,  Fractions  ;  4,  Proportion  ;  5, 
Mercantile  Rules  ;  and  6,  Powers  and  Progressions. 

§  1.  The  Five  Ground  Rules  of  Arithmetic,  constituting  the  Ara- 
bic Jllgorithm,  are  Numeration,  Addition,  Subtraction,  Multiplication, 
and  Division.  Numeration,  is  the  art  of  writing  or  reading  num- 
bers, expressed  by  means  of  figures ;  whereas  Notation  rather  sig- 
nifies the  kind  of  figures  used,  as  the  Roman,  or  Arabian.  The  nine 
digits  and  cypher,  of  the  latter  notation,  express  directly  any  number 
less  than  ten :  but  every  ten  is  regarded  as  a  distinct  quantity,  and  ex- 
pressed by  a  figure  in  the  second  place ;  that  is,  with  another  figure 
on  the  right  of  it,  to  make  it  stand  in  the  tens'  place,  and  to  express 
the  remaining  units.  Every  ten  of  these  tens,  forms  one  hundred  ; 
which  is  written  in  the  third  place,  with  two  other  figures  necessarily 
on  the  right  of  it,  for  the  surplus  tens  and  units.  Thus,  the  great 
principle  of  Numeration,  is,  to  regard  every  number  as  composed  of 
units  of  different  kinds  ;  each  higher  unit  being  equal  to  ten  of  the 
next  lower,  throughout  the  scale.  For  example,  the  number  1841, 
is  written  as  if  it  were  the  sum  of  the  numbers,  1000,  800,  40,  and  1, 

Addition,  is  the  putting  together  of  two  or  more  numbers,  and 
finding  of  their  sum.  For  this  purpose,  we  write  the  numbers,  one 
under  another,  so  that  all  the  right  hand  figures  or  units  may  be  in 
the  same  column,  or  vertical  line ;  after  which,  we  add  all  the  units 
together,  and  find  how  many  tens  they  make,  setting  down  the 
remainder  for  the  odd  units  of  the  sun.  We  then  carry  the  tens 
thus  found,  that  is  add  them,  to  the  column  of  tens ;  and  find  how 
many  tens  of  tens,  or  hundreds  this  column  contains,  setting  down 
the  surplus  tens  as  the  odd  tens  of  the  sum.  In  like  manner,  we 
carry  the  hundreds  to  the  third  column,  and  so  repeat  the  process  till 
we  come  to  the  last  column  ;  the  whole  sum  of  which  being  written 
on  the  left,  completes  the  total  sum  required. 

2D2 


318  MATHEMATICS. 

Subtraction,  is  the  taking  of  a  smaller  number,  or  subtrahend, 
from  a  larger  number,  or  minuend,  and  finding  what  remains.  To 
do  this,  we  write  the  subtrahend  underneath  the  minuend,  units  under 
units,  and  so  on  :  then  beginning  with  the  units,  we  take  each  lower 
figure  from  the  one  above  it,  and  write  the  difference  below,  to  form 
the  remainder  sought.  If  the  upper  figure  happen  to  be  the  smallest, 
we  add  ten  to  it,  and  subtract  as  before ;  and  to  compensate  for  this, 
we  add  one  to  the  next  lower  figure,  before  subtracting  it;  which 
increases  the  lower  line  as  much  as  the  upper,  and  thus  preserves 
their  difference  unchanged. 

Multiplication,  is  the  repeating  of  a  given  number,  called  the 
multiplicand,  as  many  times  as  are  denoted  by  another  given  num- 
ber, or  multiplier  :  the  two  numbers  thus  employed  being  called 
factors ;  and  the  sum  obtained  being  the  product.  The  operation 
might  be  performed,  by  writing  down  the  multiplicand  as  many  times 
as  the  multiplier  denotes,  and  adding  the  whole  together :  but  this 
would  be  tedious.  Hence,  we  write  the  multiplicand  only  once,  and 
the  multiplier  underneath ;  then  multiply  the  upper  line  by  the  unit 
figure  of  the  multiplier ;  carrying  as  in  addition,  and  writing  the 
result.  If  the  multiplier  have  a  second  figure,  we  multiply  the 
upper  line  by  this  also,  setting  the  first  figure  of  its  product,  which 
expresses  tens,  under  the  tens  of  the  first  product ;  and  so  proceed- 
ing to  the  left.  If  the  multiplier  contain  hundreds,  the  first  figure  of 
their  product  must  come  under  the  place  of  hundreds ;  and  so  to  the 
end.  Then,  adding  all  these  partial  products  together,  the  sum  will 
be  the  total  product  required. 

Division,  is  the  process  of  finding  how  many  times  one  number, 
called  the  divisor,  may  be  contained  in,  or  taken  from,  another,  called 
the  dividend ;  and  also  whether  a  surplus  number  remains.  This 
last,  if  there  be  any,  is  called  the  remainder :  and  the  number  which 
expresses  how  many  times  the  divisor  is  contained  in  the  dividend, 
is  termed  the  quotient.  To  find  it,  we  take  as  many  figures  on  the 
left  of  the  dividend,  as  are  sufficient  to  contain  the  divisor ;  and  the 
number  of  times  they  contain  it,  will  be  the  left  hand  figure  of  the 
quotient.  We  multiply  the  whole  divisor  by  this  figure,  and  subtract 
the  product  from  that  part  of  the  dividend  used.  To  the  right  of 
the  remainder,  if  any,  we  bring  down  the  next  figure  of  the  dividend, 
and  divide  again  to  obtain  the  next  figure  of  the  quotient ;  or  if  the 
remainder  thus  increased  be  too  small,  we  place  a  cypher  in  the 
quotient,  and  bring  down  another  figure  to  the  remainder,  with  which 
we  obtain  another  quotient  figure,  as  in  the  first  instance.  When  all 
the  figures  of  the  dividend  are  brought  down,  and  all  those  of  the 
quotient  found,  the  last  subtraction  will  give  the  final  remainder. 
The  reasons  for  this  rule,  we  have  no  room  here  to  present. 

§  2.  By  Denominate  Numbers,  called  also  Compound,  or  Com- 
plex Numbers,  we  mean  those  that  refer  to  certain  kinds  of  quantity, 
having  different  denominations;  as  pounds,  shillings,  and  pence;  miles, 
rods,  feet,  and  inches  ;  days,  hours,  minutes,  and  seconds  ;  and  other 
like  series.  The  different  tables,  expressing  the  ratios  of  these  de- 
nominations, we  have  no  room  to  insert.  Denominate  numbers  of 
the  same  kind,  can  be  added  or  subtracted  in  the  same  manner  as 


ARITHMETIC.  319 

simple  numbers  ;  except  in  the  item  of  carrying  from  a  lower  to  a 
higher  denomination.  To  add  them,  we  commence  with  those  of 
the  lowest  denomination,  and  find  how  many  units  these  will  make 
of  the  next  higher ;  carrying  therefor  ;  and  setting  down  the  excess 
or  surplus  as  a  part  of  the  sum  ;  thus  proceeding  through  all  the 
denominations,  to  the  highest,  in  which  we  set  down  the  total  sum. 
To  subtract  denominate  numbers,  we  proceed  as  in  simple  numbers: 
only,  when  the  upper  number  is  the  smallest,  we  add  to  it  as  many 
units  as  are  required  of  this  denomination  to  make  one  of  the  next 
higher;  in  return  for  which,  we  add  one  to  the  lower  number  of  the 
next  denomination,  before  subtracting  it  from  that  above. 

Multiplication  of  a  Denominate  number  by  a  simple  one,  is  per- 
formed as  in  simple  numbers  ;  only  carrying  by  the  proper  ratios 
in  passing  from  one  denomination  to  the  next  higher.  We  cannot 
properly  multiply  one  denominate  number,  by  another,  without  con- 
sidering one  of  the  two  abstractly,  as  composed  of  certain  units  and 
fractional  parts  ;  as  is  sometimes  done  in  the  Rule  of  Three.  Divi- 
sion of  Denominate  numbers,  by  a  simple  number,  is  performed  as 
in  simple  division  :  only,  when  we  have  a  remainder  of  a  higher 
denomination,  we  reduce  it  to  the  next  lower,  by  multiplying  by  the 
proper  ratio,  and  to  the  product  we  add  the  number  of  the  same 
denomination  in  the  dividend,  before  dividing,  to  find  the  number  of 
that  denomination  in  the  quotient. 

§  3.  Fractions,  are  broken  numbers,  or  parts  of  entire  numbers ; 
the  common  kinds  of  which  are  Vulgar,  and  Decimal.  A  Vulgar 
Fraction,  is  expressed  by  two  numbers,  written  one  above  the  other, 
with  a  line  drawn  between  them.  The  lower  number,  called  the 
denominator,  shows  into  how  many  equal  parts  a  unit  is  supposed 
to  be  divided ;  and  the  upper  number,  called  the  numerator,  shows 
how  many  of  these  parts  the  fraction  expresses.  By  increasing  the 
denominator,  we  diminish  the  value  of  the  fraction ;  because  while 
the  number  of  parts  remain  the  same,  the  value  of  each  of  these  parts 
is  diminished,  as  more  of  them  are  required  to  make  one  unit.  To 
add,  or  subtract,  vulgar  fractions,  we  must  first  reduce  them  to  a 
common  denominator  ;  in  order  that  they  may  express  like  parts  of 
unity.  This  may  be  done  by  multiplying  both  the  numerator  and 
denominator  of  each  fraction  by  the  product  of  all  the  other  denomi- 
nators, as  the  value  of  the  fractions  will  not  be  changed  thereby.  We 
have  then  only  to  add  or  subtract  the  numerators,  and  write  the  sum 
or  difference  over  the  common  denominator,  for  the  result  required. 

To  multiply,  or  divide,  a  vulgar  fraction  by  a  whole  number,  we 
have  only  to  multiply  or  divide  the  numerator;  preserving  the  deno- 
minator unchanged.  Or  instead  of  dividing  the  numerator,  we  may 
multiply  the  denominator,  to  perform  the  division.  To  multiply  two 
fractions  together,  we  have  only  to  write  the  product  of  the  nume- 
rators over  that  of  the  denominators :  but  to  divide  one  fraction  by 
another,  we  invert  the  terms  of  the  divisor,  that  is,  make  its  numera- 
tor and  denominator  change  places,  and  then  multiply  the  fractions 
together.  A  mixed  number,  consisting  of  a  whole  number  and  a 
fraction,  is  reduced  to  a  fractional  form,  by  multiplying  the  whole 
number  by  the  denominator,  adding  the  product  to  the  numerator, 


320  MATHEMATICS. 

and  writing  this  sum  over  the  same  denominator ;  forming  what  is 
called  an  improper  fraction. 

Decimal  Fractions,  are  those  in  which  the  denominator  is  always 
one-tenth,  one-hundredth,  one-thousandth,  or  other  decimal  part  of 
a  unit ;  so  that  by  simply  writing  the  numerator,  with  a  point  on 
the  left  side  of  it,  called  the  decimal  point,  the  denominator  need  not 
be  written  at  all.  Thus,  T%  is  written,  .5 ;  and  Jfa  is  the  same  as 
.54  ;  the  denominator  always  consisting  of  the  figure  1,  with  as  many 
cyphers  on  its  right  as  there  are  decimal  places,  that  is,  figures  on 
the  right  of  the  decimal  point.  To  convert  a  vulgar  fraction  into  a 
decimal,  we  annex  cyphers  to  the  right  of  the  numerator,  and  then 
divide  it  by  the  denominator ;  observing  that  the  quotient,  or  decimal 
sought,  must  have  as  many  figures  as  we  annexed  cyphers ;  and  sup- 
plying any  deficiency  in  the  quotient  by  cyphers  on  its  left.  Deci- 
mals are  added,  and  subtracted,  in  the  same  manner  as  whole  num- 
bers ;  placing  them  with  the  decimal  points  always  one  under  the 
other,  and  beginning  on  the  right ;  since  decimals  and  whole  num- 
bers, together,  form  one  continued  series  in  tenfold  proportion.  De- 
cimals are  also  multiplied,  and  divided,  in  the  same  way  as  whole 
numbers ;  only,  the  product  must  contain  as  many  decimal  places  as 
there  are  in  both  the  factors ;  and  the  quotient,  as  many  as  there  are 
in  tne  dividend  more  than  in  the  divisor.  The  deficiency,  if  there 
be  any,  must,  in  either  case,  be  supplied  by  cyphers  on  the  left. 

§  4.  Proportion,  signifies  a  certain  definite  relation  of  several 
quantities.  Four  numbers  are  said  to  be  in  Arithmetical  proportion, 
when  the  first  is  as  much  greater  or  less  than  the  second,  as  the  third 
is  greater  or  less  than  the  fourth  :  as  in  the  example,  2  ••  4  : :  18  ••  20. 
But  four  numbers  are  in  Geometrical  proportion,  when  the  first  is 
as  many  times  greater  or  less  than  the  second,  as  the  third  is  greater 
or  less  than  the  fourth  :  as  in  the  example,  20  :  4  : :  500  :  100.  The 
first  term  divided  by  the  second  is  called  the  ratio  of  the  antecedents, 
and  the  third  term  divided  by  the  fourth,  is  the  ratio  of  the  conse- 
quents: and  these  two  ratios  are  equal.  It  also  follows  that  the  pro- 
duct of  the  two  middle,  or  mean  terms,  is  equal  to  the  product  of 
the  two  extremes :  and  the  product  of  the  means,  divided  by  one  ex- 
treme, gives  the  other  extreme  for  a  quotient. 

The  Rule  of  Three,  is  the  process  in  which  we  have  three  num- 
bers given,  and  seek  to  find  a  fourth,  which  shall  complete  the 
geometrical  proportion.  Of  the  three  given  numbers,  one  will  ne- 
cessarily be  of  the  same  kind  as  the  fourth,  or  answer  sought ;  and 
this  may  occupy  either  the  second  or  third  place.  If  the  answer 
sought,  ought  to  be  greater  than  this,  then  the  greater  of  the  other 
two  terms  should  be  placed  last  of  these  two  ;  both  being  reduced  to 
the  same  denomination :  but  if  the  answer  ought  to  be  less  than  that 
term  which  is  of  the  same  kind  with  it,  then  the  lesser  of  the  other 
two  terms  should  be  placed  last  of  those  two,  and  the  greater  of  them 
will  be  the  first.  The  question  being  thus  stated,  multiply  the  second 
and  third  terms  together,  and  divide  their  product  by  the  first ;  and 
the  quotient  will  be  the  fourth  term,  or  answer  sought.  A  Compound 
Proportion,  including  the  solution  of  problems  by  what  is  called  the 
Double  Rule  of  Three,  is  merely  a  connection  of  two  or  more  simple 


ARITHMETIC.  321 

proportions ;  by  means  of  which  it  may  always  be  resolved ;  with- 
out requiring  any  special  rules. 

§.5.  Of  the  strictly  Mercantile  Rules  of  Arithmetic,  most  of  which 
depend  upon  the  principles  of  proportion,  we  have  only  room  to  speak 
very  briefly.  Tare  and  Trett,  is  a  rule  for  making  allowances  in 
selling  goods  by  weight.  Tare,  is  an  allowance  for  the  weight  of 
the  box,  bag,  or  other  recipient ;  and  trett,  or  draft,  is  a  per  centage 
deduction  for  refuse,  waste,  or  loss.  These  being  taken  from  the 
gross  weight,  leave  the  net  weight  for  the  remainder.  Interest,  is 
an  allowance  made  for  the  use  of  money ;  and  is  generally  reckoned 
at  a  certain  rate  per  cent.,  per  annum:  that  is  a  certain  number  of 
dollars  paid  for  the  use  of  one  hundred  dollars  for  one  year.  Insu- 
rance, paid  for  risks  ;  Brokerage  or  Commissions,  paid  for  exchanges 
or  sales ;  and  Discount,  allowed  for  the  payment  of  money  before  it 
becomes  due  ;  are  also  usually  reckoned  at  a  certain  rate  per  cent. 
Loss  and  Gain,  is  the  rule  by  which  merchants  discover  their 
total  profit  or  loss,  in  buying  or  selling  certain  quantities  at  fixed 
rates :  and  Fellowship  relates  to  the  division  of  profit  or  loss  among 
partners.  Alligation,  is  the  rule  for  finding  the  price  of  mixtures, 
or  for  making  mixtures  of  a  given  value. 

§  6.  The  Powers,  of  any  number,  are  the  successive  products  of 
that  number  by  itself,  and  of  this  product  by  the  same  number  again  : 
the  exponent  of  the  power  denoting  how  many  times  the  same  num- 
ber is  taken  as  a  factor.  One  multiplication  produces  the  square,  or 
second  power,  of  which  two  is  the  exponent ;  and  a  second  multipli- 
cation produces  the  cube,  or  third  power,  the  exponent  of  which  is 
three.  Thus  25  is  the  square,  and  125  is  the  cube,  of  the  number  5 ; 
and  its  fourth  power,  or  biquadrate,  is  725.  The  Root,  of  any 
number,  is  another  number,  which,  multiplied  by  itself  a  certain 
number  of  times,  will  produce  the  given  number.  Thus  5  is  the 
square  root  of  25  ;  and  it  is  the  cube  root  of  125.  Involution  is  the 
process  of  finding  powers  ;  and  the  name  Evolution  is  given  to  that 
of  finding  roots. 

A  Progression,  is  a  series  of  numbers  in  continued  proportion. 
In  an  Arithmetical  series  or  progression,  each  term  is  found  by  add- 
ing or  subtracting  the  common  difference  to  or  from  the  preceding ; 
according  as  the  series  is  increasing  or  decreasing.  In  either  case, 
the  sum  of  the  series  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  two  extreme  terms 
multiplied  by  half  the  number  of  terms.  A  series  is  in  Geometrical 
progression,  when  each  term  is  either  the  product  or  the  quotient  of 
the  preceding  term  by  a  common  ratio.  In  such  a  series,  any  four 
consecutive  terms  form  a  geometrical  proportion.  The  Rules  of 
Position,  for  which  those  of  Algebra  are  a  far  preferable  substitute, 
we  have  no  room  to  describe. 


41 


322  MATHEMATICS. 

CHAPTER  II. 

ALGEBRA. 

ALGEBRA  is  that  branch  of  Mathematics  in  which  the  relations  of 
quantities  are  expressed,  and  problems  resolved,  by  means  of  letters 
and  other  symbols.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  phrase, 
J?l  gebr  u  al  mocabela,  signifying  the  reduction  of  equations  :  and 
from  the  generality  of  its  results,  it  has  also  been  called  Universal 
Arithmetic.  It  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  Arithmetic,  or  at  least 
of  the  elementary  rules,  on  the  general  principles  of  which  it  also 
depends ;  but  in  representing  unknown  or  variable  quantities  by 
letters,  and  expressing  their  relations  by  means  of  other  symbols,  it 
reaches  a  wide  range  of  useful  and  curious  problems,  and  theorems, 
which  common  Arithmetic  could  never  grasp. 

The  first  germs  of  Algebra  are  found  in  the  writings  of  Diophantus 
of  Alexandria  ;  who  flourished  A.  D.  350,  and  is  the  reputed  inventor 
of  the  indeterminate  analysis.  His  works,  however,  are  merely  a 
collection  of  difficult  questions  concerning  squares  and  cubes,  and  the 
general  properties  of  numbers.  Here  ends  the  history  of  Algebra 
among  the  ancients :  and,  accordingly,  its  invention  is  ascribed  by 
some  writers  to  the  Hindoos;  and  by  others  to  the  Arabians;  to 
whom  we  are  indebted,  as  has  already  been  mentioned,  for  its  intro- 
duction into  Europe.  The  earliest  mentioned  Hindoo  writer  on 
Algebra,  is  said  to  have  been  the  astronomer,  Aryabhatta,  probably 
as  early  as  the  fifth  century  of  our  era.  Some  of  the  Arabians  admit 
that  they  received  their  Algebra  from  India ;  but  others  attribute  its 
invention  to  their  countryman,  Mahomed  Ben  Musa,  about  A.  D.  800; 
and,  in  either  case,  it  was  doubtless  improved  by  their  mathematical 
knowledge  derived  from  Greek  authors. 

The  first  printed  treatise  on  Algebra,  entitled  Summa  de  Jlrith- 
metica,  was  published  in  Italy,  in  1494,  by  Lucas  Paccioli  de  Borgo; 
but  it  only  extended  to  quadratic  equations.  The  first  resolution  of 
cubic  equations,  is  claimed  by  Tartaglia,  (or  Tartalea),  about  1535; 
and  that  of  biquadratic  equations  is  ascribed  to  Ferrari,  by  Cardan 
of  Pavia,  in  his  book  De  Arte  Magna,  published  in  1545.  Cardan 
used  letters  to  represent  unknown  quantities  :  but  Vieta  of  France, 
who  died  in  1603,  first  applied  them  to  known  quantities ;  and  thus 
generalized  the  solutions.  Vieta  also  improved  the  modes  of  resolv- 
ing equations  ;  particularly  by  approximation.  Harriot,  of  England, 
who  died  in  1621,  first  discovered  that  every  algebraic  equation  is 
composed  of  as  many  factors  of  the  first  degree,  as  are  indicated  by 
the  degree  of  the  equation.  Descartes  first  introduced  the  use  of 
exponents ;  and  explained  the  nature  of  the  negative  roots  of  an 
equation  :  and  he  also  made  the  application  of  indeterminate  co- 
efficients, to  resolve  equations  into  their  several  factors.  Newton 
enriched  Algebra,  not  only  by  farther  discoveries  concerning  equa- 
tions, but  by  the  invention  of  the  binomial  theorem,  for  problems 
of  involution  and  evolution.  The  later  discoveries  of  Maclaurin, 


ALGEBRA.  323 

Clairaut,  Euler,  Lagrange,  and  others,  we  have  no  room  to  describe. 
The  invention  of  Logarithms,  by  Napier,  of  Scotland,  in  1614,  with 
the  improvement  of  Professor  Briggs,  has  particularly  facilitated  the 
numerical  operations  of  Algebra,  to  which  science  they  belong : 
and  the  Arithmetical  Triangle  of  Pascal,  who  died  in  1662,  by 
exhibiting  the  properties  of  figurate  numbers,  originated  the  Calculus 
of  Probabilities  ;  a  distinct  and  interesting  application  of  Algebra. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Algebra  under  the  heads  of  1.  Preliminary 
Rules;  2.  Simple  Equations;  3.  Quadratic  Equations;  4.  Powers 
and  Roots  in  general ;  5.  Equations  in  general ;  and  6.  Series  and 
Logarithms. 

§  1.  The  Preliminary  Rules  of  Algebra,  relate  to  its  peculiar 
symbols,  and  their  simple  applications.  In  this  science,  quantities, 
or  rather  numbers,  are  expressed  by  letters:  and  it  is  the  general 
practice  to  use  the  first  letters  of  the  alphabet  for  known  quantities, 
and  the  last  for  unknown.  The  sign  of  addition,  (-f-),  is  read  plus ; 
and  shows  that  the  quantity  placed  after  it,  is  to  be  added  to  the  pre- 
ceding. The  sign  of  subtraction,  ( — ),  is  read  minus;  and  is 
placed  before  quantities  that  are  subtractive,  or  to  be  subtracted.  The 
sign  of  multiplication,  (x),  called  St.  Andrew's  Cross,  is  read  into, 
and  placed  between  quantities  that  are  factors  :  or  they  may  be  writ- 
ten each  in  a  parenthesis  ;  or  if  letters,  with  simply  a  point,  or  with- 
out any  sign,  between  them.  The  sign  of  division,  (-r-),  may  be 
read  divided  by,  being  placed  after  the  dividend,  and  before  the 
divisor :  but  division  is  more  generally  indicated  by  writing  these 
quantities  as  a  fraction;  the  divisor  becoming  the  denominator;  and 
the  value  of  the  fraction  being  the  quotient. 

The  power  of  a  quantity,  in  Algebra,  is  expressed  by  writing  its 
exponent  above  the  quantity,  on  the  right.  Thus  a3  denotes  the 
square  of  a;  and  «3,  its  third  power,  instead  of  aaa.  If  a  denote 
5,  a3  will  denote  125.  The  co-efficient  of  a  quantity,  is  properly 
the  number  written  as  its  first  factor  :  thus  3a  denotes  three  times  a, 
and  three  is  the  co-efficient.  If  a  denote  5,  then  3a  will  be  15;  and 
3a3  will  be  3x125,  or  375.  Like  quantities,  are  those  which  con- 
sist of  the  same  letters,  raised  to  the  same  powers  ;  as  6  a3  b,  and 
12  a2  b  ;  which  are  added  or  subtracted,  simply  by  adding  or  sub- 
tracting their  co-efficients,  and  appending  the  literal  part.  Unlike 
quantities,  do  not  admit  of  this  reduction  ;  but  must  all  be  written 
with  their  proper  signs.  To  subtract  any  quantity,  we  must  change 
its  sign,  and  append  it  to  the  subtrahend;  or  if  no  sign  be  written, 
plus  is  understood.  A  term,  in  Algebra,  is  a  simple  expression,  not 
separated  into  parts  by  the  signs,  plus,  or  minus.  A  single  term  is 
called  a  monomial ;  but  a  quantity  having  two  terms  is  called  a 
binomial;  and  one  having  more  than  two  terms,  a. polynomial. 

In  Algebraic  multiplication,  the  product  of  two  terms  must  con- 
tain all  ^the  factors  of  them  both ;  and  its  sign  will  be  plus,  if  the 
terms  have  like  signs,  but  minus,  if  their  signs  are  unlike,  that  is, 
one  positive,  and  the  other  negative.  Thus  the  product  of  6  a3  b,  by 
7  a  b*  c,  is  42  a4  b*c.  The  product  of  two  polynomials,  is  the  sum 
of  all  the  products  of  each  term  of  the  multiplicand  by  each  term  of 
the  multiplier.  Algebraic  division  of  monomials,  is  the  reverse  of 


324  MATHEMATICS. 

multiplication ;  and  consists  in  cancelling  from  the  dividend  all  the 
factors  which  it  has  in  common  with  the  divisor;  the  remaining 
factors  being  the  quotient.  Division  of  polynomials  is  performed  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  arithmetical  division  ;  requiring  first  that 
all  the  terms  both  of  the  dividend  and  divisor  should  be  arranged 
according  to  the  powers  of  some  one  letter  ;  after  which  the  first  term 
of  the  quotient  is  fouad  by  dividing  the  first  term  of  the  dividend  by 
the  first  of  the  divisor.  Of  algebraic  fractions,  which  are  similar  to 
arithmetical,  we  have  no  room  to  speak  farther. 

§  2.  An  Equation,  is  an  expression  denoting  the  equality  of  two 
quantities :  and  a  Simple  Equation,  is  one  in  which  no  unknown 
quantity  is  multiplied  either  by  itself  or  by  any  other  unknown 
quantity.  The  sign  of  equality,  (=),  is  read,  equal  to,  and  is  placed 
between  the  two  equal  qualities  which  are  the  first  and  second  mem- 
bers of  the  equation.  Common  algebraic  problems  are  most  fre- 
quently solved  by  means  of  equations  ;  or  by  proportions,  from  which 
equations  are  easily  obtained.  To  form  the  equation,  we  usually 
express  the  unknown  quantity,  if  there  be  but  one,  by  the  letter  x  ; 
and  with  this  we  form  an  expression  which,  by  the  conditions,  is 
equal  to  some  other  expression  or  formula ;  after  which  it  only 
remains  to  find  the  value  of  x  from  the  equation  thus  formed.  Thus, 
to  find  a  certain  number,  twice  which,  being  added  to  76,  and  the  sum 
divided  by  4,  the  quotient  will  be  equal  to  10  times  the  same  number, 

we  write  the  equation =  IQ  x ;  as  the  first  operation. 

If  we  multiply  each  member  of  the  above  equation  by  4,  it  will 
form  another  equation,  free  from  denominators,  and  without  changing 
the  value  of  x  ;  viz.  2  x  -f  76  =  40  x.  The  next  step,  is,  to  bring 
all  the  terms  containing  the  unknown  quantity  to  stand  by  themselves, 
in  one  member,  usually  the  first  member  of  the  equation.  In  the 
present  example,  to  transpose  the  term  2  x,  to  the  second  member 
of  the  equation,  we  cancel  it,  where  it  stands,  which  is  really  sub- 
tracting it  from  the  first  member  :  and  hence  we  must  also  subtract  it 
from  the  second  member;  and  write  76=40 #  —  2x;  or  by  reduc- 
tion, 76=38  x.  If,  now,  we  divide  both  sides  of  the  equation  by 
38,  the  co-efficient  of  the  unknown  quantity,  we  shall  have  2  =  x  ; 
or  x  =  2.  When  the  problem  involves  two  distinct  unknown  quan- 
tities, say  x  and  y,  there  must  be  two  distinct  equations  ;  from  one 
of  which  we  find  the  value  of  x,  in  terms  containing?/;  and  then 
substitute  this  value  of  x,  wherever  x  occurs,  in  the  other  equation  : 
which  will  then  contain  only  one  unknown  quantity,  y. 

§  3.  Quadratic  Equations,  are  those  which  contain  the  square  or 
second  power  of  the  unknown  quantity  ;  but  no  higher  power.  To 
resolve  them,  we  first  transpose,  if  necessary,  so  as  to  bring  all  the 
terms  containing  x*  to  stand  first  in  order  ;  those  containing  x  to 
stand  next ;  and  all  the  known  terms,  that  is,  those  which  do  not 
contain  x,  form  the  other  member  of  the  equation.  We  then  divide 
both  members  by  the  co-efficient  of  xz,  which  reduces  the  equation 
to  the  regular  form,  x*  =  a,  for  pure  quadratics,  and  x*  -f  ax  =  b, 
for  those  which  are  affected,  or  complex:  a  and  b  here  simply 
denoting  any  known  quantities.  A  pure  quadratic,  is  then  resolved. 


ALGEBRA.  325 

simply  by  extracting  the  square  root  of  both  of  its  members.  Thus, 
from  the  equation  10  =  108  —  2  x2,  we  obtain  2x*  =  108  —  10  ;  or 
2  x2  =  98  ;  or  x2  =  49  ;  or  x  =  7.  In  this  case  we  may  have 
x  =  7,  or  x  =  —  7 ;  since  a  negative  quantity  multiplied  by  itself 
produces  a  positive  square.  As  the  square  root  of  any  quantity  is 
denoted  by  the  radical  sign,  (>/  ),  we  might  have  written  above, 

The  square  root  of  a  monomial,  is  also  a  monomial :  but  if  we 
multiply  x  +  a  by  x  +  a,  we  shall  have  (x  +  a)3  =  x2  +  2  ax  +  a3 ; 
that  is,  the  square  of  a  binomial,  is  made  up  of  the  square  of  the  first 
term,  plus  twice  the  product  of  the  two  terms,  plus  the  square  of  the 
last  term.  This  suggests  the  rule  for  extracting  the  square  root  of  a 
polynomial ;  which  we  have  no  room  here  to  present.  Hence,  to 
resolve  a  complex  quadratic  equation,  when  reduced  to  the  regular 
form,  a?3  +  ax  =  b",  we  must  consider  ax  as  twice  the  product  of  the 
two  terms  of  a  binomial  root ;  and  x  being  one  of  them,  £  a  will  ne- 
cessarily be  the  other.  We  must  therefore  add  the  square  of  5  a  to 
each  member  of  the  equation  ;  making  x2  +  ax  +  I  a2  =  b  +  $  a2 ; 
and  the  first  member  will  then  become  a  trinomial  and  perfect  square; 
while  the  second  member  will  contain  only  known  quantities.  Then, 
extracting  the  square  root  of  each  member,  we  have  x  +  5  a  =  ± 
*/b  +  |  aa ;  from  which,  as  a  simple  equation,  the  value  of  x  may 
readily  be  found.  For  example,  if  we  have  x*+  6  a?  =  27,  then  is 
#2_j_  6a?  +  9  =  27  +  9  =  36;  and  x  +  3  =  ±  6,  or  x  =  ±  6  —  3 
==  3,  or  —9. 

§  4.  The  theory  of  Powers  and  Roots  in  general,  comes  next  in 
order,  as  a  preparation  for  the  more  general  study  of  equations.  If 
we  form  the  successive  powers  of  the  binomial  a  +  b,  we  shall  have 

[a 

==  a3  +  3  a*  b  +  3  a  b2  +  b3. 

—  a*  4.  4  a3  b  +  6  a8  63  +  4  a  b3  +  b*. 
In  the  formation  of  these  powers,  we  observe  certain  remarkable 
laws,  which  have  been  generalized  by  Newton,  in  the  binomial  the- 
orem. We  see  that  the  number  of  terms  in  the  power,  is  one  greater 
than  its  exponent.  The  exponents  of  the  leading  factor,  a,  go  on 
diminishing  by  unity  from  term  to  term  ;  while  those  of  the  succeed- 
ing factor,  6,  go  on  increasing,  according  to  the  same  law.  And  to 
form  the  coefficient  of  any  term,  we  multiply  the  co-efficient  of  the 
preceding  term  by  the  first  exponent  in  that  term,  and  divide  the 
product  by  the  number  denoting  the  place  of  that  term,  counting 
from  the  first. 

By  these  same  rules,  we  may  develope  the  powers  of  any  other 
binomial.  Thus,  to  develope  (2  x  +  y)3,  we  write  2  x  instead  of  a, 
and  y  instead  of  b  ;  and  the  result  becomes,  (2  x)3  +  3  (2  x)2  y  +  3 
(2  x)  y*  +  y3 ;  or  by  reduction  we  have  (2  x  +  y}3  —S  x3  +  12  x*y 
_{_  Q  x  y*  +  y3.  Roots,  in  general,  are  denoted  by  the  radical  sign, 
(x/~~~)»  with  the  index  of  the  root  written  above  and  on  the  left ;  ex- 
cept the  square  root,  whose  index  is  understood,  but  not  written.  As 
we  multiply  the  exponent,  in  raising  to  a  power,  so  we  may  divide 
the  exponent,  to  extract  the  root ;  thus  forming  a  fractional  exponent. 

2E 


326  MATHEMATICS. 

For  example,  ^/64  =  (64)*  =  4  ;  since  4  x  4  x  4  =  64.  We  have 
only  room  to  add  that  by  means  of  fractional  exponents,  the  binomial 
theorem  serves  also  to  develope  or  extract  roots  in  general,  in  the 
form  of  a  series  ;  which,  in  these  cases,  is  generally  interminous,  or 
endless. 

§  5.  The  general  Theory  of  Equations,  depends  on  the  principle 
that  every  equation,  having  all  the  terms  transposed  to  the  first  mem- 
ber, and  arranged  according  to  the  powers  of  the  unknown  quantity 
x,  may  be  regarded  as  the  continued  product  of  as  many  binomial 
factors,  x —  a,  x  —  b,  x  —  c,  &c.,  as  the  degree  of  the  equation,  that 
is,  the  highest  exponent  of  x,  denotes.  Thus,  if  we  have  the  equa- 
tion #3  +  2  x  =  15,  or  x2  +  2  x — 15  =  0,  it  may  be  written  thus, 
(x  +  5)  (x  —  3)  =  0 ;  and  this  equation  will  be  satisfied,  if  we  make 
x  =  3 ;  since  the  factor  x  —  3  then  becomes  zero,  and  reduces  the 
whole  member  to  0  also  :  or  if  we  make  x  =  —  5,  the  other  factor 
will  become  equal  to  zero,  and  the  equation  will  be  satisfied ;  and 
hence  3,  and  —  5,  are  called  the  roots  of  the  equation.  Particular 
rules  have  been  discovered  for  resolving  equations  of  the  third  and 
fourth  degrees  ;  but  for  those  of  higher  degrees  no  general  rules  have 
yet  been  discovered.  Numerical  equations,  or  those  which  contain 
no  other  letters  but  the  unknown  quantity,  may  generally  be  resolved 
by  approximation  :  simple  and  quadratic  equations  being  those  of 
far  the  most  frequent  occurrence. 

§  6.  We  have  alluded  to  Arithmetical  and  Geometrical  Series,  or 
Progressions,  under  the  head  of  Arithmetic  ;  and  have  given  examples 
of  other  series,  in  the  application  of  the  binomial  theorem.     We  have 
only  room  left  here  to  speak  of  Logarithms  ;  which  are  a  series  of 
numbers  in  arithmetical  progression,  corresponding  to   the  natural 
numbers  in  geometrical  progression.     Their  nature  will  best  be  un- 
derstood by  examining  the  following  scale,  in  which  the  logarithms 
are  placed  under  the  natural  numbers  to  which  they  correspond. 
C    1;   10;   100;  1000;  10,000;   100,000;   1,000,000. 
?    0;     1;       2;         3;  4;  5;  6. 

Thus,  in  the  common  system,  2  is  the  logarithm  of  100  ;  and  the 
logarithm  of  any  number  between  100  and  1000,  is  some  decimal 
between  2-00000  and  3-0000.  It  will  be  seen  that  adding  the 
logarithms,  corresponds  to  multiplying  the  numbers ;  and  subtract- 
ing the  logarithms,  corresponds  to  the  division  of  one  of  the  numbers 
by  the  other.  For  example,  subtracting  2  from  5,  the  difference  is  3, 
the  logarithm  of  1000;  which  is  the  quotient  of  100,000  divided  by 
100.  Moreover,  to  raise  a  number  to  any  power,  we  have  only  to 
multiply  its  logarithm  by  the  exponent  of  that  power,  and  it  will  give 
the  logarithm  of  the  power  sought ;  from  which  the  power  itself  may 
be  found  by  means  of  a  table  of  logarithms.  In  like  manner,  the 
extraction  of  any  root  is  performed  simply  by  dividing  the  logarithm 
of  the  number,  by  the  index  of  the  root,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the 
logarithm  of  the  root  required. 


GEOMETRY.  327 

CHAPTER  HI. 

GEOMETRY. 

GEOMETRY,  is  that  branch  of  Mathematics  which  treats  of  the 
measurement  of  space,  and  the  properties  of  lines,  surfaces,  and 
solids.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  y^,  the  earth,  or  land, 
and  petpov,  a  measure  :  and  this  science  was  thus  designated  from  its 
early  application  to  the  measurement  of  land.  Under  this  branch, 
we  would  also  include  the  modern  Descriptive  Geometry ;  for  rea- 
sons already  given  in  the  introduction  to  the  present  department. 
The  science  of  Geometry,  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful,  as  it  is  also 
one  of  the  most  useful,  among  the  exact  sciences ;  and,  from  its 
frequent  applications,  in  all  the  arts  of  construction,  it  is  a  branch 
which  we  think  should  be  studied  by  every  mechanic,  if  not  gene- 
rally introduced  into  our  common  schools. 

The  origin  of  Geometry,  is  ascribed  by  some  writers  to  the  Hin- 
doos :  but  by  others,  as  Herodotus,  to  the  Egyptians,  who  employed 
it  in  retracing  their  landmarks,  after  each  subsidence  of  the  Nile.  It 
was  introduced  into  Greece  by  Thales,  and  his  pupil,  Pythagoras, 
both  of  whom  travelled  in  Egypt.  Thales  discovered  that  all  angles 
inscribed  in  a  semi-circle  are  right  angles ;  and  Pythagoras,  besides 
noticing  the  five  regular  solids,  discovered  that  the  square  on  the 
hypothenuse  of  a  right  angled  triangle  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  those 
on  the  two  sides.  Hippocrates  of  Chios,  by  the  quadrature  of  his 
famous  lunulse,  was  the  first  to  discover  the  exact  area  of  a  curvili- 
near figure  ;  450  B.  C.  Eudoxus,  the  friend  of  Plato,  found  the 
measure  of  the  pyramid  and  cone  ;  and  Archimedes  of  Syracuse,  that 
of  the  sphere  and  its  circumscribed  cylinder,  which  were  sculptured 
on  his  tomb.  This  involved  the  quadrature  of  the  circle,  towards 
which  Archimedes  gave  the  first  approximation.  The  two  famous 
problems,  in  the  Platonic  School,  of  the  trisection  of  an  angle,  and 
the  duplication  of  the  cube,  led  to  the  invention  of  geometrical  loci : 
and  the  spiral  of  Conon,  the  quadratrix  of  Dinostratus,  the  conchoid 
of  Nicomedes,  and  the  cissoid  of  Diocles,  are  curves  having  reference 
to  these  problems. 

Among  the  best  ancient  works  on  Geometry,  were  the  Mathema- 
tical Collections  of  Pappus;  and  Euclid's  Elements;  which  were 
first  translated  from  the  Arabic  into  Latin,  by  Adhelard,  an  English 
monk  of  the  12th  century.  The  Arabians  seem  to  have  made  no 
advances  in  Geometry ;  though  Mahomet  of  Bagdad  wrote  an 
original  work  on  Mensuration.  Gerbert,  already  mentioned  in  the 
introduction  to  this  department,  also  wrote  a  treatise  on  Mensuration; 
and  the  first  printed  treatise  on  Algebra,  by  Paccioli,  already  referred 
to,  related  in  part  to  Geometry.  Van  Ceulen  of  Cologne,  who  died 
in  1610,  calculated  the  ratio  of  the  circumference  to  the  diameter  of 
a  circle  as  far  as  to  36  places  of  figures  :  and  Albert  Girard,  another 
Fleming,  first  found  the  area  of  a  spherical  triangle.  Descartes  first 


328  MATHEMATICS. 

noticed  the  logarithmic  spiral;  and  Galileo,  the  cycloid;  which 
was  afterwards  more  fully  investigated  by  Huyghens. 

In  more  recent  times,  numerous  discoveries  and  improvements  have 
been  made  in  Geometry,  by  the  application  of  algebraic  formulas  to 
geometrical  figures ;  the  study  of  which  belongs  to  the  succeeding 
branches  of  Mathematics.  We  have  only  room  to  add  that  the  sub- 
branch  of  Descriptive  Geometry,  was  chiefly  invented  by  Gaspar 
Monge ;  who  published  his  treatise  on  this  subject,  about  the  year 
1794.  Ptolemy  drew  maps  according  to  the  stereographic  projec- 
tion ;  but  the  other  spherical  projections  are  of  later  origin  ;  and  the 
globular  was  invented  by  De  La  Hire.  The  subject  of  Perspective,  is 
here  deferred,  until  we  come  to  the  branch  of  Painting,  among  the  Fine 
Arts  ;  and  Surveying,  is  reserved  for  Civil  Engineering,  or  Viatecture. 

Elementary  Geometry  is  sometimes  divided  into  Longimetry,  or 
the  measure  of  lengths,  and  the  properties  of  lines  ;  Planimetry, 
relating  to  surfaces;  and  Stereometry,  relating  to  solids.  We  shall 
here  treat  of  it  under  the  heads  of  1.  Preliminary  Elements  ;  2.  Plane 
Rectilinear  Figures  ;  3.  The  Circle  and  its  Measure ;  4.  Solid  Angles 
and  Polyedrons  ;  and  5.  The  Three  Round  Bodies.  To  this  division, 
Descriptive  Geometry  will  be  regarded  as  an  appendix. 

§  1.  The  first  Elements  of  Geometry,  are  the  definitions  of  magni- 
tudes. A  point,  has  no  magnitude,  but  serves  to  designate  a  position 
in  space.  A  line,  has  length,  but  no  breadth  or  thickness  ;  and  it 
may  be  considered  as  formed  by  a  series  of  points,  or  generated  by 
the  flowing,  that  is  the  motion,  of  a  point.  A  surface,  has  length, 
and  breadth,  but  no  depth  or  thickness  ;  and  it  may  be  generated  by 
the  motion  of  a  line.  A  solid,  has  length,  breadth,  and  thickness  ; 
which  are  called  the  three  dimensions  of  extension.  A  straight  line, 
is  one  which  follows  or  measures  the  shortest  distance  between  any 
two  of  its  points ;  or  which  lies  in  the  same  direction  throughout : 
but  a  curved  line,  is  one  which  continually  changes  its  direction. 
An  angle,  is  the  inclination  of  one  line  to  another ;  and  is  measured 
by  the  divergence  at  their  point  of  meeting,  which  is  called  the  vertex 
of  the  angle.  In  naming  an  angle  by  means  of  three  letters,  the  one 
placed  at  the  vertex  is  always  named  in  the  middle  place  ;  as  ABE, 
Plate  VII.  Fig.  1.  When  the  adjacent  angles,  formed  by  the  meet- 
ing of  two  straight  lines,  are  equal,  they  are  called  right  angles, 
as  ABD,  Fig.  1  ;  and  each  line  is  said  to  be  perpendicular  to  the 
other.  Oblique  angles,  are  either  obtuse,  that  is  greater,  or  acute, 
that  is  less,  than  a  right  angle.  Lines  which  are  not  inclined  to 
each  other,  but  have  the  same  direction,  are  said  to  be  parallel;  as 
J1D  and  BC,  in  Fig.  3. 

A  plane,  is  a  surface,  with  which  a  straight  line,  applied  to  it  in 
any  direction,  will  entirely  coincide.  A  plane  Jigure,  is  a  plane 
limited  on  all  sides  by  lines ;  which,  if  straight,  enclose  a  rectilinear 
figure,  or  polygon.  A  polygon  of  three  sides,  is  called  a  triangle,  as 
Fig.  2 ;  one  of  four  sides,  a  quadrilateral,  or  tetragon ;  one  of  five 
sides,  a  pentagon  ;  and  so  on.  A  right  angled  triangle,  has  one  right 
angle ;  the  side  opposite  to  which  is  called  the  hypothenuse;  as  BC, 
in  the  triangle  BDC,  Fig.  2.  An  equilateral  triangle  has  its  three 
sides  equal ;  an  isosceles  triangle  has  only  two  of  them  equal :  and  a 


GEOMETRY.  329 

scalene  triangle  has  no  two  sides  equal.  A  square,  has  four  equal 
sides,  and  four  right  angles,  as  ABCD,  Fig.  3  ;  and  a  rectangle, 
has  four  right  angles,  but  two  of  the  sides  longer  than  the  other  two, 
as  ABDC,  Fig.  9.  A  rhombus,  has  its  four  sides  equal,  but  its 
angles  oblique  :  a  rhomboid,  or  parallelogram,  has  its  opposite  sides 
equal,  but  its  angles  oblique,  as  ABEF,  Fig.  3 ;  and  a  trapezoid, 
has  only  two  of  its  four  sides  parallel,  as  ABCF,  Fig.  3.  A  diago- 
nal, is  a  line  joining  the  vertices  of  two  angles  not  adjacent  to  each 
other. 

A  circle,  is*  a  plane  surface,  terminated  by  a  curved  line,  called  its 
circumference,  all  the  points  of  which  are  equidistant  from  a  point 
within,  called  the  centre.  Fig  4.  A  straight  line  passing  through  the 
centre,  and  terminated  by  the  circumference  on  both  sides,  is  called  a 
diameter,  (AB) ;  and  a  straight  line  from  the  centre  to  the  circum- 
ference, is  called  a  radius.  (OB).  An  arc,  is  any  portion  of  the 
circumference,  (AC)  ;  and  the  chord  of  an  arc  is  a  straight  line  join- 
ing its  extremities.  A  segment,  is  the  surface  between  an  arc  and 
its  chord  ;  and  a  sector  is  the  surface  between  two  radii.  (BOB').  A 
tangent  to  a  circle,  is  a  straight  line  which  merely  touches  it,  (AT) ; 
and  a  secant,  is  one  which  cuts  the  circle,  as  a  chord  prolonged.  An 
angle  formed  by  two  radii,  is  measured  by  the  intercepted  arc ;  a 
right  angle  being  divided  into  ninety  degrees.  (90°.)  Angles  of  a 
given  magnitude,  are  usually  constructed  by  means  of  a  scale  of 
chords,  AF,  Fig.  12  ;  the  chord  of  60°,  or  distance  A,  60,  being 
used  as  the  radius. 

§  2.  Of  Plane  Rectilinear  Figures,  we  have  only  room  to  give 
some  of  the  more  important  measures.  In  every  triangle,  the  greater 
side  is  opposite  to  the  greater  angle  :  and  either  side  is  always  less  than 
the  sum  of  the  other  two.  In  every  triangle,  the  sum  of  the  three 
angles  is  equal  to  two  right  angles,  or  180°.  When  two  triangles 
have  the  angles  of  the  one  equal  to  the  corresponding  angles  of  the 
other,  each  to  each,  they  are  said  to  be  similar ;  and  the  homologous 
or  corresponding  sides  are  proportional.  The  measure  of  a  triangle, 
is  the  product  of  its  base  by  half  its  altitude ;  this  latter  being  mea- 
sured on  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  base.  The  square  on  the  hy- 
pothenuse,  of  a  right  angled  triangle,  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  squares 
on  the  other  two  sides.  The  measure  of  a  square,  is  the  square  of 
one  of  its  sides  ;  and  the  measure  of  a  rectangle,  is  the  product  of 
two  of  its  contiguous  sides,  one  being  considered  as  the  base,  and  the 
other  as  the  altitude.  The  measure  of  a  rhombus,  as  well  as  that  of 
a  parallelogram,  is  the  product  of  its  base  by  its  altitude ;  this  latter 
being  measured  on  a  line  perpendicular  to  the  base.  Any  polygon, 
may  be  measured,  by  subdividing  it  into  triangles,  and  finding  the 
sum  of  their  areas,  or  measures,  separately  taken.  In  all  these  mea- 
surements, the  unit  of  surface,  is  a  square,  each  side  of  which  is  the 
adopted  unit  of  length  ;  as  a  square  foot,  each  side  of  which  is  one 
foot  in  length. 

§  3.  We  come  next  to  the  Properties  of  the  Circle.     In  the  same 

circle,  or  in  equal  circles,  if  we  take  equal  arcs,  their  chords  will  also 

be  equal,  and  at  equal  distances  from  the  centre  ;  that  is,  equal  chords 

subtend  equal  arcs.     The  radius  which  is  perpendicular  to  a  chord, 

42  2m  2 


830  MATHEMATICS. 

bisects  both  the  chord,  and  the  arc  which  it  subtends.  Every  tan- 
gent is  perpendicular  to  the  radius  drawn  to  its  point  of  contact, 
that  is,  the  point  where  it  touches  the  circle.  Arcs  of  circles  are 
used  to  measure  angles ;  the  vertex  of  the  angle  being  at  the  centre 
of  the  circle.  An  angle  is  said  to  be  inscribed  in  a  circle,  when 
it  is  formed  by  two  chords  meeting  on  the  circumference.  A  polygon 
is  said  to  be  thus  inscribed,  when  all  its  vertices  lie  in  the  circum- 
ference :  and  it  is  said  to  be  circumscribed  about  the  circle,  when  all 
its  sides  are  tangent  to  the  circumference.  The  ratio  of  the  diameter 
of  a  circle  to  its  circumference,  is  nearly  as  7  to  22  ;  more  nearly  as 
113  to  355;  and  still  more  nearly  as  1  to  3-141596.  The  measure 
of  a  circle,  is  the  product  of  the  circumference  by  half  the  radius  ;  or 
of  half  the  circumference  by  half  the  diameter. 

§  4.  The  study  of  Solid  Jingles,  and  Polyedrons,  requires  some 
preliminary  explanations.  When  a  given  straight  line  meets  a  plane, 
and  is  perpendicular  to  two  other  straight  lines  lying  in  the  plane, 
and  meeting  the  former  at  its  foot,  then  the  given  line  is  perpendicu- 
lar to  all  other  lines  in  the  plane,  and  to  the  plane  itself.  A  line  is 
parallel  to  a  plane,  and  two  planes  are  parallel  to  each  other,  when 
they  do  not  meet,  however  far  extended  or  produced.  Two  planes 
are  perpendicular  to  each  other,  when  either  one  of  them  contains 
any  line  which  is  perpendicular  to  the  other.  The  angle  formed  by 
two  planes,  is  measured  by  that  of  two  lines,  one  in  each  plane,  and 
both  perpendicular  to  the  line  of  intersection  of  the  planes,  and  meet- 
ing it  at  the  same  point.  A  solid  angle,  is  one  formed  by  three  or 
more  planes,  all  meeting  at  the  same  point;  which  is  the  vertex  both 
of  the  solid  angle,  and  of  the  plane  angles  that  enclose  it ;  as  the 
angle  at  D,  or  those  at  A,  B,  and  C.  (PI.  VII.,  Fig.  5.) 

A  Polyedron,  is  a  solid,  bounded  on  all  sides  with  planes,  called 
its  faces,  the  terminating  lines  of  which  constitute  its  edges.  A 
cube  has  six  equal  squares  for  its  six  faces.  A  pyramid,  Fig.  5,  is 
a  solid  enclosed  by  several  triangular  planes,  proceeding  from  a  com- 
mon vertex,  to  the  sides  of  a  polygon  which  forms  the  base.  A 
prism,  Fig.  6,  is  a  polyedron,  the  ends  of  which  are  similar  poly- 
gons, and  the  sides  are  parallelograms.  The  measure  of  a  prism  is 
the  product  of  its  base  by  its  altitude ;  which  is  the  perpendicular 
distance  between  its  two  bases.  The  measure  of  a  pyramid  is  the 
product  of  its  base  by  one-*third  of  its  altitude,  or  perpendicular 
height.  The  unit  of  solidity,  in  these  measurements,  is  a  cube, 
each  of  whose  edges  is  equal  to  the  unit  of  length,  and  each  of  its 
faces  equal  to  the  unit  of  surface. 

§  5.  The  Three  Round  Bodies,  technically  so  called,  are  the  cone, 
cylinder,  and  sphere.  A  cone,  PI.  VII.,  Fig.  7,  is  a  solid  gene- 
rated by  a  right  angled  triangle,  (ACD),  revolving  around  one  of  its 
legs,  or  shorter  sides,  (DC),  which  remains  stationary  as  an  axis.  A 
cylinder,  Fig.  8,  is  a  solid  generated  by  the  like  revolution  of  a 
rectangle,  about  either  one  of  its  sides :  and  a  sphere,  is  a  solid 
generated  by  the  revolution  of  a  semicircle,  around  one  of  its  diame- 
ters, which  remains  stationary  as  an  axis.  All  possible  sections  of  a 
sphere,  by  a  plane,  are  circles  ;  and  planes  cutting  a  cone,  or  cylinder, 
perpendicular  to  its  axis,  produce  also  circular  sections.  A  zone,  of 


PLATE    VII.       MATHEMATICS. 


Engraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


GEOMETRY.  331 

a  sphere,  is  a  part  of  its  surface,  cut  off  by  a  plane,  or  intercepted 
between  two  parallel  planes  ;  and  the  intercepted  solid  is  called  a 
spherical  segment.  A  spherical  triangle,  is  a  portion  of  the  sur- 
face of  a  sphere,  bounded  by  three  arcs  of  great  circles,  that  is, 
circles  whose  planes  pass  through  the  centre. 

The  convex  surface  of  a  cylinder,  is  equal  to  the  circumference  of 
its  base,  multiplied  by  its  altitude :  that  of  a  cone,  is  equal  to  the 
circumference  of  its  base,  multiplied  by  its  slant  height,  or  distance 
from  the  vertex  to  any  point  of  the  circumference  just  named :  and 
the  surface  of  a  sphere,  is  equal  to  the  product  of  its  diameter  by  the 
circumference  of  a  great  circle,  that  is,  of  the  sphere  itself.  The 
measure  of  the  solidity  of  a  cylinder,  is  the  product  of  its  base  by  its 
altitude ;  that  of  a  cone,  is  the  product  of  its  base  by  one-third  of  its 
altitude  ;  and  that  of  the  sphere  is  the  product  of  its  surface  by  one- 
third  of  its  radius. 

§  6.  Descriptive  Geometry,  relates  to  the  representation  of  geo- 
metrical figures  on  planes,  and  the  construction  of  graphical  problems 
thereby.  It  includes,  therefore,  the  principles  of  perspective,  and 
Spherical  Projections.  If  we  suppose  the  eye  to  be  placed  at  a  very 
great  height,  and  looking  vertically  down  upon  an  object  situated 
above  a  horizontal  plane,  then  the  object  will  hide  a  part  of  the  plane, 
of  the  same  shape  or  outline,  as  that  which  the  object  itself  presents 
to  the  eye.  This  representation  of  the  object  on  the  plane,  is  called 
its  horizontal  projection;  and  the  plane  itself  is  called  the  horizontal 
plane  of  projection.  In  like  manner,  if  we  suppose  the  eye  to  be 
placed  in  front  of  an  object,  and  a  vertical  plane  behind  it,  we  may 
have  a  vertical  projection,  of  the  object,  on  the  vertical  plane  of  pro- 
jection. When  these  two  planes  of  projection  are  both  used,  they 
intersect  each  other  in  a  line  called  the  ground  line  :  and  if  we  sup- 
pose one  of  them,  with  any  projections  made  upon  it,  to  be  revolved 
about  the  ground  line  as  an  axis,  till  it  coincides  with  the  other  plane, 
we  shall  then  have  both  the  projections  of  any  object,  on  one  and  the 
same  plane;  as  that  of  the  paper  or  drawing  board.  Plate  VII., 
Fig.  9,  represents  the  horizontal  plane  GHIB,  as  revolved  about  the 
ground  line  JIB,  until  it  coincides  with  the  vertical  plane  ACDB, 
prolonged  downwards  to  EF. 

The  projection  of  any  point,  is  another  point,  directly  above  or 
below  it,  or  else  directly  before  or  behind  it ;  and  is  found  by  drawing 
a  perpendicular  from  the  given  point  to  one  or  the  other  plane  of 
projection.  The  projection  of  a  line,  is  another  line,  lying  in  one 
or  the  other  plane  of  projection  ;  and  is  found  by  joining  the  projec- 
tions of  two  of  its  points  on  that  plane.  The  position  of  any  plane, 
in  space,  is  known,  if  we  have  its  intersections  with  the  two  planes 
of  projection ;  which  intersections  are  called  its  traces.  If  a  given 
plane  be  revolved  about  one  of  its  traces  as  an  axis,  until  it  coincides 
with  the  plane  of  projection  in  which  that  trace  lies,  each  point  of 
the  given  plane  will  revolve  in  a  circular  arc,  and  take  the  same  rela- 
tive position  in  the  given  plane,  after  the  revolution,  as  it  had  before. 
It  is  by  an  ingenious  application  of  these  and  similar  principles,  that 
lines,  surfaces  and  solids  may  be  delineated  on  a  single  plane,  and 
their  dimensions  or  relations  determined  to  a  surprizing  extent.  In 


332  MATHEMATICS. 

Plate  VII.,  Fig.  9,  aa!  and  bb',  are  supposed  to  be  perpendicular  to 
the  plane  ABDC  ;  and  a'  b'  represents  the  projection  of  the  line 
ab,  on  that  plane.  In  like  manner,  b"  and  a"  are  the  projections  of 
b  and  a  on  the  plane  GHIB,  and  d'  and  c'  are  the  same  projec- 
tions when  this  plane  is  revolved  down  into  the  position  GKFB. 

When  all  the  projecting  lines  and  planes  are  perpendicular  to  the 
planes  of  projection ;  that  is,  when  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  at  an 
infinite  distance  above,  or  in  front  of  the  object,  the  projection  is  then 
said  to  be  Orthographic.  When  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed 
comparatively  near  to  the  object,  or  objects,  so  that  the  projecting 
lines  diverge  from  the  eye  as  a  focus  or  centre,  then  the  projection  is 
said  to  be  Scenographic,  which  is  the  same  as  Perspective  ;  and  the 
plane  of  projection,  is,  in  this  connection,  termed  the  perspective 
plane.  The  name  of  Spherical  Projections,  is  applied  both  to  the 
orthographic  and  scenographic  projections  of  the  sphere,  with  its  dif- 
ferent circles:  and,  in  this  case,  the  plane  of  projection  is  called  the 
primitive  plane  ;  and  its  intersection  with  the  sphere  is  called  the 
primitive  circle.  In  the  Stereographic  projection,  the  primitive 
plane  is  supposed  to  pass  through  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  and  the 
eye  to  be  placed  at  one  pole  of  the  primitive  circle,  viewing  the  oppo- 
site hemisphere.  In  this  case,  all  circles  of  the  sphere  are  projected 
either  as  circles  or  right  lines  ;  as  in  Plate  VII.,  Fig.  11.  If  the  eye 
were  revolved  down  to  A,  the  point  d  would  evidently  be  seen  as 
if  it  were  at  d";  but  if  the  eye  were  revolved  about  AB  as  an  axis, 
to  the  point  D,  then  the  point  d  would  appear  in  the  direction  d'. 
Thus,  the  parallels  and  meridians  are  determined.  In  the  cylin- 
drical projection,  or  developement  of  the  sphere,  which  is  that  used 
in  the  Mercator  Charts,  the  eye  is  supposed  to  be  placed  at  the  centre, 
and  the  surface  is  projected  on  a  circumscribed  cylinder,  tangent  to 
the  sphere,  around  the  equator ;  which  cylinder  is  afterwards  deve- 
loped, or  spread  out,  as  a  plane.  Of  the  other  projections,  and  of 
warped  surfaces,  and  surfaces  of  revolution,  we  have  no  farther 
room  to  speak. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

ANCYLOMETRY. 

ANCYLOMETRY,  or  Analytic  Geometry,  is  that  branch  of  Mathema- 
tics in  which  Algebra  is  employed  in  determining  the  relations  and 
properties  of  Geometrical  figures  ;  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  the  appli- 
cation of  Algebra  to  Geometry.  We  venture  to  propose,  for  this 
branch  of  Mathematics,  the  name  of  Jlncylometry ,  suggested  by 
Judge  Woodward,  and  derived  from  the  Greek  oyxvAoj,  a  curve,  and 
pcrpov,  a  measure  ;  it  being  extensively  employed  in  the  measure  of 
curves.  Under  this  head,  we  comprehend  not  only  Conic  Sections, 
which  it  is  generally  made  to  include;  but  also  Trigonometry;  which, 
though  sometimes  considered  as  a  distinct  branch  of  Mathematics, 
may  rather  be  regarded  as  a  sub-branch,  of  limited  extent,  but  of 
high  importance.  The  object  of  Trigonometry,  is  the  relation  of  the 


ANCYLOMETRY.  333 

parts  of  triangles  ;  by  which,  certain  parts  being  given,  the  others 
may  be  determined.  Conic  Sections,  is  the  name  applied  to  the  study 
of  the  curves  formed  by  the  intersections  of  a  plane  and  a  cone  ;  that 
is,  the  circle,  ellipse,  parabola,  and  hyperbola.  These  curves  are 
often  referred  to,  particularly  in  Astronomy  and  Navigation  ;  while 
Trigonometry  is  also  of  frequent  service,  in  these  studies,  and  in  the 
practice  of  Surveying  and  Mensuration. 

Trigonometry,  derives  its  name  from  the  Greek  r'ptyavoj,  a  triangle, 
and  fifepov,  a  measure.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  investigated  by 
Hipparchus  :  but  the  oldest  work  extant  upon  it,  is  that  of  Menelaus 
of  Alexandria ;  and  the  earliest  trigonometrical  tables  which  have 
been  preserved,  are  those  of  Ptolemy,  in  his  Almagest.  The  Arabi- 
ans simplified  Trigonometry,  by  the  introduction  of  sines,  or  the 
half  chords  of  double  arcs,  as  the  means  of  expressing  angles  :  a 
method  employed  in  the  writings  of  Albategnius,  about  A.  D.  880  ; 
though  its  invention  is  also  claimed  for  the  Hindoos.  The  Arabian 
astronomer,  Geber  ben  Aphla,  in  the  llth  century,  compiled  three  or 
four  theorems,  which  became  the  basis  of  modern  trigonometry. 
MUller,  of  Germany,  called  also  Regiomontanus,  farther  improved 
Trigonometry  by  the  use  of  tangents  :  and  he  was  the  first  to  resolve 
spherical  triangles,  by  finding  the  relations  of  their  sides  and  angles. 
To  Napier,  we  are  indebted,  for  his  rules  or  Analogies,  which  assist 
us  in  remembering  the  more  difficult  formulas  ;  and  especially  for  the 
invention  of  Logarithms,  by  which  trigonometrical  calculations  are 
so  greatly  simplified.  Other  improvements  have  been  made  by  Euler 
and  others ;  and  the  formulas  of  Trigonometry  are  now  become  so 
general,  and  complete,  as  to  leave  but  little  more  to  be  expected,  or 
even  desired. 

The  first  examination  of  Conic  Sections,  has  been  attributed  by 
some  writers  to  Menechmus,  a  friend  of  Plato ;  and  by  others  to 
AristfEiis,  whose  writings  are  lost.  The  earliest  work  extant,  on  this 
subject,  is  that  of  Apollonius  of  Perga,  who  flourished  about  150 
B.  C.  ;  and  who  ranked  next  to  Archimedes,  as  a  geometer.  Dr. 
Wallis,  in  1655,  introduced  the  method  of  studying  these  curves 
without  any  necessary  reference  to  their  being  sections  of  a  cone. 
Galileo,  Kepler,  and  Newton,  discovered  that  the  orbits  of  the  planets 
are  curves  of  this  class  ;  since  which  discovery  they  have  been  very 
extensively  and  carefully  studied. 

The  invention  of  the  modern  Analytic  Geometry,  is  attributed  to 
Vieta,  and  Descartes.  Vieta  applied  it  only  to  the  construction  of 
the  roots  of  equations  ;  but  Descartes,  in  1637,  by  the  invention  of 
coordinates,  found  the  means  of  designating  geometrical  curves  by 
algebraic  equations  ;  in  which  the  essence  of  this  branch  consists. 
Descartes  applied  this  system  to  curves  of  double  curvature,  by 
means  of  their  two  projections ;  but  Maclaurin  discovered  a  more 
direct  method,  by  means  of  triple  coordinates,  parallel  to  three 
different  axes,  and  related  to  each  other  by  the  nature  of  the  curve, 
or  surface.  It  is  only  since  the  time  of  Descartes,  that  Trigonome- 
try and  Conic  Sections  have  been  treated  analytically,  and  thus  be- 
come a  part  of  this  branch  of  Mathematics ;  which  has  thus  aided 
the  study  of  pure  Geometry. 


334  MATHEMATICS. 

We  proceed  to  treat  first  of  Trigonometry ;  then  of  Coordinates, 
and  their  immediate  applications ;  and  lastly  of  the  Conic  Sections. 

§  1.  Plane  Trigonometry,  has  for  its  object  the  solution  of  pro- 
blems concerning  plane  triangles ;  the  sides  of  which  are  always  straight 
lines.  It  is  subdivided,  in  reference  to  the  different  kinds  of  triangles, 
into  Right  Angled  and  Oblique.  In  any  right  angled  triangle,  ABC, 
Plate  VII.  Fig.  13,  if,  from  the  vertex,  A,  of  one  of  the  acute  angles, 
as  a  centre,  and  with  the  hypothenuse.  AC,  for  a  radius,  we  describe 
an  arc  of  a  circle,  the  side,  BC,  opposite  to  the  vertex  used,  becomes 
the  sine,  and  the  adjacent  side,  AB,  becomes  the  cosine,  of  the  angle, 
A,  in  question.  The  cosine,  prolonged,  becomes  another  radius  of 
the  same  arc  ;  and  the  prolonged  part,  BD,  beyond  the  triangle,  is 
called  the  versed  sine  of  the  arc  or  angle  in  question.  If  now  we 
apply  a  scale,  on  which  the  hypothenuse  or  radius  shall  be  equal  to 
unity  or  1,  the  sine  and  cosine  will  be  expressed  by  decimals,  which 
are  called  the  natural  sine,  and  cosine,  of  the  angle  in  question. 
But  if  we  take  the  radius  equal  to  10,000,000,000,  (whose  logarithm 
is  10),  and  then  find  the  logarithms  of  the  corresponding  lengths  of 
the  sine  and  cosine,  we  shall  have  the  logarithmic  sine,  and  cosine, 
of  the  same  angle.  Thus,  angles  may  be  designated  by  their  sines, 
or  cosines. 

Again,  if  from  the  same  vertex,  A,  as  a  centre,  and  with  the  base, 
AB,  as  a  radius,  we  describe  an  arc,  then  the  other  leg,  BC,  is 
called  the  tangent,  and  the  hypothenuse,  AC,  is  called  the  secant 
of  the  same  angle.  The  tangent  and  secant  of  the  complement  of  an 
angle,  or  what  it  wants  of  90°,  are  called  the  co-tangent  and  co-secant 
of  the  angle  itself.  It  is  chiefly  by  means  of  Tables  of  the  sines  and 
co-sines,  tangents  and  co-tangents  of  angles,  that  all  problems  of  Tri- 
gonometry are  resolved.  In  every  plane  triangle,  we  must  have  given 
at  least  three  parts,  sides  and  angles,  one  of  which  at  least  must  be  a 
side,  in  order  to  find  the  other  parts. 

Thus,  in  a  right  angled  triangle,  if  we  have  given  the  base,  and 
angle  at  the  base,  the  right  angle  being  of  course  known,  then,  the 
base  is  to  the  perpendicular,  or  other  leg,  as  the  cosine  of  the  angle 
at  the  base,  is  to  the  sine  of  the  same  angle  ;  and  the  base  is  to  the 
hypothenuse,  as  the  cosine  of  the  angle  at  the  base,  is  to  radius,  or 
the  sine  of  90°.  In  an  oblique  angled  triangle,  the  sides  are  pro- 
portional to  the  sines  of  the  opposite  angles  :  also,  the  sum  of  any 
two  sides  is  to  their  difference,  as  the  tangent  of  the  half  sum  of  the 
two  opposite  angles,  is  to  the  tangent  of  their  half  difference :  and 
finally,  the  sine  of  half  of  either  angle,  is  equal  to  radius  multiplied 
by  the  half  sum  of  the  three  sides  minus  one  of  the  adjacent  sides, 
this  multiplied  by  the  same  half  sum  minus  the  other  adjacent  side, 
and  the  whole  divided  by  four  times  the  product  of  the  two  adjacent 
sides,  adjacent  to  the  angle  sought. 

§  2.  Spherical  Trigonometry,  has  for  its  object  the  resolution  of 
spherical  triangles,  formed  by  arcs  of  great  circles  on  the  surface  of  a 
sphere.  The  angles  of  such  a  triangle,  (Plate  VII.  Fig.  14),  are 
those  formed  by  the  planes  of  its  sides,  with  each  other ;  and  its  sides 
are  measured  as  arcs,  by  the  number  of  degrees  which  they  subtend, 
at  the  centre  of  the  sphere.  In  spherical  triangles,  the  sines  of  the 


ANCYLOMETRY.  335 

sides  are  proportional  to  the  sines  of  the  opposite  angles.  In  a  right 
angled  spherical  triangle,  if  we  omit  the  right  angle,  we  have  five 
parts  left,  sides  and  angles  ;  one  of  which  being  called  the  middle 
part,  two  of  the  others  become  adjacent  parts,  and  the  other  two,  the 
opposite  parts ;  taking  however  not  the  oblique  angles  and  hypothe- 
nuse  themselves,  but  their  complements  in  their  stead.  Then,  radius 
into  the  sine  of  the  middle  part,  will  be  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
tangents  of  the  adjacent  parts,  and  also  equal  to  the  product  of  the 
cosines  of  the  opposite  parts.  These  rules,  called  Napier's  Analo- 
gies^ may  be  applied  to  oblique  angled  spherical  triangles  ;  by  divid- 
ing them  each  into  two  right  angled  triangles,  by  means  of  an  arc 
drawn- from  one  vertex,  perpendicularly,  to  the  opposite  side. 

§  3,  The  invention  of  Coordinates^  has  furnished  the  means  of 
representing  geometrical  curves,  by  the  medium  of  algebraic  equa- 
tions. For  this  purpose,  we  imagine  two  straight  lines,  XX'  and 
YY',  PI.  VII.,  Fig.  15,  to  be  drawn  in  the  plane  which  contains  the 
given  curve  ;  and  these  lines  are  called  the  axes  of  coordinates  :  the 
origin  of  coordinates  being  their  point  of  meeting.  Generally,  the 
axis  which  extends  across  the  figure,  from  right  to  left,  is  called  the 
axis  of  abscissas ;  and  the  other,  the  axis  of  ordinates.  If,  then, 
from  any  given  point,  w,  we  draw  a  vertical  line,  m  n,  until  it  meets 
the  axis  of  abscissas,  this  line  is  called  the  ordinate  of  that  point ; 
and  the  distance,  »#>i,  from  the  foot  of  this  ordinate,  on  the  axis  of 
abscissas,  to  the  origin  of  coordinates,  is  called  the  abscissa  of  the 
same  point.  Thus,  the  position  of  the  point,  in  the  plane  under  con- 
sideration, is  fixed  by  means  of  its  abscissa  and  ordinate ;  which, 
being  parallel  to  the  axes,  are  generally  perpendicular  to  each  other, 
and  together  are  called  the  coordinates  of  that  point. 

Suppose,  now,  that  we  imagine  a  series  of  points,  at  different  dis- 
tances from  the  origin  of  coordinates,  but  so  situated  that  the  ordinate 
of  each  point  shall  be  equal  to  its  abscissa.  Then  will  all  these 
points  lie  in  one  and  the  same  straight  line,  Jl  b,  Fig.  15,  passing 
through  the  origin,  and  making  an  angle  of  45°  with  each  of  the  axes, 
when  they  are  rectangular  :  and  the  equation  of  this  straight  line 
would  be  y  =  x ;  calling  x  the  abscissa,  and  y  the  ordinate,  in  gene- 
ral. By  giving  any  particular  value  to  a?,  it  determines  the  corres- 
ponding value  of  y,  and  defines  some  particular  point  of  this  straight 
line.  For  the  origin  itself,  we  have  x  =  0,  and  y  =  0 .  and  in 
general  the  abscissa  will  be  0  for  any  point  situated  on  the  axis  of 
ordinates,  and  the  ordinate  will  be  zero  for  the  axis  of  abscissas.  In 
like  manner  as  above,  the  equation  y  =  |  #,  is  that  of  a  line,  »/?(?, 
Fig.  15,  passing  through  the  origin,  and  having  the  ordinate  for  each 
point,  the  double  of  its  abscissa.  A  line  whose  equation  is  y  =  £  x-\- 
10,  would  be  parallel  to  this  last,  but  would  cut  the  axis  of  ordinates 
at  a  distance  from  the  origin  expressed  by  the  number  10.  The 
equation  y  =  —  \  x  +  5,  might  represent  the  line  d  e,  Fig.  5  ;  the 
coefficient  —  £,  determining  its  oblique  direction. 

§  4.  We  must  pass  on  to  the  Conic  Sections.  If  we  suppose  a 
cone,  (Plate  VII.,  Fig.  16),  to  be  bounded  by  an  infinite  number  of 
consecutive  straight  lines,  all  passing  through  its  vertex,  V,  and 
together  composing  its  convex  surface,  these  lines  are  called  its 


336  MATHEMATICS. 

elements ;  and  in  a  right  circular  cone,  they  all  form  equal  angles 
with  its  axis.  Every  section  of  such  a  cone,  by  a  plane  parallel  to 
its  base,  or  perpendicular  to  its  axis,  is  a  circle,  as  EF ;  which  curve 
is  therefore  one  of  the  conic  sections.  If  the  cutting  plane  be  ob- 
lique to  the  axis,  but  make  with  it  a  greater  angle  than  the  elements 
do,  then  the  section  will  be  an  ellipse,  as  GH  ;  which  is  a  curve 
returning  to  itself  like  a  circle,  but  elongated  in  one  direction.  If  the 
cutting  plane  make  with  the  axis  the  same  angle  that  the  elements 
do,  the  section  will  be  a  parabola,  as  UK :  but  if  it  make  with  the 
axis  a  smaller  angle  than  this,  the  section  will  be  a  hyperbola,  as 
LMN,  OPQ.  The  ends,  or  branches  of  a  parabola,  or  hyperbola, 
never  meet,  but  go  on  diverging  to  an  infinite  distance. 

If  we  suppose  the  elements  of  the  cone  CVD  to  be  prolonged 
beyond  the  vertex,  they  will  form  another  cone,  AVB,  equal  and 
opposite  to  the  first ;  both  having  a  common  vertex.  These  two,  in 
connection,  are  technically  called  a  cone  of  two  nappes.  If  we  con- 
sider them  both  as  extended  to  an  infinite  distance  from  the  vertex, 
the  plane  which  cuts  out  a  hyperbola  from  one  of  them,  will  cut  out 
an  equal  and  opposite  hyperbola  from  the  other ;  and  these  two  are 
called  conjugate  hyperbolas.  A  cylinder,  may  be  regarded  as  a 
cone,  whose  vertex  is  at  an  infinite  distance  from  its  base  :  and  its 
sections,  by  planes,  whether  circular  or  elliptical,  belong  therefore  to 
the  conic  sections.  All  the  conic  sections  may  be  comprehended  in 
one  general  equation ;  by  varying  the  terms  of  which  it  is  made 
applicable  to  every  particular  case. 

In  the  circle,  Fig.  12,  if  we  take  two  diameters  for  the  axes  of 
coordinates,  and  consider  any  point  C,  on  the  circumference,  its  ordi- 
nate,  CD,  will  be  the  same  line  as  the  sine,  and  its  abscissa,  OD, 
as  the  cosine,  of  the  arc  between  this  point  and  the  diameter  which 
is  made  the  axis  of  abscissas.  Calling  the  radius,  R  ;  the  abscissa,  x  ; 
and  the  ordinate,  y  ;  the  equation  of  the  circle  will  be  y*  -f  xz  =  7?3 ; 
in  which  x,  and  y,  vary  for  the  different  points  of  the  circumference  ; 
y  diminishing  as  x  increases,  but  R  remaining  constant  for  all  points 
of  the  same  circle.  In  the  ellipse,  Fig.  17,  the  longest  of  all  the 
diameters  is  at  right  angles  to  the  shortest ;  the  former,  being  called 
the  transverse  and  the  latter  the  conjugate  diameter.  Taking  these 
as  axes,  and  calling  the  halves  of  them  respectively  Jl  and  B,  the 
equation  of  the  ellipse  becomes  Jizyz  -f  B*  x*  =  A*  B*',  in  which  JL 
and  B  remain  constant  for  the  same  ellipse.  The  points  F  and  F', 
are  called  the  foci  of  the  ellipse :  and  the  sum  of  their  distances  FP 
and  F'  P,  from  any  point  on  the  curve,  is  a  constant  quantity,  always 
equal  to  the  transverse  diameter.  In  the  hyperbola,  Fig.  19,  the 
difference  of  the  distances  F'  P  and  FP  is  constant;  and  in  the  para- 
bola, Fig.  18,  the  point  P  is  equidistant  from  the  focus  F,  and  the 
directrix  CD.  The  equation  of  the  parabola,  taking  its  vertex  as 
the  origin  of  coordinates,  is  y»  =  Px;  and  that  of  the  hyperbola, 
referred  to  the  middle  of  its  transverse  diameter,  is  Jl*yz  —  Bz  xz  = 
—  A*  B*.  The  applications  of  these  equations,  we  have  no  room  to 
explain. 


RHEOMETRr.  337 

CHAPTER  V. 

RIIEOMETRY. 

RHEOMETRY,  or  the  Differential  and  Integral  Calculus,  is  that 
branch  of  Mathematics  which  treats  of  the  correlative  increments  of 
quantities  that  are  mutually  dependent ;  and  of  the  relations  of  these 
increments  to  each  other,  and  to  the  quantities  from  which  they  are 
derived.  For  this  branch  of  Mathematics,  we  venture  to  propose 
the  name  Rheometry  ;  from  the  Greek  £f<o,  I  flow,  suggested  by  the 
name  Fluxions,  applied  to  this  science  by  Newton.  The  word  Cal- 
culus, is  the  Latin  for  a  small  stone,  or  pebble  ;  and  as  the  ancients 
used  pebbles  to  assist  them  in  numbering  or  reckoning,  the  word  was 
hence  applied  to  the  method  or  means  of  numerical  calculation. 
Leibnitz  conceived  the  dependent  quantities  to  receive  infinitely  small 
increments,  the  sum  of  which  would  make  up  the  quantities  them- 
selves :  hence  he  proposed  for  this  branch  the  name  above  given. 
Newton  considered  all  quantities  as  generated  by  motion  ;  a  line  by 
the  motion  of  a  point ;  a  surface  by  the  motion  of  a  line  ;  and  a  solid 
by  the  motion  of  a  surface.  This  idea  of  magnitudes  moving,  or 
floiving,  led  him  to  propose  for  this  new  science,  the  name  of 
Fluxions;  which  is  now,  however,  for  the  most  part  superseded  by 
the  name  proposed  by  Leibnitz. 

Kepler  was  the  first,  among  the  moderns,  who  applied  the  infini- 
tesimal method  to  geometrical  figures  ;  and  he  considered  the  circle 
as  composed  of  infinitely  small  triangles,  formed  by  the  radii.  The 
method  of  indivisibles,  first  published  in  1635,  by  Cavalieri,  or 
Cavallerius  of  Bologna,  regarded  surfaces  as  made  up  of  mere  lines; 
whereas  Roberval,  his  contemporary,  regarded  them  as  composed  of 
infinitesimal  areas ;  and  applied  this  method  to  the  measure  of  the 
cycloid.  Fermat's  method  of  finding  maxima  and  minima,  im- 
proved by  Descartes,  in  his  method  of  tangents,  and  still  farther 
extended  by  Wallis  of  England,  in  his  Arithmetic  of  Infinites,  on 
the  quadrature  of  curves,  as  also  by  Huyghens,  in  his  theory  of 
evolutes,  was  among  the  successive  steps  which  led  to  the  invention 
of  the  Differential  Calculus.  This  invention  has  been  claimed  both 
for  Newton,  and  Leibnitz  ;  but  the  question  has  never  been  fully 
decided.  Newton  is  said  to  have  invented  his  method  of  Fluxions 
as  early  as  1672  ;  but  he  made  no  publication  of  it  till  that  in  his 
Principia,  in  1686.  Leibnitz  claims  to  have  invented  the  Calculus 
in  1676  ;  and  the  first  publication  of  it  was  made  by  him  in  1684, 
in  the  Leipsic  Acts,  under  the  title  of  A  New  Method  for  Maxima 
and  Minima  ;  but  it  contained  no  demonstrations.  Leibnitz  gave  the 
first  ideas  of  the  Integral  Calculus,  in  two  small  tracts,  on  the  quadra- 
ture of  curves,  published  in  1685. 

From  this  time,  the  new  calculus  made  rapid  advances,  in  the 

hands  of  its  inventors  and  others  ;  and  its  great  utility  was  shown  in 

its  successful  application  to  many  of  the  more  difficult  problems  in 

physical  science,  which  had  never  before  been  resolved.     The  first 

43  2  F 


338  MATHEMATICS. 

regular  treatise  on  the  Differential  Calculus,  was  the  Analysis  of  Infi- 
nites, published  in  France,  in  1699,  by  the  Marquis  de  L'Hopital ; 
and  the  first  elementary  treatise  upon  it  in  England,  was  published  by 
Hayes,  in  1704.  Brook  Taylor's  theorem,  published  in  1715,  and 
Maclaurin's  theorem,  deduced  from  Taylor's,  have  become  the  basis 
of  the  calculus  of  finite  differences,  or  increments  and  series,  on 
which  Lagrange  has  founded  his  whole  theory  of  the  Calculus. 
Maclaurin,  in  his  Treatise  of  Fluxions,  published  in  1742,  first  sub- 
jected the  principles  of  this  science  to  strictly  geometrical  proof;  and 
they  were  demonstrated  analytically  by  Lagrange,  in  1772. 

James  Bernouilli,  a  friend  of  Leibnitz,  distinguished  himself  by 
the  application  of  the  Calculus  to  the  elastic  spring,  the  logarithmic 
spiral,  and  to  the  most  difficult  isoperimetrical  curves :  and  his 
brother  John  Bernouilli,  though  doubtless  his  inferior,  did  much 
to  promote  this  science ;  particularly  in  his  examination  of  expo- 
nential functions,  about  the  year  1697;  and  in  his  application  of 
Leibnitz's  method  of  differencing  from  curve  to  curve.  The  import- 
ant method  of  partial  differences,  first  applied  by  Euler,  was 
extended  by  D'Alembert,  in  studying  the  vibrations  of  a  musical 
string ;  and  still  farther  extended  by  Euler  himself,  in  his  Investiga- 
tio  Functionum,  published  in  1762.  La  Grange,  in  1760,  invented 
the  Calculus  of  Variations ;  which  Euler  was  one  of  the  first  to 
adopt,  and  which  La  Place  has  successfully  applied  to  the  planetary 
perturbations.  The  developement  of  functions  in  series,  has  been 
facilitated  by  the  labors  of  La  Place ;  as  also  by  Hindenburg's  combi- 
natory  analysis,  and  by  Arbogast's  calculus  of  derivations,  invented 
in  the  year  1800.  Of  farther  improvements,  by  Clairaut,  Fontaine, 
Legendre,  Cousin,  and  others,  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak. 

Our  further  notice  of  this  science  will  be  very  brief,  and  com- 
prised under  the  two  divisions  of  the  Differential,  and  the  Integral 
Calculus. 

§  1.  The  immediate  object  of  the  Differential  Calculus,  is,  having 
given  the  relation  of  two  quantities,  or  fluents,  to  find  the  ratio  of 
their  differentials,  or  fluxions.  The  name  of  differentials  is  given 
to  the  increments  of  quantities,  when  supposed  to  become  infinitely 
small  or  zero ;  but  though  the  increments  themselves  thus  disappear, 
their  ratio  or  proportion  to  each  other  does  not  disappear,  but  becomes 
an  exact  and  definite  mathematical  quantity,  having  important  appli- 
cations. In  this  branch  of  mathematics,  quantities  are  considered  as 
either  constant,  or  variable;  the  former  being  expressed  by  the  first, 
and  the  latter  by  the  last  letters  of  the  alphabet.  When  the  value 
of  one  quantity  depends  upon  that  of  another,  the  former  is  said  to 
be  a  function  of  the  latter.  Thus,  in  the  equation,  y  =  ax  +  b,yis 
said  to  be  an  explicit  function  of  x  ;  and  x  is  said  to  be  an  implicit 
or  implied  function  of  y  •  but  a  and  b  represent  constant  quantities. 
In  this  example,  if  x  increases  in  value,  y  is  also  increased ;  and 
hence  y  may  be  called  an  increasing  function  of  x.  Functions  are 
also  distinguished  as  either  algebraic  or  transcendental;  the  latter 
>emg  either  logarithmic,  or  circular  functions,  which  cannot  be  ex- 
pressed by  a  limited  number  of  algebraic  terms,  but  only  by  a  series  ; 
as  i/ =  log.  x,  or  y  =  sin  a-. 


RHEOMETRY.  3C9 

Resuming  the  equation  y  —  ax  -f  5,  which  is  that  of  a  straight 
line,  (p.  335),  if  we  give  to  x  an  increment  h,  and  the  correspond- 
ing increment  of  y  be  k,  then  the  equation  becomes  y  -{•  k—a  (x  -f  h) 
-f  b  =  ax  -f  ah  +  6  ,•  and,  from  this,  subtracting  the  original  equa- 

k 
tion,  we  have  k  =  «/&,  or  —  =  a  ;  which  shows  that  in  an  equation 

of  the  first  degree,  corresponding  to  a  straight  line,  the  increments 
of  the  variables,  or  of  the  ordinate  and  abscissa,  have  a  constant  ratio. 
But  if  we  take  the  equation  of  a  circle,  y3  -f-  a?2  =  -K3,  or  y*  =  R2  — 
Xs,  which  is  an  equation  of  the  second  degree,  hence  belonging  to  a 
curve  of  the  second  order,  and  if  we  give  to  x  and  y  the  correspond- 
ing increments  h  and  Ar,  we  have  (y  -f-  A;)2  =R*  —  (x  +  A)a ;  or  y2  -f- 
2  ky  -f-  &2  =  7?3  —  xz  —  2  hx  —  A2  :  and  subtracting  the  original 
equation  from  this,  we  have  2  ky  +  k3  =  —  2  hx  —  /i3 ;  in  which  the 
ratio  of  k  and  h  varies,  whether  we  vary  x  and  y,  or  change  the 
values  of  k  and  h  themselves.  But  if  we  make  these  increments 
infinitely  small,  their  squares  kz  and  7i3  will  become  infinitely  small, 
even  compared  with  k  and  h;  and  hence  may  be  neglected;  so  that 

Tf  <y» 

we  then  have  the  equation  2  ky  =  —  2  hx;  or  — = .     In  this 

case,  k  and  h  become  the  differentials  of  x  and  y,  and  are  expressed 
by  writing  the  letter  d  before  the  quantity  from  which  they  are 
derived. 

Thus,  when  we  pass  to  the  limit,  by  making  k  and  y  infinitely 

dij  x 

small,  the  last  equation  becomes  —•  =  — •— :  from  which  we  have 

x  dx  y 

dy  =  ——dx,  for  the  first  differential  equation  of  the  circle.     The 

y  oc 

ratio  of  the  increments,  that  is, ,  is  technically  called  the  diffe- 
rential co-efficient ;  and  it  expresses  the  tangent  of  the  angle  which 
a  tangent  line  to  the  circle,  at  the  point  whose  coordinates  are  x  and 
y,  makes  with  the  axis  of  abscissas.  This  furnishes  us  with  an 
easy  mode  of  drawing  a  tangent  line  to  the  circle,  at  any  point 
whose  coordinates  x,  and  y  are  given.  Moreover,  if  the  value  of  y, 
after  increasing  to  a  certain  extent,  should  reach  its  greatest  limit,  this 
will  be  shown  by  dy  becoming  infinitely  small,  or  zero,  in  compari- 
son with  dx  ;  that  is,  we  shall  have  in  this  case  -~  =  0  ;  or =  0  ; 

ax  y 

or  —  #  =  y  x  0  =  0,  showing  that  the  greatest  value  of  y  is  that 
which  corresponds  to  x  —  0.  From  this,  the  maximum  value  of  y 
itself  may  be  found,  by  making  x  =  0  in  the  original  equation ; 
which,  for  this  value,  gives  y=R.  The  minimum  value  of  y,  is 
found  on  precisely  the  same  principle,  and  by  the  same  method ; 
from  which  we  perceive  the  ready  application  of  this  Calculus  to 
problems  of  maxima  and  minima. 

We  have  only  room  remaining  to  give  some  of  the  simplest  rules 
for  differentiating  quantities,  in  order  to  find  the  differential  equations. 
The  differential  of  ax,  is  a  .  dx ;  and  that  of  a  constant  term  is  zero  ; 
so  that  constant  terms  have  no  influence  on  the  differential  equation ; 
as  shown  by  the  term  #2  in  the  last  example.  The  differential  of 


340  MATHEMATICS. 

xy  is  x.dy  -f  y.dx  :  that  of  x*  is  2  x  .  dx  ;  and  that  of  x3  is  3x*  dx. 
In  general,  the  differential  of  a  product,  is  found  by  multiplying  the 
differential  of  each  variable  by  the  product  of  all  the  other  variables, 
and  taking  the  sura  of  these  several  products.  The  differential  of 
x_  .g  y.dx  x.dy  ;  ^  differential  of  the  sine  of  x  is  cos  x  .dx:  the 

y         y* 

differential  of  the  cosine  of  x  is  —  sin  x.  dx  :  and  that  of  the  loga- 
rithm of  x  is  —  .  By  differentiating  anew  the  first  differential  equa- 

tion, we  obtain  the  second  differential  equation,  and  from  this  the 
third,  and  higher  equations  ;  which  are  necessary  in  the  application 
of  Taylor's  and  Maclaurin's  theorems  :  but  these,  we  have  no  room 
here  to  explain. 

§  2.  The  object  of  the  Integral  Calculus,  is,  having  given  the 
differential  coefficient  of  any  function,  to  find  the  function  itself. 
Hence,  it  is  the  reverse  of  the  Differential  Calculus  ;  and  was  called 
by  Newton  the  Inverse  Method  of  Fluxions.  In  this  view,  the  func- 
tion is  called  the  integral,  or  fluent  ;  being  considered  as  the  sum 
of  all  the  successive  increments  which  together  make  up  the  function 
sought.  To  find  the  integral  of  any  expression,  is  to  find  the  quan- 
tity which  will  have  that  expression  for  its  differential,  or  differential 
coefficient.  Thus,  the  differential  of  a  x  -f  h  being  a.dx,  conversely 
we  say  that  the  integral  of  a.dx  is  ax  -f-  b.  The  integral  of  any 

quantity,  is  designated  by  writing  before  it  the  character   /,  resem- 

bling the  letter  s,  the  initial  of  the  word  sum  ;  as  d  was  used  to  de- 
signate the  differential,  by  a  similar  alliteration.     Thus  we  have 
d  (ax  -f-  b]  ==  dy  =  a.dx;  and 

J    a.dx  =  y  —  ax  -f-  b. 

The  constant  term  b,  was  called  by  Newton  the  correction  of  the 
fluent:  and  it  cannot  be  found  immediately  by  the  integration,  be- 
cause this  process  only  gives  the  variable  terms,  of  which  this  constant 
term  is  entirely  independent. 

This  explanation  of  the  Integral  Calculus,  will  serve  to  show  how 
it  may  be  applied  to  the  rectification  of  a  curve,  that  is,  the  finding 
of  its  length  ;  or  to  the  quadrature  of  a  surface,  that  is,  the  finding  of 
its  area  ;  or  to  the  cubature  of  a  solid,  by  which  we  measure  its  so- 
lidity. Taking,  for  example,  the  quadrature  of  the  parabola,  the 
equation  of  which  is  i/3  =  2  px  ;  (p.  336)  ;  and  calling  s  the  area  com- 
prehended between  the  axis,  the  curve,  and  a  given  ordinate  y,  (or 
PH,  Plate  VII.,  Fig.  18,)  we  assume  the  equation  ds  =  y.dx  ;  each 
member  expressing  the  infinitely  small  area  comprehended  between 
two  consecutive  ordinates  :  and  substituting,  in  this,  the  value  of  dx, 
found  from  the  differential  equation,  2y  .  dy  =  2p  .  dx,  which  gives 


ds  =  ~       ;  the  inteSral  of 

y* 

~       ' 


integral  requires  no  correction,  or  constant  term,  be- 
cause it  already  makes  the  area  s  =  0  when  y  becomes  zero,  which 


RHEOMETRY.  341 

Vs 
the  case  requires.     We  have  then  s  =  ~ ;  or  since  y*  =  2  px,  we 

have  *  =  — —  =  — — ;  and  showing  that  the  area  in  question  is 

3p  3 

two-thirds  of  the  product  of  the  abscissa  and  ordinate  by  which  the 
area  is  included.  Such  are  the  beautiful  applications  of  the  differ- 
ential and  integral  calculus. 


X.  DEPARTMENT: 

ACROPHYSICS. 


IN  the  department  of  Acrophysics,  we  include  those  branches  of 
science  which  relate  to  the  dynamical  laws  of  matter,  or  the  agencies 
by  which  the  inanimate  material  world  is  regulated.  The  name  is 
derived  from  the  Greek,  axpo$,  high,  and  <j>v<jt$,  nature ;  properly  sig- 
nifying the  higher  study  of  nature  ;  that  is,  as  regards  material  objects. 
The  term  Physics,  has  been  variously  applied  ;  sometimes  limited  to 
the  mathematical,  and  at  others  extended  to  the  chemical  laws  of 
matter ;  sometimes  including  both  Natural  Philosophy  and  Natural 
History,  but  more  frequently  confined  to  the  former.  Hence  the 
desirableness  of  a  generic  term,  which,  being  strictly  defined,  may 
designate  exclusively  the  class  of  sciences  constituting  the  present 
department.  The  term  Natural  Philosophy,  might  suffice  for  this 
purpose,  were  it  not  liable  to  ambiguity :  but  it  sometimes  excludes 
Astronomy  ;  and  is  generally  considered  as  exclusive  of  Chemistry  ; 
although  we  have  high  authority  for  regarding  this  latter  branch  as  a 
part  of  the  same  group  of  sciences. 

In  the  department  of  Acrophysics,  we  therefore  place  not  only  Me- 
chanics, Optics,  Electricity,  and  Calorics,  which  are  usually  com- 
prehended under  Natural  Philosophy;  but  also  the  branches  of 
Astronomy  and  Chemistry ;  as  chiefly  relating  to  the  general  laws, 
though  partly  to  the  special  productions  of  nature.  Most  of  these 
sciences  depend  more  or  less  on  the  pure  mathematics  for  their  elu- 
cidation; and  hence  were  formerly,  and  are  still  occasionally  designa- 
ted as  Mixed  Mathematics.  But  the  data,  or  facts,  to  which  the 
calculations  are  applied,  we  obtain  chiefly  from  observation  and  ex- 
periment :  hence  these  branches  have  also  been  comprehended  under 
the  name  of  Experimental  Philosophy ;  though  this  term  is  most 
frequently  applied  to  the  studies  of  Optics,  Electrics,  and  Calorics. 
The  uses  to  which  this  department  of  science  may  be  applied,  are 
numerous  and  important;  not  only  in  dispelling  superstition,  and 
elevating  the  mind,  by  explaining  the  wonderful  phenomena  and 
operations  of  nature  ;  but  in  aiding  the  physical  arts,  by  a  knowledge 
of  the  facts  which  they  require,  for  their  successful  practice,  and 
farther  improvement. 

By  the  general  term,  matter,  is  meant  any  substance  which  is 
capable  of  affecting  our  senses.  Matter  exists  in  three  states ;  solid, 
liquid,  and  gaseous.  In  the  first,  the  particles  cohere  together,  so 
as  not  to  be  freely  separated  ;  in  the  second,  they  cohere  slightly,  but 
separate  freely  ;  and  in  the  third,  or  aeriform  state,  they  not  only 
separate  freely,  but  tend  to  recede  from  each  other,  as  far  as  the 
space  which  they  occupy,  or  pressure  which  they  experience,  will 
allow.  Liquids  and  gases  are  both  termed  fluids ;  the  former  in- 

342 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  343 

compressible,  or  nearly  so  ;  the  latter  compressible  and  elastic.  The 
effects  of  light,  heat,  and  electricity,  are  usually  attributed  to  one  or 
more  fluids,  pervading  all  space ;  but  too  subtile  and  diffusive  to  be 
collected  and  weighed,  and  hence  termed  imponderable.  Concern- 
ing the  constitution  of  matter,  there  are  two  opposite  theories.  The 
dynamic  theory,  supposes  that  matter  is  continuous,  without  any 
atomic  organization,  and  without  any  pores  or  interstices.  The 
atomic  theory,  supposes  all  matter  to  consist  of  insensibly  small,  or 
ultimate  particles,  called  atoms ;  each  having  a  regular,  and  probably 
a  rounded  shape;  with  interstices  between  them,  like  those  in  a  pile 
of  cannon  balls.  This  theory  is  now  generally  adopted ;  and  it  is 
strongly  supported  by  the  laws  of  crystallization,  and  of  chemical 
combination  in  definite  proportions. 

There  are  two  essential  properties  of  matter,  without  which  we 
cannot  conceive  of  its  existence.  They  are  extension,  and  resisti- 
bility.  Extension,  is  that  property  of  matter  by  which  it  must 
occupy  a  certain  space ;  and  resistibility,  less  properly  called  im- 
penetrability, is  that  property  by  which  it  will  not  permit  other  mat- 
ter to  occupy  the  same  space  at  the  same  time.  Four  other  properties 
of  matter  may  be  termed  general ;  as  they  belong  to  all  matter  with 
which  we  are  acquainted;  though  not  essential  to  its  existence.  They 
are  gravitation,  inertia,  porosity,  and  divisibility.  Gravitation,  is 
that  property  of  matter  by  which  it  tends  to  move  towards  other 
matter,  unless  prevented  by  some  force,  to  which,  in  that  case,  it 
opposes  a  certain  pressure  or  resistance :  and  inertia,  is  that  property 
of  matter  by  which,  being  at  rest,  it  tends  to  remain  at  rest,  or  being 
in  motion  it  ever  continues  in  motion,  unless  affected  by  some  extra- 
neous force.  Porosity,  is  that  property  of  matter  by  which,  accord- 
ing to  the  atomic  theory,  it  presents  interstices  or  pores  between  its 
particles  :  and  divisibility,  is  that  property  by  which  matter  may  be 
resolved  into  particles,  at  least  as  small  as  our  vision  will  permit  us  to 
discover.  Of  the  remaining  properties  of  matter,  which  may  be 
termed  accidental,  such  as  color,  shape,  hardness,  elasticity,  and  the 
like,  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak. 

The  progress  of  Acrophysics,  was  necessarily  dependent,  in  a 
great  measure,  on  that  of  Mathematics ;  and  its  study  has  been  a 
great  stimulus  to  mathematical  inquiries,  by  clothing  them  with  new 
interest  and  importance.  How  much  knowledge  in  this  department 
was  possessed  by  the  ancient  Chaldeans  and  Egyptians,  we  are 
unable  exactly  to  ascertain  ;  but  it  appears  to  have  been  considerable, 
and  derived  from  one  common  source.  Their  knowledge  of  these 
sciences  was  carried  into  Greece,  by  Thales  and  Pythagoras ;  in 
whose  doctrines  truth  was  often  mingled  with  error.  Thus,  Thales 
taught  that  water  was  the  sole  element,  of  which  all  things  were 
composed ;  and  he  believed  amber,  and  the  magnet,  to  be  animate 
beings.  Pythagoras  attached  a  mysterious  importance  to  certain  num- 
bers, as  exercising  a  control  or  influence  over  the  material  world. 
Anaximenes  and  Diogenes  regarded  air  as  the  primary  element,  of 
which  even  water  was  composed;  and  Heraclitus  maintained  that 
fire  was  the  primary  element,  into  which  all  others  might  be  resolved. 
Empedocles  admitted  the  existence  of  four  elements  ;  fire,  air,  water. 


344  ACROPHYSICS. 

and  earth  j  and  considered  light  as  also  a  material  substance.  Aris- 
totle maintained  the  idea  of  a  series,  or  succession  of  elements  ;  the 
highest  being  the  lightest:  and  he  regarded  matter,  form,  and 
privation,  as  the  three  great  agents  by  which  the  world  is  con- 
trolled, (p.  20.) 

We  have  now  pointed  out  some  of  the  errors  of  the  ancient  philo- 
sophers ;  reserving  the  truths  which  they  discovered  for  the  history  of 
the  different  branches  of  Acrophysics.  We  may  add  that  Archimedes 
thought  it  beneath  the  dignity  of  philosophy  to  write  explanatory  and 
practical  works  on  the  sciences ;  which,  perhaps,  was  the  greatest 
error  that  this  profound  philosopher  ever  entertained :  as  it  caused 
the  loss  of  much  valuable  information  to  succeeding  ages.  The 
knowledge  of  the  ancients,  in  this  department  of  science,  was  pre- 
served in  part  by  the  Arabians ;  and  by  them  transmitted  to  modern 
Europe,  with  some  important  additions,  (p.  289).  Among  the  ear- 
liest pioneers  of  modern  science,  we  may  mention  Roger  Bacon,  an 
English  monk  or  Friar,  whose  discoveries  in  optics  and  chemistry 
deserve  an  honorable  mention.  Still,  the  limits  of  physical  truth 
•were  confined,  and  its  march  impeded,  in  his  time,  by  the  metaphy- 
sical subtleties  and  vagaries  of  the  schoolmen,  based  on  the  high 
authority  of  Aristotle.  To  Francis  Bacon.,  Lord  Verulam,  whose 
profound  work,  entitled  "Novum  Organum  Scientiarum,"  in  contra- 
distinction from  the  Organon  of  Aristotle,  first  unfolded  the  right 
method  of  studying  nature,  by  observation,  experiment,  and  a  careful 
induction  of  principles  from  numerous  and  well  known  facts ;  to 
him  is  modern  science  indebted,  at  least  in  a  considerable  degree, 
for  its  rapid  and  continuous  progress,  among  all  enlightened  nations, 
down  to  the  present  time. 

Of  the  Acrophysical  sciences,  Astronomy  was  the  first  to  emerge 
from  darkness,  when  Copernicus  and  Galileo  revived  the  true  solar 
system  ;  the  theory  of  which  has  since  been  developed  by  Newton 
and  La  Place.  Galileo  also  laid  the  foundation  of  Dynamics,  or  the 
theory  of  variable  motion,  with  which  the  ancients  were  slightly  or 
not  at  all  acquainted  :  and  his  pupil,  Torricelli,  originated  the  science 
of  Pneumatics,  by  discovering  the  ponderability  of  the  air.  The 
prismatic  decomposition  of  Light,  by  Newton,  gave  a  new  impulse 
to  the  study  of  Optics,  which  had  previously  been  limited  to  a  few 
of  the  more  common  phenomena  of  reflection  and  refraction.  The 
discoveries  of  Dr.  Gilbert,  first  elevated  Magnetism  to  the  rank  of 
a  science ;  and  formed  a  nucleus  on  which  has  arisen  the  kindred 
science  of  Electricity.  Galvanism  originated,  in  the  last  century, 
with  the  discoveries  of  Professor  Galvani ;  and  Electro-Magnetism, 
in  the  present  century,  with  those  of  Professor  Oersted  ;  to  which 
Dr.  Seebeck  has  since  added  a  new  class  of  phenomena,  in  those  of 
Thermo-Electricity.  Chemistry  first  took  a  scientific  form  in  the 
hands  of  Beccher  and  Stahl ;  though  its  true  theory  was  more  recently 
made  known  by  Lavoisier  and  Dalton.  To  Dr.  Black  we  are  indebted 
for  the  initial  discoveries  in  Pneumatic  Chemistry,  and  some  of  the 
most  important  laws  of  Calorics. 

Thus  rapid  and  brilliant  has  been  the  modern  progress  of  the 
sciences  included  in  the  present  department.  We  proceed  to  treat 


MECHANICS.  345 

of  them,  in  the  brief  manner  here  required,  under  the  branches  of 
1.  Mechanics;  2.  Astronomy;  3.  Optics;  4.  Ceraunics,  including 
Calorics,  Electricity,  Magnetism,  and  Galvanism  ;  and  5.  Chemistry. 


CHAPTER  I. 

MECHANICS. 

MECHANICS,  is  the  science  which  treats  of  forces  acting  upon 
matter,  and  which  investigates  the  laws  of  equilibrium  and  motion, 
both  of  solids,  and  of  fluids.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
M'?*"^,  a  machine;  as  the  construction  of  machines  probably  first 
led  to  the  study  of  this  science.  The  term  matter,  has  been  already 
defined,  and  the  principal  properties  of  matter  explained,  in  the  intro- 
duction to  this  department.  A  force,  is  an  agent,  tending  either  to 
produce  or  to  resist  motion.  When  the  forces  acting  upon  a  body 
counteract  each  other,  or  do  not  produce  any  motion,  the  body  is 
said  to  be  in  equilibrium.  When  a  body  moves  through  equal 
spaces  in  equal  times,  its  motion  is  said  to  be  uniform  ;  but  in  all 
other  cases  it  is  variable.  In  the  former  case,  the  forces  cease  to 
act,  or  else  counteract  each  other  :  but  all  cases  of  variable  motion 
are  owing  to  the  action  of  continuous  or  incessant  forces. 

The  best  sub-division  of  Mechanics,  is  probably  into  the  four  heads 
of  Statics,  Dynamics,  Hydrics,  and  Pneumatics.  Statics,  treats  of 
the  conditions  of  equilibrium,  and  of  uniform  motion,  particularly  in 
regard  to  solids  ;  though  many  of  its  principles  are  also  applicable  to 
fluids.  Dynamics,  treats  of  the  laws  of  variable  motion ;  with  the 
same  restriction  concerning  its  application.  Hydrics,  including  both 
Hydrostatics  and  Hydrodynamics,  treats  of  those  laws  of  equilibrium 
and  motion  which  are  peculiar  to  liquids ;  and  Pneumatics,  treats 
of  the  corresponding  laws,  in  so  far  as  they  are  peculiar  to  aeriform 
fluids,  or  gases.  The  term  Hydraulics,  more  properly  applies  to 
those  constructions  for  the  conveyance  of  water,  the  study  of  which 
belongs  to  Civil  Engineering  ;  and  Acoustics,  or  the  doctrine  of 
sound,  may  properly  be  included  under  the  head  of  Pneumatics. 
The  science  of  Mechanics,  finds  its  applications  not  only  in  the 
construction  of  Machinery,  but  also  in  the  succeeding  branches  of 
the  present  department ;  to  some  of  which,  the  study  of  it  is  an 
indispensable  preliminary. 

According  to  Vitruvius,  the  ancients  were  from  time  immemorial 
acquainted  with  several  of  the  mechanical  powers,  so  called ;  as  the 
inclined  plane,  capstan,  and  pulley ;  to  which,  no  doubt,  should  be 
added  the  wedge,  and  the  lever,  as  the  simplest  of  them  all.  The 
screw  was  also  known  to,  if  not  invented  by,  Archimedes  ;  to  whom 
the  theory  of  the  mechanical  powers  is  justly  attributed.  The  most 
ancient  writings  extant,  on  this  science,  are  those  of  Aristotle  ;  who 
understood  the  principle  of  momenta,  but  not  that  of  the  lever.  This 
latter  principle  was  first  discovered  by  Archimedes  ;  who  deduced 
from  it  the  principle  of  the  centre  of  gravity,  as  explained  in  his 
44 


346  ACROPHYSICS. 

work  entitled  Isoporrika,  concerning  equiponderants.  He  also  dis- 
covered the  important  law  of  the  equilibrium  of  fluids  ;  and  applied 
it  to  the  finding  of  specific  gravities,  in  the  celebrated  problem  of 
Hiero's  crown.  The  invention  of  pumps  for  raising  water,  is  due  to 
Ctesibius,  and  Hero,  of  Alexandria,  150  to  120  B.  C. :  and  the  first 
correct  ideas  on  the  motion  of  water  in  canals,  belong  to  Frontinus 
of  Rome,  who  flourished  A.  D.  100.  The  initial  theory  of  Acous- 
tics, or  at  least  of  musical  sounds,  belongs  to  Pythagoras ;  and  was 
suggested,  it  is  said,  by  the  concordant  notes  of  several  hammers, 
whose  weights  he  found  to  have  a  certain  ratio. 

The  discovery  of  the  parallelogram  of  forces,  was  made  by  Ste- 
vens, or  Stevinus  of  Holland,  about  A.  D.  1600  ;  to  which  Varignon 
afterwards  added  the  ratio  of  the  sines  of  the  angles.  Galileo  dis- 
covered the  laws  of  falling  bodies,  and  invented  the  pendulum; 
thus  founding  the  branch  of  Dynamics.  Torricelli's  discovery  of 
the  pressure  of  the  air,  and  his  invention  of  the  barometer,  were  in 
like  manner  the  basis  of  Pneumatics,  as  already  mentioned.  Pascal 
first  noticed  the  principle  of  the  transmission  of  pressure,  afterwards 
applied  by  Bramah  to  the  hydrostatic  press  ;  and  Mariotte  discovered 
the  law  of  pressure  in  gases  when  confined.  Huygheris  invented  the 
cydoidal  pendulum,  and  explained  its  peculiar  properties ;  and  con- 
temporaneously with  Wallis  and  Wren,  he  demonstrated  the  laws  of 
collision  of  bodies.  Newton,  in  his  Principia,  or  Principles  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  investigated  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  first 
revealed  the  great  law  of  Universal  gravitation.  Euler,  by  a  happy 
analysis,  generalized  the  theorems  of  Mechanics,  and  reduced  the 
whole  to  a  system  of  analytical  formulas.  James  Bernouilli  studied 
the  centre  of  percussion ;  D'Alembert  discovered  the  principle  of 
efficient  and  residual  forces ;  Coulomb  investigated  the  laws  of  fric- 
tion ;  and  Prony,  those  of  running  water :  but  many  other  discoveries, 
in  this  branch  of  science,  it  is  beyond  our  limits  to  notice. 

We  proceed  to  explain  some  of  the  leading  principles  of  me- 
chanics, under  the  four  heads  of  Statics,  Dynamics,  Hydrics,  and 
Pneumatics. 

§  1.  The  science  of  Statics,  relates  to  the  conditions  of  equili- 
brium and  of  uniform  motion,  applied  particularly  to  solid  bodies.  A 
force  is  measured,  by  the  velocity  which  it  communicates  to  a  given 
mass :  and  the  momentum,  or  quantity  of  motion,  is  equal  to  the 
product  of  the  mass  into  the  velocity.  The  mass,  is  represented  by 
the  weight;  and  is  equal  to  the  product  of  the  bulk  by  the  density; 
which  latter  is  the  weight  of  the  unit  of  mass.  The  velocity  of  a 
body,  is  the  space  over  which  it  moves  in  a  unit  of  time  ;  as  so  many 
feet  per  second.  The  resultant,  of  two  or  more  forces,  is  a  single 
force,  which  might  take  the  place  of  them  all,  and  produce  the  same 
effect.  The  forces  which  together  are  equivalent  to  the  resultant, 
are  called  components.  A  force  equal  and  opposite  to  the  resultant, 
may  be  called  a  quiescent  force  ;  as  it  produces  equilibrium. 

If  two  forces  act  in  the  same  straight  line,  their  resultant  is  equal 
to  their  sum,  or  difference,  according  as  they  act  in  the  same,  or  in 
opposite  directions.  If  two  component  forces  are  oblique  to  each 
other,  but  lie  in  the  same  plane,  they  will  meet,  and  may  be  repre- 


MECHANICS.  347 

seated  by  the  two  contiguous  sides  of  a  parallelogram;  having  the 
directions  of  the  forces  for  those  of  the  sides,  and  the  momentum  of 
the  forces  proportional  to  the  lengths  of  the  sides ;  in  which  case  the 
diagonal  will  represent  the  resultant,  both  in  momentum  and  direc- 
tion. The  moment,  or  leverage,  of  a  force,  is  the  product  of  its  mo- 
mentum by  the  perpendicular  distance  from  it  to  a  fixed  point  called 
the  origin  of  moments:  and  it  measures  the  tendency  of  the  force  to 
turn  the  body  around  the  origin,  considered  as  a  fixed  axis.  In  any 
system  of  forces,  the  moment  of  the  resultant  is  equal  to  the  sum  of 
the  moments  of  all  the  components.  This  important  fact  is  called 
the  principle  of  moments.  The  centre  of  gravity,  of  any  body,  or 
system,  is  a  point  through  which  will  pass  the  resultant  of  all  the 
component  forces  of  gravity,  acting  on  the  different  particles,  or  parts 
of  the  system.  It  may  be  found  by  the  principle  of  moments  ;  and 
if  this  point  be  supported,  the  whole  body  is  supported  thereby. 

The  rope  machine,  or  funicle,  consisting  of  forces  acting  on  three 
or  more  cords,  or  ropes,  connected  together  at  one  point,  is  some- 
times regarded  as  a  mechanical  power.  There  are,  however,  usually 
reckoned  six  mechanical  powers,  or  simple  machines  for  rendering 
forces  more  available  ;  viz.  the  lever,  wheel  and  axle,  pulley,  inclined 
plane,  screw,  and  wedge.  The  lever,  is  essentially  an  inflexible  rod 
or  bar,  supported  by  a  fulcrum,  either  a  prop  or  a  pivot,  and  acted 
upon  by  two  or  more  forces  tending  to  turn  it,  or  to  resist  its  turning. 
In  the  case  of  the  balance,  or  steelyard,  the  forces,  when  in  equili- 
brium, are  inversely  as  their  distances  from  the  fulcrum.  In  the 
wheel  and  axle,  capstan,  or  windlass,  the  forces  are  inversely  as  the 
radii  on  which  they  act.  In  the  simple  fixed  pulley,  the  power  is 
equal  to  the  resistance,  but  acts  in  a  different  direction ;  whereas,  in 
the  simple  moveable  pulley,  the  weight  supported  by  the  pivot,  is 
double  the  force  at  either  end  of  the  rope. 

In  the  inclined  plane,  the  force  parallel  to  the  slqpe,  is  to  the 
weight  of  the  body  which  it  sustains,  as  the  height  to  the  slope.  In 
the  screw,  acted  upon  by  a  lever,  the  power  is  to  the  resistance,  as 
the  distance  between  the  spiral  threads,  is  to  the  circumference  de- 
scribed by  the  power.  In  the  common  wedge,  the  forces  are  as  the 
length  of  the  sides  against  which  they  act.  Such  are  the  ratios  re- 
quired to  produce  equilibrium  ;  but,  having  regard  to  friction,  the 
forces  must  be  considerably  augmented  when  they  are  designed  to 
produce  motion.  The  principle  of  virtual  velocities,  is,  that  what- 
ever is  gained  in  the  pressure  exerted,  or  mass  moved,  is  compen- 
sated for  by  the  greater  space  which  the  power  must  move  over :  so 
that  what  is  gained  in  weight  is  lost  in  velocity.  Friction,  always 
acts  as  a  retarding  force,  proportional  to  the  pressure  which  pro- 
duces it. 

§  2.  Dynamics,  treats  of  variable  motion,  produced  by  continuous 
forces,  applied  particularly  to  solid  bodies.  An  impulsive  force,  is 
one  which  acts  momentarily ;  or  is  imparted  momentarily,  from  one 
body  to  another.  The  body  receiving  it,  moves  consequently  in  a 
right  line,  and  with  a  uniform  motion,  unless  affected  by  the  resistance 
of  the  air,  or  by  gravity,  or  other  forces  ;  and  whew  it  strikes  another 


348  ACROPHYSICS. 

body,  it  communicates  to  the  latter  a  part,  at  least,  of  its  own  force.  A 
continuous  force,  is  one  which  acts  continually  ;  either  increasing  or 
diminishing  the  velocity,  if  it  acts  on  a  free  body,  or  changing  the 
direction  of  motion;  or  producing  these  effects  conjointly.  Gravity, 
is  a  continuous  force,  which,  near  the  earth's  surface,  produces  equal 
increments  of  velocity  in  equal  times  ;  and  hence  it  is  called  a  con- 
stant force;  being  the  cause  of  bodies  having  weight,  and  of  their 
falling,  when  unsupported. 

A  body  falling  freely,  descends  through  16  feet  in  one  second ;  at 
the  end  of  which  time  it  is  falling  at  the  rate,  or  with  the  velocity  of 
32  feet  per  second.  At  the  end  of  two  seconds,  it  will  have  fallen 
four  times  as  far,  and  at  the  end  of  three  seconds,  nine  times  as  far, 
as  in  the  first ;  the  space  increasing  as  the  square  of  the  time.  Call- 
ing t  the  time  in  seconds ;  v  the  velocity  in  feet ;  s  the  space  fallen 
through ;  and  taking  g  —  32  feet,  as  the  measure  of  the  force  of 
gravity  ;  we  have  v  =  g  t  =  32  t ;  and  s  =  £  g  t*  —  1 6  t2 ;  and  con- 
sequently, v2  =  2  gs  =  64  s:  for  problems  concerning  bodies  falling 
vertically,  or  for  their  vertical  descent,  when  falling  obliquely.  In 
the  case  of  a  ball  thrown  obliquely  upwards,  if  there  were  no 
resistance  of  the  air,  its  projectile  curve  would  be  a  parabola ;  and 
calling  x  and  y  the  horizontal  and  vertical  coordinates  of  this  curve, 
a  being  the  angle  of  elevation  above  the  horizon,  and  v  the  initial 
velocity,  its  equation  would  be  y  v8cos  *a  =  x  v*  sin  a  cos  a  —  3  gxz. 
But  the  resistance  of  the  air,  which  is  proportional  to  the  square  of 
the  velocity,  diminishes  the  random,  or  distance  to  which  a  cannon 
ball  can  actually  be  thrown,  from  15  or  20  to  only  3  or  4  miles. 

A  pendulum,  is  a  rod,  or  thread,  suspended  at  or  near  one  end, 
usually  with  a  weight  at  the  other  end,  and  made  to  oscillate  by  the 
force  of  gravity.  When  once  set  in  motion,  it  would  continue  to 
oscillate  forever,  were  it  not  for  the  resistance  of  the  air,  and  of  fric- 
tion, which  require  that  it  should  be  kept  in  motion  by  an  extraneous 
force,  usually  that  of  a  descending  weight.  Calling  a  the  length  of 
the  pendulum,  in  feet;  t  the  time,  in  seconds,  of  one  oscillation;  g 
the  measure  of  gravity,  =  32  feet,  as  before ;  and  jt  =  3.1416,  the 
circumference  of  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  unity ;  we  have  the  equa- 
tion t  =  7t  A — ,  for  finding  the  time  of  one  oscillation,  by  means  of 

the  length  of  the  pendulum  ;  it  being  proportional  to  the  square  root 
of  the  length,  while  the  force  of  gravity  remains  constant. 

§  3.  In  the  division  of  Hydrics,  so  named  from  the  Greek  <i>§cop, 
water,  we  would  include  both  Hy drostatics,  and  Hydrodynamics;  or 
the  laws  both  of  equilibrium  and  motion,  in  so  far  as  they  are  peculiar 
to  liquids.  All  liquids,  are,  in  theory,  regarded  as  incompressible; 
though  they  are  found  to  admit  of  compression  in  a  slight  degree. 
When  enclosed,  or  confined,  in  vessels,  so  as  to  be  acted  on  as  single 
masses,  liquids  are  subject  to  the  same  laws  of  motion  and  rest,  as 
solids.  But  even  in  this  case,  their  pressure  against  the  sides  of  the 
containing  vessel,  becomes  a  distinct  problem  of  Hydrics ;  and  it  is 
found  that  the  pressure  produced  by  their  weight,  is  the  same,  for 
equal  surfaces,  at  e"qual  depths  below  the  highest  level  of  the  liquid ; 


MECHANICS.  349 

increasing  solely  with  the  depth,  and  without  regard  to  the  shape. 
When  a  close  vessel  is  filled  with  a  liquid,  a  pressure  applied  to  any 
one  part,  is  distributed  and  felt  on  every  part  alike. 

When  a  body  floats  on  a  liquid,  it  displaces  a  bulk  of  liquid  of 
equal  weight  with  itself;  and  is  thus  supported  by  the  upward  pres- 
sure of  the  liquid  tending  to  regain  its  level.  A  floating  body  can  be 
in  equilibrium,  only  when  the  centre  of  gravity  is  in  the  same  vertical 
line  with  that  of  the  liquid  displaced.  If  the  body  is  totally  immersed, 
it  is  still  pressed  upwards  ;  and  if  thus  suspended  by  a  thread,  it  will 
weigh  less  in  the  liquid  than  in  the  air,  by  the  weight  of  an  equal 
bulk  of  the  liquid  ;  which  weight  may  thus  be  found.  The  specific 
gravity  of  any  body,  denotes  the  number  of  times  that  it  is  heavier 
than  water,  taking  equal  bulks  of  each.  Thus  as  platinum  is  21  times 
as  heavy  as  water,  the  number  21.000  expresses  its  specific  gravity; 
and  cork  is  so  much  lighter  than  water  that  its  specific  gravity  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  decimal  0-240.  In  the  case  of  gases,  air,  instead  of 
water,  is  taken  as  the  standard  of  comparison. 

Water,  and  all  other  liquids,  have  some  viscidity,  or  cohesiveness ; 
as  shown  by  their  collecting  in  drops,  before,  or  while  falling.  A 
similar  cohesion  between  them  and  the  containing  tubes  or  vessels, 
causes  the  phenomenon  of  capillary  attraction;  shown  also  in 
sponges,  and  other  porous  bodies  ;  by  which  the  water  along  the 
edges  is  raised  above  its  general  level.  When  water  is  confined  in  a 
bent  tube,  or  an  enclosure  of  any  shape  whatever,  it  tends  to  rise  to 
the  same  level,  or  horizontal  plane,  in  every  part  of  its  exposed  sur- 
face. If  there  be  any  aperture  or  orifice  by  which  it  can  flow  out, 
its  velocity  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  shape  of  the  aperture, 
but  principally  on  its  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  liquid :  it  being 
nearly  the  same  velocity  which  a  heavy  body  would  acquire  in  falling 
freely  through  the  same  depth.  Allowance  must  be  made  here  for 
friction,  and  the  resistance  of  the  air. 

§  4.  Under  the  division  of  Pneumatics,  are  included  all  the  pe- 
culiar mechanical  laws  of  elastic  or  compressible  fluids,  whether  gases 
or  vapours.  Gases,  retain  their  aeriform  state  at  all  ordinary  tem- 
peratures and  pressures  ;  but  vapors,  are  substances  ordinarily  liquid, 
which  have  taken  the  gaseous  form,  owing  to  heat  or  diminished 
pressure.  The  air,  or  atmosphere,  is  a  permanently  gaseous  fluid, 
elastic  and  compressible,  surrounding  the  earth  on  every  side,  and 
extending  at  least  to  a  height  of  45  miles  above  its  surface.  The 
lower  parts  of  it  are  compressed  by  the  weight  of  the  upper  parts,  so 
that  for  each  three  miles  that  we  ascend,  its  density  is  reduced  by 
about  one-half;  or,  the  height  increasing  in  arithmetical,  the  density 
diminishes  in  geometrical  progression.  Its  total  weight  is  about  15 
pounds  for  every  square  inch  of  the  earth's  surface,  at  or  near  the 
level  of  the  sea.  This  pressure  would  counterpoise  a  column  of 
water  34  feet  high,  as  shown  in  the  sucking  pump ;  or  a  column  of 
mercury  30  inches  high,  as  shown  in  the  barometer. 

In  the  sucking  pump,  as  the  piston  rises  and  removes  the  air  from 
within,  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  external  water  forces  it  into, 
and  up  the  pump,  till  it  is  in  equilibrium.  Then,  when  the  piston  de- 
scends, the  fixed  valve,  below,  closes,  and  prevents  the  descent  of 


350  A.CROPHYSICS. 

the  water ;  which  is  therefore  forced  upwards  through  the  valve  of 
the  piston.  In  the  lifting,  and  forcing  pumps,  the  valve  of  the 
piston  opening  in  one  direction,  allows  the  fluid  to  pass,  and  then, 
by  the  opposite  motion  of  the  piston,  forces  it  onward,  without  allow- 
ing it  to  return.  The  air  pump,  is  a  forcing  pump,  with  tight  pistons 
and  valves,  for  exhausting  the  air  from  any  attached  vessel.  The 
barometer,  consists  of  a  glass  tube,  more  than  30  inches  long,  open 
at  one  end,  which  dips  into  a  cup  of  mercury  exposed  to  atmospheric 
pressure.  The  mercury  with  which  the  tube  was  at  first  entirely 
filled,  descends  in  it,  leaving  a  vacuum  above,  but  still  remains  about 
30  inches  higher  than  that  in  the  cup ;  varying  with  the  change  of 
pressure  of  the  air.  Its  use,  in  calculating  heights,  depends  on  the 
falling  of  the  mercury,  about  T^  of  an  inch  for  every  90  feet  in  height 
that  we  ascend. 

The  atmosphere  would  rush  into  a  vacuum,  at  the  level  of  the  sea, 
with  a  velocity  of  about  1330  feet  per  second.  The  resistance  of 
the  air  to  bodies  moving  through  it,  increases  with  the  square  of  the 
velocity  ;  as  in  the  case  of  liquids  ;  so  that  by  doubling  the  velocity 
the  resistance  is  increased  fourfold.  Hence,  vessels  moving  swiftly, 
are  propelled  at  a  great  sacrifice  of  force.  Sound,  is  caused  by 
vibrations  of  the  air,  produced  by  sounding  bodies  :  but  though  the 
sound  moves  onward  to  a  great  distance,  each  particle  of  the  air  only 
vibrates  through  a  very  small  space,  towards  and  from  the  source  of 
sound.  The  rapidity  of  these  vibrations,  determines  the  note,  or 
tone;  as  will  be  explained  in  treating  of  Music.  The  vibrations  are 
propagated  successively,  and  continuously,  like  waves  from  a  pebble 
thrown  into  still  water :  and  hence  we  say  that  sound  moves  at  the 
rate  of  about  1130  feet  per  second,  in  the  air;  and  nearly  ten  times 
as  fast,  along  cast  iron. 


H  CHAPTER  II. 

ASTRONOMY. 

ASTRONOMY  is  that  branch  of  Acrophysics,  or  Natural  Philosophy, 
which  treats  of  the  heavenly  bodies  ;  and  their  relation  to  the  earth, 
regarded  as  a  part  of  the  planetary  system.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Greek,  acr^pov,  a  star,  and  fo/*o$,  a  law  ;  literally  signifying 
the  laws  of  the  stars.  The  most  prominent  heavenly  bodies,  compose 
a  central  group ;  central  at  least  so  far  as  the  universe  is  known  to  us, 
and  called  the  solar  system  ;  at  an  immense  distance  from  which  are 
\hejixed  stars  ;  the  nearest  of  them  being  at  least  200,000  times  as 
far  from  us  as  we  are  from  the  sun.  The  solar  system,  consists  of 
the  sun,  placed  at  its  centre ;  the  planets,  of  which  the  earth  is  one, 
revolving  around  it  in  nearly  circular  orbits  ;  the  satellites,  revolving 
around  the  planets ;  and,  lastly,  the  comets,  which  also  revolve  around 

e  sun,  but  in  very  eccentric  orbits.  Could  we  fly  at  the  rate  of 
100  miles  an  hour,  the  speed  of  the  tempest,  we  should  require  more 
than  twenty  million  years  to  reach  the  nearest  fixed  star  :  and  our 


ASTRONOMY.  351 

sun  would  then  appear  to  be  a  mere  star  itself;  while  the  whole 
solar  system  would,  if  visible,  seem  to  occupy  less  space  than  the 
evening  star  does  to  us. 

The  study  of  Astronomy,  properly  comprehends  an  investigation 
of  the  shape  and  dimensions  of  the  earth.  This  has  been  found,  by 
measuring,  in  various  places,  a  degree  of  the  meridian  ;  from  which 
the  circumference  of  the  earth,  being  360°,  may  be  readily  calcu- 
lated ;  and  from  this  we  obtain  its  diameter.  The  diameter  of  the 
earth,  thus  found,  becomes  a  basis,  from  which  the  distance  to  the 
sun  is  ascertained,  by  ascertaining  the  angular  difference  of  direction 
in  which  that  luminary  would  appear,  to  observers  on  opposite  sides 
of  the  earth.  In  like  manner,  the  distance  from  the  earth  to  the  sun 
being  known,  becomes  a  basis,  by  which  the  distance  of  the  fixed 
stars  is  found  to  exceed  a  certain  limit ;  although  so  great  that  it 
cannot  be  exactly  measured.  The  uses  of  Astronomy,  are  as  import- 
ant, as  its  discoveries  have  been  surprizing:  and  both  have  prompted 
its  votaries  to  new  and  persevering  researches.  It  is  especially  in 
its  services  to  Navigation,  that  Astronomy  has  aided  in  extending  the 
progress  of  discovery ;  encouraging  commercial  enterprize,  and  dif- 
fusing the  lights  of  civilization  and  Christianity  around  the  habitable 
globe. 

Astronomy  is  a  science  doubtless  of  the  highest  antiquity.  Jose- 
phus  speaks  of  a  period  of  600  years,  called  the  grand  year,  as  being 
known  to  the  Antediluvians,  according  to  the  Jewish  tradition :  and 
it  is  certain  that  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans  paid  great  attention  to 
the  stars,  in  connection  with  their  favorite  study  of  astrology,  or 
divination  by  means  of  celestial  phenomena.  Ancient  writers  state 
that  when  Babylon  was  taken  by  Alexander  the  Great,  astronomical 
records  were  found  there,  extending  back  1903  years,  or  to  the  year 
2234  B.  C. :  but  the  earliest  eclipses  authentically  recorded,  are  those 
observed  at  Babylon,  720  and  718  B.  C.  The  origin  of  Astronomy 
has  also  been  attributed  to  the  Indians,  and  Chinese ;  but  we  think 
without  sufficient  proof.  The  Sothic  period,  of  the  Egyptians,  was 
one  of  1460  years,  in  which  their  months  returned  to  the  same  day 
of  the  year  ;  and  the  Saros,  of  the  Chaldeans,  corresponded  to  the 
Metonic  or  lunar  cycle,  (p.  200). 

The  Greeks  derived  some  knowledge  of  Astronomy  from  Egyp- 
tian, and  perhaps  Phoenician  colonies ;  but  Thales  was  the  first 
among  them  who  observed  the  solstices,  and  calculated  eclipses. 
Anaximander  discovered  the  sphericity  of  the  earth  ;  and  Pythagoras 
first  taught  the  true  doctrine  of  the  Solar  system  :  but  he  confined 
this  knowledge  to  his  disciples;  and  it  does  not  appear  to  have  pre- 
vailed, at  any  time,  among  the  ancients.  Meton  discovered  the 
Metonic  orjunar  cycle,  of  nearly  19  years  ;  at  the  end  of  which  the 
sun  and  moon  return  to  nearly  the  same  position,  in  relation  to  the 
earth.  Eratosthenes  first  measured  an  arc  of  the  meridian,  and 
deduced  the  circumference  of  the  earth  :  and  to  Hipparchns  we  are 
indebted  for  the  earliest  catalogue  of  the  stars  ;  and  for  the  invention 
of  latitude  and  longitude,  to  define  their  position.  Ptolemy  retarded 
the  science  of  Astronomy,  by  maintaining  that  the  earth  is  at  rest, 
and  that  the  sun  and  planets  revolve  around  it,  as  a  centre ;  but  his 


352  ACROPHYSICS. 

Almagest,  (p.  161),  famous  from  the  Arabic  translation  of  it,  was  in 
other  respects  a  valuable  compendium  of  this  science. 

On  the  revival  of  science,  in  modern  Europe,  Alfonso,  king  of 
Castile,  in  the  year  1252,  corrected  the  astronomical  tables  of  Ptole- 
my, and  caused  those  to  be  published  which  have  since  borne  his 
own  name.  Copernicus,  of  Thorn,  next  revived  the  true  solar  sys- 
tem, about  1530  ;  and  he  shares  with  Pythagoras  the  honor  of  giving 
it  his  name.  It  was  opposed  by  Tycho  Brahe  ;  and  in  part  by  Lon- 
gomontanus  ;  but  their  systems  have  been  long  since  rejected.  The 
Tychonic  system  agreed  with  the  Ptolemaic  in  supposing  the  earth  to 
be  stationary,  and  the  sun  and  moon  to  revolve  around  it;  but  it  dif- 
fered in  regard  to  the  planets,  which  it  supposed  to  revolve  primarily 
around  the  sun.  Kepler  first  analyzed  the  motions  of  the  planets, 
and  discovered  those  laws  on  which  rests  the  theory  of  universal 
gravitation.  Galileo  advocated  the  Copernican  system;  and  by  the 
aid  of  one  of  the  first  telescopes,  discovered  Jupiter's  satellites. 
Huyghens  discovered  Saturn's  ring,  and  fourth  satellite  ;  and  four 
others  were  soon  after  noticed  by  Cassini. 

Newton,  in  1686,  published  his  Principia,  explaining  the  theory 
of  universal  gravitation,  and  thereby  establishing  the  Copernican 
system  on  an  immovable  basis.  This  theory  has  been  farther  deve- 
loped, particularly  by  Euler,  D'Alembert,  and  La  Place.  Dr.  Brad- 
ley discovered  the  aberration  of  the  fixed  stars ;  of  which  catalogues 
have  been  made  by  Bayer,  Flamstead,  Halley,  and  Herschel  :  but 
the  best  are  those  of  Lacaille,  Bradley,  Mayer,  and  Maskelyne.  The 
transits  of  Mercury  in  1631,  and  of  Venus,  in  1639,  were  predicted 
by  Kepler :  Gassendi  observed  the  former,  and  Horrox,  the  latter. 
To  Halley,  who  predicted  it,  and  Maskelyne,  who  observed  it,  we 
are  most  indebted  for  the  application  of  the  transit  of  Venus,  in 
1761,  to  discover  the  true  distance  of  the  sun;  which  was  farther 
corrected  by  that  of  1769.  Dr.  Herschel  discovered  the  planet 
Uranus,  in  1781  ;  and  its  satellites,  in  1822.  Ceres  was  discovered 
by  Piazzi,  in  1801  ;  Pallas,  by  Dr.  Gibers,  in  1802;  Juno,  by  Hard- 
ing, in  1804;  and  Vesta,  by  Dr.  Olbers,  in  1807.  Thus  far,  only 
have  we  room  to  speak  of  the  history  of  Astronomy. 

We  proceed  now  to  give  some  ideas  of  this  science,  under  the  four 
divisions  of  Descriptive,  Siderial,  Physical,  and  Practical  Astronomy. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Descriptive  Astronomy,  we  would  include 
the  study  of  the  magnitudes,  distances,  motions,  and  phenomena,  of 
the  bodies  which  compose  the  Solar  System.  The  sun,  which  we 
have  already  mentioned  as  placed  at  the  centre  of  this  system,  is  a 
globe,  885,000  miles  in  diameter ;  which  turns  on  its  axis  once  in 
25  days,  as  ascertained  by  the  spots  on  its  surface.  The  planets, 
of  which  the  earth  is  one,  revolve  around  the  sun  in  orbits,  which 
are  ellipses,  having  the  sun  in  one  of  their  foci.  The  point  at  which 
a  planet  is  nearest  the  sun,  is  called  its  perihelion  ;  and  the  opposite 
or  farthest  pJint  of  each  orbit  is  called  the  aphelion.  These  points, 
in  connection,  are  called  the  apsides  ,•  and  the  line  joining  them  is 
the  line  of  the  apsides.  The  orbits  of  the  other  planets  are  slightly 
inclined  to  that  of  the  earth  ;  and  cut  its  plane,  each  in  two  opposite 
points,  which  are  called  the  nodes:  that  one  at  which  the  planet 


ASTRONOMY. 


353 


passes  to  the  north  side  of  the  earth's  orbit  being  called  its  ascending 
node.  The  apsides  gradually  advance,  but  the  nodes  retrograde;  and 
thus  the  direction  in  which  these  points  appear,  is  changed,  as  seen 
from  the  sun,  and  referred  to  the  fixed  stars  or  celestial  sphere. 

The  earth,  is  an  oblate  sphere,  7899  miles  in  polar,  and  7925 
miles  in  equatorial  diameter :  its  mean  distance  from  the  sun  being 
95,000,000  miles.  The  principal  circles  of  the  earth,  we  have 
already  defined,  in  the  introduction  to  Geography ;  (p.  162) ;  and 
we  there  mentioned  that  the  earth's  diurnal  rotation  causes  the  alter- 
nation of  days  and  nights  ;  while  the  parallelism  of  its  axis,  which 
makes  an  angle  of  665°  with  the  plane  of  its  orbit,  but  points  con- 
tinually towards  the  north  star  in  the  heavens,  and  hence  sometimes 
inclines  the  north  pole  towards  the  sun,  and  sometimes  from  it,  varies 
the  length  of  the  days  and  nights,  and  causes  the  changes  of  the 
seasons.  The  exact  length  of  the  tropical  or  equinoctial  year,  is 
365  days,  5  hours,  48  minutes,  and  48  seconds.  The  moon,  is  a 
satellite,  or  secondary  planet,  2160  miles  in  diameter,  and  237,500 
miles  from  the  earth ;  around  which  it  revolves,  while  carried,  with  the 
earth,  around  the  sun.  It  performs  a  lunation,  or  synodic  revolu- 
tion, that  is  from  new  moon  to  new  moon  again,  in  29  days,  12 
hours,  44  minutes,  and  3  seconds.  When  near  either  of  its  nodes, 
at  new  moon,  its  shadow  falls  upon  the  earth,  and  causes  a  solar 
eclipse,  or  eclipse  of  the  sun  ;  and  in  the  like  case  at  full  moon,  it 
passes  into  the  earth's  shadow,  and  causes  a  lunar  eclipse,  or  eclipse 
of  the  moon. 

Mercury  and  Venus  are  called  inferior  planets,  because  they  are 
nearer  to  the  sun  than  the  earth  is  ;  but  the  other  planets  are  called 
superior.  Their  principal  data  are  given  in  the  following  table. 


PLANETS. 

Diameter 
in  miles. 

Distance  from 
the  sun. 

Annual 
Revolution. 

Diurnal 
Rotation. 

3,000 

36,800,000 

3  months 

7  600 

68,700,000 

7  months 

23£  hours 

The  Earth  

7,912 

95,000,000 

1  year 

24    hours 

4200 

145,000  000 

2  years 

24$  hours 

rVesta..                      ...^ 

250? 

225,200,000 

34  years 

1  400  7 

253  800,000 

44-  years 

]  Ceres  | 

1,200' 

263,000,000 

4$  years 

nown. 

1  Pallas  .  . 

2,000  ? 

264,000,000 

4#  years 

89,100 

494,000,000 

12  years 

1  0    hours 

79,000 

907,000,000 

29£  years 

10£  hours 

35,000 

1,824,000,000 

84  years 

The  planets  Vesta,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,  sometimes  called  as- 
teroids, may  more  properly  be  termed  intercalary  planets  ;  from  their 
filling  a  supposed  chasm  in  the  series.  Their  size  is  somewhat  un- 
certain. Jupiter  has  four  satellites;  Saturn,  seven;  and  Uranus, 
formerly  called  Herschel,  has  six.  The  extreme  diameter  of  Sa- 
turn's ring  is  176,000  miles.  The  brightest  planets,  are  Venus,  and 
Jupiter ;  and  next  to  these  are  Mars  and  Saturn  ;  Mars  being  recog- 
nizable by  its  red  color.  Of  the  Comets,  usually  distinguished  by 
their  bright  train,  Halley's  returns  once  in  about  75£  years  ;  Encke's, 
once  in  about  3| ;  and  Biela's,  once  in  about  6|  years. 
45  2  G  2 


354  ACROPHYSICS. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Siderial  Astronomy,  we  include  the  study 
of  the  Fixed  Stars  ;  or  those  luminaries  which  maintain  continually 
nearly  the  same  relative  position  in  the  heavens.  These  stars  are 
supposed  to  be  the  suns  of  other  systems  ;  each  having  planets  re- 
volving around  it,  which  latter,  from  their  fainter  reflected  light,  are 
to  us  invisible.  Of  the  immense  distance  of  the  fixed  stars,  we  have 
already  spoken,  in  introducing  the  present  branch.  They  are  classed 
according  to  their  apparent  magnitudes :  those  of  the  first  magnitude 
appearing  the  largest,  and  those  of  the  sixth  magnitude  being  the 
smallest,  which  are  visible  to  the  naked  eye :  but  the  telescopic  stars 
are  also  classed,  down  to  the  sixteenth  magnitude.  These  magni- 
tudes depend  not  only  on  their  actual  size,  but  on  their  distance  from 
the  earth,  which  is  doubtless  very  different  for  different  stars.  Some 
of  them  are  variable  ;  regularly  increasing  and  decreasing  in  bright- 
ness; and  some  of  them  are  double  or  binary  stars,  one  of  which 
is,  in  many  instances,  found  to  revolve  around  the  other.  There 
are  also  nebulas  ;  of  which  the  galaxy  or  milky  way  is  an  assem- 
blage ;  and  which  are  shown,  by  the  telescope,  to  consist  of  almost 
innumerable  small  or  very  distant  stars. 

The  position  of  the  fixed  stars,  is  defined,  either  by  their  right  as- 
cension and  declination,  which  correspond  to  longitude  and  latitude 
on  the  earth  ;  or  by  their  celestial  latitude  and  longitude,  which  are 
essentially  different.  As  the  plane  of  the  earth's  equator,  prolonged 
to  the  heavens,  forms  the  celestial  equator,  so  the  plane  of  the  earth's 
orbit,  extended  to  the  heavens,  defines  the  ecliptic  ;  a  circle  which  is 
very  nearly  stationary  among  the  fixed  stars.  The  vernal  equinox, 
or  point  at  which  the  sun,  appearing  always  in  the  ecliptic,  crosses 
the  equator,  in  going  to  the  north,  is  the  origin  of  both  right  ascension 
and  celestial  longitude,  or  the  point  from  which  they  are  both  reckoned  ; 
the  former  on  the  equator,  but  the  latter  on  the  ecliptic.  And  as 
terrestrial  latitude  is  distance,  in  degrees,  north  or  south  of  the  equa- 
tor, so  is  celestial  latitude  distance  north  or  south  of  the  ecliptic. 
Circles  of  declination,  are  perpendicular  to  the  equator,  and  corres- 
pond to  terrestrial  meridians ;  but  circles  of  latitude,  are  perpen- 
dicular to  the  ecliptic,  and  meet  at  its  poles.  Parallels  of  declina- 
tion, are  parallel  to  the  equator;  but  parallels  of  celestial  latitude, 
are  small  circles  parallel  to  the  ecliptic. 

In  order  to  designate  the  fixed  stars,  they  have  been  grouped  into 
clusters,  or  constellations,  which  are  now  128  in  number ;  occupy- 
ing the  whole  celestial  sphere.  The  brightest  star  in  any  constella- 
tion is  named  alpha,  (a),  as  a  Arietis  ;  the  next  brightest  is  named 
beta;  and  so  on,  until  the  Greek  alphabet  is  exhausted;  when  re- 
course is  had  to  the  Roman  alphabet;  and  after  this,  to  numbers. 
The  twelve  constellations  of  the  zodiac,  in  which  the  planets  gene- 
rally appear,  are,  Aries,  the  ram  ;  Taurus,  the  bull ;  Gemini,  the 
twins  ;  Cancer,  the  crab  ;  Leo,  the  lion  ;  Virgo,  the  virgin  ;  Libra, 
the  balance ;  Scorpio,  the  scorpion ;  Sagittarius,  the  archer ;  Ca- 
pricornus,  the  goat ;  Aquarius,  the  waterer  ;  and  Pisces,  the  fishes. 
Among  the  other  most  remarkable  constellations,  are  Orion,  known 
by  three  bright  stars  in  its  belt,  nearly  on  the  equator ;  Ursa  Major, 
or  the  great  bear,  in  which  lies  the  cluster  called  the  dipper,\vfQ 


ASTRONOMY.  355 

stars  of  which,  called  the  pointers,  point  to  the  pole  star  ;  and  Cassio- 
peia, which  lies  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  pole  from  the  great  bear, 
and  contains  the  figure  of  a  smaller  dipper,  by  the  position  of  which 
the  pole  star  may  also  be  found.* 

§  3.  It  belongs  to  Physical  Astronomy,  to  investigate  the  causes 
of  the  celestial  phenomena,  which  Descriptive  and  Practical  Astro- 
nomy make  known.  The  key  to  this  subject  is  the  law  of  universal 
gravitation,  discovered  by  Newton.  The  planets  gravitate  towards 
the  sun,  and  towards  each  other ;  that  is,  they  are  attracted,  directly 
as  their  masses,  and  inversely  as  the  squares  of  their  distances. 
Hence,  they  would  all  fall  together,  and  meet  in  their  common  centre 
of  gravity,  did  not  their  motion  in  their  orbits  give  them  a  tendency 
to  recede  from  the  centre,  like  a  stone  from  a  sling,  in  a  line  tangent 
to  the  curve  which  they  are  describing.  This  tendency,  called  their 
centrifugal  force,  and  their  mutual  attraction,  called  their  centripetal 
force,  especially  that  of  the  sun,  counterbalance  each  other,  and  cause 
the  planets  to  move  according  to  Kepler's  three  laws ;  which  were 
the  basis  of  Newton's  discovery.  1.  The  planets  describe  ellipses, 
having  the  sun  in  one  of  their  foci ;  2.  Their  radius  vectors,  or  lines 
drawn  from  them  to  the  sun,  pass  over  equal  areas  in  equal  times; 
and  3.  The  squares  of  their  times  of  annual  revolution  are  propor- 
tional to  the  cubes  of  their  mean  distances  from  the  sun. 

By  the  second  law,  the  planets  move  slowest  when  farthest  from 
the  sun  ;  as  the  radius  vector,  being  then  the  longest,  describes  an 
equal  area  by  a  smaller  angular  motion.  The  mutual  attractions  of 
the  planets  cause  slight  irregularities  in  their  orbits,  called  perturba- 
tions :  and  it  is  the  common  centre  of  gravity  of  the  earth  and  moon, 
which  describes  an  elliptic  orbit  around  the  sun ;  the  earth's  centre 
deviating  slightly  from  this  ellipse,  during  its  annual  revolution. 
When  the  moon  is  at  or  near  the  syzigies,  that  is  the  new  or  full, 
the  sun's  attraction,  tending  to  separate  the  earth  and  moon,  causes 
the  inequality  called  the  evection,  affecting  the  shape  of  the  orbit; 
and  when  the  moon  is  about  45°  from  the  syzigies,  the  sun's  attrac- 
tion affecting  its  angular  velocity,  causes  the  inequality  called  the 
moon's  variation. 

§  4.  Under  Practical  Jlstronomy,  is  included  the  use  of  instru- 
ments in  making  celestial  observations,  and  the  use  of  tables  and 
formulas  in  deducing  results  therefrom.  The  most  important  astrono- 
mical instruments,  are  the  Transit  Instrument,  and  the  Astronomical 
Clock  :  but  even  these,  we  have  no  room  to  describe.  The  altitude 
of  a  heavenly  body,  is  its  angle  of  elevation  above  the  horizon  :  and 
the  azimuth,  is  the  angle  between  a  vertical  circle  passing  through 
the  body,  and  the  vertical  plane  of  the  meridian;  which  latter  cuts 

*  On  the  fifth  day  of  August  annually,  at  9  o'clock  in  the  evening,  the  central 
star  of  the  dipper,  (cf  Ursse  Majoris),  will  be  on  the  west  side  of  the  pole  ;  and  the 
second  brightest  star,  (/3  Cassiopeiae),  will  be  on  the  east  side  of  it,  and  at  nearly 
the  same  altitude ;  both  of  these  stars  being  nearly  in  the  equinoctial  colure.  At 
the  same  time,  the  pole  of  the  ecliptic  will  be  directly  above  the  pole  of  the  heavens, 
as  shown  in  Plate  VIII.  On  the  fifth  of  February,  at  the  same  hour  in  the  evening, 
Cassiopeia  will  be  to  the  west,  and  Ursa  Major  to  the  east,  of  the  pole ;  as  repre- 
sented by  turning  the  plate  halfway  around  :  and  Orion  will  then  be  a  little  to  the 
west  of  the  meridian. 


356  ACROPHYSICS. 

the  north  and  south  points  of  the  horizon.  The  direction  of  a 
heavenly  body,  is  defined  by  means  of  its  azimuth,  and  its  altitude, 
or  zenith  distance;  which  latter  is  the  complement  of  its  altitude. 
This  direction  is  affected  by  atmospheric  refraction,  which  makes 
objects  appear  higher  than  they  really  are  ;  and  by  parallax,  which 
is  the  variation  that  would  be  produced  in  the  direction,  were  the 
object  seen  from  the  earth's  centre.  The  refraction  is  greatest  at  the 
horizon,  being  there  nearly  half  a  degree,  and  it  diminishes  from 
thence  to  the  zenith,  or  point  directly  overhead,  where  it  is  zero,  or 
no  refraction  takes  place. 

The  Transit  instrument  is  generally  so  placed,  that  the  axis  of  its 
telescope  shall  rotate  in  the  plane  of  the  meridian  ;  which  may  be 
found  by  observing  the  same  star  when  at  equal  altitudes,  before  and 
after  passing  the  meridian,  and  bisecting  the  angle  formed  by  these 
two  positions.  We  may  then  find  the  altitude  of  the  pole,  that  is,  of 
the  point  where  the  earth's  axis,  prolonged,  meets  the  celestial  sphere, 
by  observing  the  meridian  altitudes  of  a  star  which  is  near  the  pole,  both 
when  above  and  below  it,  and  bisecting  the  difference,  after  correct- 
ing it  for  refraction.  The  altitude  of  the  pole  is  equal  to  the  latitude 
of  the  place ;  and  the  longitude  may  be  found  by  means  of  a  chro- 
nometer; which  is  a  very  accurate  timepiece;  or  by  observing  an 
eclipse  of  one  of  Jupiter's  satellites  at  that  place,  and  comparing  the 
time  with  that  of  the  same  eclipse  at  Greenwich  ;  if  the  longitude 
from  Greenwich  be  sought.  The  difference  of  time,  will  give  the  dif- 
ference of  longitude;  allowing  15°  for  each  hour.  The  sun  appears 
to  move  eastward  among  the  fixed  stars ;  but  this  must  be  caused  by 
the  real  motion  of  the  earth  around  the  sun ;  for  in  no  other  way  can 
all  the  celestial  phenomena  be  reconciled  and  explained. 


CHAPTER  III. 

OPTICS. 

OPTICS,  is  that  branch  of  Acrophysics,  or  Natural  Philosophy, 
which  treats  of  the  nature  and  properties  of  light,  and  the  phenomena 
of  vision.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  oTt^ou,  I  see. 
Light,  is  an  emanation,  or  something  proceeding  from  bodies  ; 
which,  reaching  the  eye,  makes  a  peculiar  impression,  as  sound  does 
upon  the  ear;  an  impression  to  which  the  other  organs  of  the  human 
body  are  insensible.  Light  is  found  to  move  generally  in  straight 
lines;  and  with  a  velocity  of  192,500  miles  per  second;  or  from 
the  sun  to  the  earth  in  about  8  minutes.  A  ray  of  light,  is  compre- 
hended in  a  single  line  proceeding  from  any  luminous  point ;  and  an 
assemblage  of  rays  forms  a  beam,  or  pencil,  of  light.  When  light 
impinges  on  any  body,  it  is  either  reflected  from  it,  or  transmitted 
through  it,  or  absorbed  within  it ;  and  these  effects  are  frequently 
produced  conjointly.  These  facts  give  rise  to  the  old  divisions  of 
Catoptrics,  treating  of  reflected  light,  and  Dioptrics,  treating  of  trans- 
mitted light ;  which,  however,  do  not  exhaust  the  subject. 


PLATE    VIII.       ASTRONOMY, 


1. 


.!•• 


OPTICS.  357 

Concerning  the  nature,  or  essence,  of  light,  two  different  theories 
have  long  been  maintained.  The  emissive  theory,  supposes  light  to 
consist  of  material,  though  imperceptibly  small  particles,  or  atoms, 
thrown  off  from  the  luminous  body,  and  diverging  in  all  directions. 
This  theory  was  maintained,  in  ancient  times,  by  Pythagoras ;  and 
was  adopted  by  Newton.  The  undulatory  theory,  supposes  light 
to  be  caused  by  a  peculiar  fluid,  or  ethereal  medium,  diffused  through- 
out all  nature  ;  in  which  vibrations  are  produced  by  luminous  bodies, 
like  those  in  the  air  by  sounding  bodies  ;  only,  far  more  rapid,  and 
sensible  only  to  the  eye.  This  theory  was  proposed  by  Huyghens ; 
and  was  advocated  by  Euler,  and  Young.  Either  of  these  theories 
may  serve  to  explain  most  of  the  facts,  and  assist  in  remembering 
them  :  but  the  preference  is  now  more  generally  given  to  the  latter. 
The  study  of  Optics,  has  served  not  only  to  aid  the  sight,  by  the  in- 
vention of  various  instruments  ;  but  also  to  explain  many  phenomena 
of  nature,  which  were  previously  unknown,  or  involved  in  mystery, 
or  applied  to  purposes  of  deception  and  crime. 

The  history  of  Optics,  commences,  perhaps,  with  the  mention  of 
brazen  looking  glasses,  in  the  books  of  Exodus  and  Job,  as  in  use 
among  the  ancient  Hebrews  ;  and  of  burning  lenses,  of  glass  or 
crystal,  as  known  in  Greece,  about  450  B.  C.  Archimedes  is  said  to 
have  set  fire  to  the  Roman  fleet  attacking  Syracuse,  by  means  of  an 
assemblage  of  glass  mirrors.  The  earliest  systematic  writer  on 
Optics,  was  Euclid,  the  geometer  ;  who  adopted  the  notion  of  Empe- 
docles  and  Plato,  that  light  proceeds  originally  from  the  eye,  and  is 
then  reflected  back  from  luminous  objects.  The  prismatic  spectrum, 
was  known  to  Seneca;  but  his  explanation  of  it  was  imperfect. 
Ptolemy  first  gave  a  table  of  refractions,  in  his  work  on  Optics,  and 
applied  it  to  the  correction  of  astronomical  observations.  Alhazen, 
the  Arabian,  who  wrote  about  A.  D.  1100,  disproved  the  Platonic 
notion  of  ocular  beams  ;  and  adopted  the  emissive  theory. 

Roger  Bacon,  the  English  monk,  first  discovered  the  principle  of 
microscopes  and  telescopes,  and  probably  invented  spectacles ;  which 
were  first  used  about  1275,  during  his  life  time.  The  invention  of 
the  camera  obscura,  by  Porta  of  Naples,  about  1460,  led  Kepler  to 
discover  the  true  mechanism  of  the  eye.  The  invention  of  the 
telescope,  is  attributed,  by  Descartes,  to  Metius  of  Holland,  about 
1600;  and  by  others,  to  Jansen,  or  Johnson,  of  Zealand,  about  the 
same  date  :  but  the  English  claim  the  invention  for  Leonard  Digges, 
as  early  as  1591.  Galileo,  having  heard  of  this  instrument,  invented, 
in  1609,  the  telescope  which  bears  his  name.  The  astronomical 
telescope,  was  suggested,  or  revived,  by  Kepler,  and  made  by  Schei- 
ner,  about  the  year  1650 :  the  reflecting  telescope  was  first  con- 
structed by  James  Gregory,  in  1663;  the  Newtonian,  was  invented 
in  1666;  and  the  Cassegrainian,  in  1672.  The  invention  of  the 
simple  microscope,  has  been  attributed  to  Drebbell,  of  Holland,  about 
1618  ;  but  we  think  more  justly  to  Jansen,  about  1610.  The  com- 
pound refracting  microscope,  was  invented  by  Fontana  of  Naples,  in 
1618.  The  magic  lantern  was  invented  by  Kircher,  who  died  in 
1680. 

In  1611,  Antonio  de  Dominis,  archbishop  of  Spalatro   first  illus- 


858  ACROPHYSICS. 

trated  experimentally  the  cause  of  the  rainbow  ;  the  complete  theory 
of  which  was  afterwards  given  by  Descartes.  The  law  of  refraction 
was  discovered  by  Snell,  of  Ley  den,  in  1621  ;  and  Bartholin,  of 
Denmark,  first  noticed  the  phenomenon  of  double  refraction  about 
1669 :  to  which  Huyghens  added,  that  the  light  thus  refracted,  was 
polarized  at  the  same  time.  Grimaldi  first  noticed  the  diffraction  of 
light,  in  1665  :  and  Newton,  in  1675,  studied  the  formation  of  colored 
rings,  and  fringes,  by  means  of  thin  plates.  In  1672,  Newton 
announced  to  the  Royal  Society  his  new  theory  of  light ;  and  its 
application  to  the  prismatic  spectrum.  The  invention  of  achromatic 
telescopes,  belongs  to  Mr.  Hall,  of  England,  as  early  as  1733 ; 
though  first  patented  and  made  public  by  Mr.  Dollond,  in  1757.  In 
1800-8  Dr.  Young  applied  the  undulatory  theory  to  the  general 
explanation  of  colors;  and  in  1810,  Malus,  of  France,  discovered 
the  polarization  of  light  by  reflection.  Dr.  Wollaston  invented  the 
camera  lucida,  in  1807.  The  more  recent  discoveries  made  by  Biot, 
Brewster,  and  others,  we  have  no  room  to  describe. 

We  proceed  to  give  some  ideas  of  this  science,  under  the  heads 
of  Catoptrics,  Dioptrics,  Physical  Optics,  and  Practical  Optics ;  as 
the  more  common  division  of  the  subject. 

§  1.  Catoptrics,  so  named  from  xatorttpov,  a  mirror,  treats  of  the 
reflection  of  light  from  smooth  or  polished  surfaces.  This  reflection 
takes  place  according  to  the  same  law  as  in  the  case  of  sound,  or  of 
elastic  bodies.  The  incident  ray,  and  the  reflected  ray  resulting 
from  it,  both  lie  in  the  same  plane,  perpendicular  to  the  reflecting 
surface ;  and  the  angles  which  they  form  respectively  with  a  line 
perpendicular  to  the  surface,  that  is,  the  angles  of  incidence  and  of 
reflection,  are  always  equal.  A  polished  metallic  reflector,  is  called 
a  speculum;  and  a  glass  reflector  is  usually  called  a  mirror  :  but,  in 
the  latter,  the  light  is  chiefly  reflected  from  the  silvering,  or  metallic 
surface  on  the  back,  to  which  the  glass  gives  shape  and  smoothness. 
Reflectors  are  generally  either  plane,  or  concave,  or  convex  ;  the  two 
latter  with  spherical  surfaces,  and  taking  their  name  from  the  side 
which  reflects  the  light.  In  plane  reflectors,  the  rays  make  the  same 
angle  with  each  other,  after,  as  before  their  reflection. 

From  a  concave  reflector,  parallel  rays  are  reflected,  converging,  to 
a  point  called  the  principal  focus  ;  at  which  the  heat  and  light  are 
concentrated.  Rays  which  previously  converged,  are  reflected  by  a 
concave  surface  still  more  converging  :  but  rays  which  diverged,  before 
impinging,  will  be  reflected  either  less  diverging,  or  parallel,  or  con- 
verging, according  to  the  distance  of  the  radiant  point  from  which 
they  emanated.  If  the  luminous  object  be  more  distant  from  the 
concave  surface  than  the  centre  of  curvature  of  the  latter,  then  an 
inverted  and  reduced  image  of  the  object  will  be  formed,  between 
the  centre  of  curvature  and  the  principal  focus :  but  if  the  radiant 
object  be  brought  between  these  two  points,  it  will  produce  an 
inverted  and  magnified  image,  farther  off  than  the  centre  of  curva- 
ture. This  latter,  is  the  precise  arrangement  of  the  reflecting  micro- 
scope; and  the  former  case,  where  the  luminous  object  is  very  distant, 
is  the  principle  of  the  reflecting  telescope.  As  the  concave  reflector 
always  renders  the  rays  more  converging,  or  less  diverging,  than  pre- 


OPTICS.  359 

viously ;  so  the  convex  reflector  renders  them  more  divergent,  or  less 
convergent,  than  they  were  before  reflection ;  and  hence  forms 
reduced  images  of  objects,  apparently  behind  the  mirror. 

§  2.  Dioptrics,  from  6<,o7trpa,  a  perspective  instrument,  relates  to 
the  phenomena  of  light  transmitted  through  transparent  bodies.  When 
a  ray  of  light  impinges  obliquely  on  a  transparent  body,  that  part 
which  passes  through  it,  is  refracted,  or  bent  from  its  previous  course, 
both  on  entering  and  on  leaving  the  body.  Thus,  if  we  look  at  any 
object  at  the  bottom  of  an  empty  vessel,  and  watch  it  while  water  is 
poured  into  the  vessel,  the  object  will  seem  to  rise.  If  the  transpa- 
rent medium  be  of  uniform  density,  the  ray,  while  in  it,  will  move 
in  a  straight  line  :  but  if  the  density  vary,  the  ray  will  describe  a 
curve,  as  in  the  atmosphere,  where  the  rays  of  light  are  bent  down- 
ward. The  angle  formed  by  the  refracted  ray  with  the  perpendicular 
to  the  surface,  is  called  the  angle  of  refraction:  and,  for  the  same 
media,  the  sines  of  the  angles  of  incidence  and  of  refraction  have  a 
constant  ratio,  whatever  be  the  obliquity.  This  ratio,  called  the 
index  of  refraction,  is,  at  the  common  surface  of  air  and  water, 
1.336  ;  and  for  air  and  glass  it  is  about  1.5  ;  varying  with  the  com- 
position of  the  glass  employed. 

These  facts  apply  immediately  to  lenses  ;  which  are,  usually,  cir- 
cular pieces  of  glass,  having  one  at  least  of  the  two  opposite  surfaces 
spherical.  The  double  convex,  plano-convex,  and  meniscus  lenses, 
are  thickest  in  the  middle,  and  have  a  converging  effect  on  the  rays 
which  pass  through  them ;  while  the  double  concave,  plano-concave, 
and  concavo-convex  lenses  are  thinnest  in  the  middle,  and  tend  to 
make  the  rays  which  pass  through  them  divergent.  The  focus  of 
parallel  rays  passing  through  a  converging  lens,  is  called  the  prin- 
cipal focus ;  but  as  the  radiant  point,  or  object,  draws  nearer,  the 
focus  is  carried  farther  off,  and,  beyond  a  certain  distance,  the  image 
is  magnified.  This  is  the  leading  principle  of  the  compound  re- 
fracting microscope.  If  an  object  be  brought  too  near  to  the  eye, 
the  rays  from  each  point  diverge  too  much  for  distinct  vision ;  but  a 
converging  lens  interposed  enables  the  object  to  be  seen  distinctly 
when  much  nearer,  and  thus  makes  it  appear  larger.  This  is  the 
principle  of  the  simple  refracting  microscope,  and  of  all  convex 
eye-glasses.  In  the  refracting  telescope,  an  image  of  the  distant 
object  is  formed  by  the  rays  passing  through  the  object  glass ;  and 
this  image  is  seen  magnified,  through  the  eye-glass,  placed  very  near 
it.  Objects  seen  through  a  concave,  or  diverging  lens,  appear  nearer 
and  smaller  than  they  really  are. 

§  3.  Physical  Optics,  is  that  branch  of  this  science,  which  treats 
of  the  physical  properties  of  light,  and  the  means  by  which  they 
have  been  investigated.  Light  may  be  decomposed,  either  by  refrac- 
tion, absorption,  or  reflection.  If  a  ray  of  light  be  made  to  pass 
through  two  faces  of  a  triangular  glass  prism,  it  will  not  only  be  re- 
fracted, or  turned  away  from  the  vertex  of  the  angle  formed  by 
those  two  faces,  but  it  will  be  decomposed  into  rays  of  seven  distinct 
colours ;  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet :  and  if 
these  colours  be  received  on  a  screen,  or  card,  they  will  form  what 
is  called  the  prismatic  spectrum.  Red,  yellow,  and  blue,  are  gene- 


360  ACROPHTSICS. 

rally  regarded  as  primary  colours  ;  but  orange  is  a  compound  of  the 
two  former ;  green  of  the  two  latter ;  and  indigo  and  violet  are  com- 
pounds of  the  two  extreme  colours,  red  and  blue.  The  violet  rays 
will  deviate  most  from  their  original  direction  ;  as  they  are  the  most 
refracted. 

Hence,  when  a  beam  of  light  falls  on  a  simple  converging  lens,  it 
is  not  only  somewhat  scattered  at  the  focus,  by  the  refraction  of  the 
spherical  surfaces,  producing  what  is  called  spherical  aberration; 
but  the  different  colours,  being  unequally  refracted,  form  an  image 
with  colored  rings  :  and  this  effect,  called  chromatic  aberration, 
long  presented  the  greatest  difficulty  in  forming  perfect  refracting 
telescopes.  It  was  remedied  by  the  discovery  that  flint  glass,  con- 
taining lead,  forms  a  longer  spectrum  than  crown  glass,  for  the  same 
deviation ;  or,  in  other  words,  has  a  greater  dispersive  power. 
Hence,  by  combining  a  convex  lens  of  crown  glass,  with  a  weaker 
concave  one  of  flint  glass,  the  latter  may  counteract  the  dispersion  of 
the  former,  without  entirely  counteracting  its  refraction ;  and  this 
constitutes  an  achromatic  lens,  such  as  is  used  for  the  object  glass 
of  the  best  telescopes. 

Light  may  be  decomposed  by  absorption;  as  when  it  meets  a 
blue  glass  ;  which  absorbs  the  other  colors,  and  chiefly  transmits  and 
reflects  the  blue.  In  this  way  it  may  be  shown,  that  most  of  the 
colors  are  compounded;  black  being  the  absence  of  light;  and  white, 
a  combination,  or  interpolation  of  all  the  colours  ;  which  are  sup- 
posed to  be  caused  by  the  more  or  less  rapid  undulations,  or  vibra- 
tions of  the  ethereal  medium.  Thus,  green  glass,  or  the  green  leaves 
of  plants  present  this  color,  it  is  supposed,  because  they  reduce  the 
vibrations  of  the  ethereal  medium  to  a  certain  length  or  rapidity : 
these  being  shortest  for  the  violet,  and  longest  for  the  red,  of  all  the 
colors.  The  formation  of  colored  rings,  by  thin  plates,  as  in  soap 
bubbles ;  or,  by  diffraction,  as  around  the  shadows  of  small  bodies 
held  in  a  cone  of  diverging  light ;  or,  by  direction,  as  in  the  light 
reflected  from  a  thick  concave  mirror ;  and  the  colored  fringes  seen 
on  fibrous,  or  finely  grooved  surfaces,  are  all  attributed  to  the  inter- 
ference of  undulations  proceeding  from  different  points,  and  more  or 
less  counteracting  each  other.  Of  the  double  refraction  and  polari- 
zation of  light,  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak. 

§  4.  Practical  Optics,  properly  includes  the  application  of  op- 
tical principles  to  the  explanation  of  natural  phenomena,  and  the  con- 
struction of  optical  instruments.  The  rainbow,  is  formed  by  rays 
of  light,  from  the  sun  or  moon,  striking  drops  of  water,  being  re- 
fracted in  entering  them,  reflected  back,  in  part,  from  the  opposite 
side  of  the  drops,  and  refracted  again  on  leaving  them,  so  as  to  pro- 
duce prismatic  colors,  some  of  which  meet  the  eye.  In  the  inner, 
or  primary  bow,  the  light  is  refracted  downwards,  and  undergoes  but 
one  reflection:  while  in  the  outer,  or  secondary  bow,  the  light 
striking  the  lower  side  of  the  drop,  is  first  refracted  upwards,  and 
reflected  twice  within  the  drop,  before  leaving  it :  hence,  its  light  is 
fainter.  Solar  and  lunar  halos,  or  circles  of  light ;  and  parhelia, 
and  paraselene  or  mock  suns  and  moons,  are  supposed  to  be  caused 
by  the  refraction  of  light  through  crystals  of  ice,  floating  in  the  air. 


CERAUNICS.  361 

We  must  not  omit  to  notice  the  mechanism  of  vision.  The  outer 
coating  of  the  eye  is  transparent  in  front ;  and  this  part  is  called  the 
cornea:  while  the  schrotica,  which  covers  the  rest  of  the  eye,  is 
opaque  and  white,  but  lined  with  the  choroid  coat  and  a  black  pig- 
ment ;  within  which,  is  the  retina,  a  nervous  coating,  connected 
with  the  brain.  The  iris,  is  a  dark  screen,  behind  the  cornea  ;  from 
which  the  eye  takes  its  colour  :  and  the  pupil,  is  a  circular  aperture, 
or  window,  through  the  iris,  by  which  light  is  admitted  to  the  dark 
chamber  within.  In  this  chamber  is  the  crystalline  lens,  held  in  its 
place  by  the  ciliary  processes ;  with  the  aqueous  humor  in  front  of 
it,  and  the  vitreous  humor  in  the  back  part  of  the  eye.  All  the  rays 
coming  from  any  one  point  of  a  luminous  object,  and  entering  the 
pupil,  are  refracted,  by  the  interior  media,  to  one  point  or  focus  on  the 
retina,  by  means  of  which  the  luminous  point  is  perceived.  The 
same  principle  applies  to  the  camera  obscura;  in  which  all  the  rays 
from  any  one  external  point,  are  reflected  and  refracted,  so  as  to  form 
one  point  of  the  image  or  picture  within.  In  the  magic  lantern, 
the  image  formed  by  refraction,  is  enlarged,  and  received  on  a  screen, 
which  corresponds  to  the  retina  of  the  eye.  Of  telescopes  and 
microscopes,  referred  to  in  the  preceding  divisions,  we  have  no 
farther  room  to  speak  in  this  brief  synopsis. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

CERAUNICS. 

WE  would  propose  the  name  of  Ceraunics,  for  that  branch  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  which  relates  to  the  effects  of  heat  and  electri- 
city ;  commonly  associated  in  nature,  and  together  forming  one  great 
division  of  science.*  The  name  is  from  the  Greek,  sstpawos,  light- 
ning ;  a  phenomenon  in  which  the  union  of  heat  and  electricity  is 
peculiarly  manifested  ;  and  the  study  of  which  involves  that  of  nearly 
all  the  sub-branches  here  included ;  that  is  to  say  Calorics,  Electricity, 
Galvanism,  Magnetism,  Electro-Magnetism,  Thermo-Electricity,  and 
Meteorology.  The  order  in  which  these  branches  are  here  named,  is 
that  in  which  we  think  they  may  best  be  understood  :  as  those  first 
named,  can  be  studied  independently;  but  the  others,  only  by  their 
aid.  They  all  belong  strictly  to  Experimental  Philosophy  ;  and  they 
have  already  contributed  largely  to  the  comfort  of  mankind,  by  their 
applications  to  the  Physical  Arts  :  but  some  of  these  sciences  are  still 
in  comparative  infancy,  and  open  a  wide  field  for  new  researches. 

Following  our  general  order,  the  history  of  these  sciences  will  first 
engage  our  attention.  The  study  of  Calorics,  as  a  connected  science, 
is  of  modern  origin.  Lord  Bacon  conceived  heat  to  depend  upon  a 
vibration  of  the  particles  of  matter,  tending  to  separate  them  ;  an  idea 

*  Should  it  appear  hereafter,  as  may  be  the  case,  that  heat  consists  in  undulations 
of  an  ethereal  medium,  like  those  of  light ;  it  will  then  be  proper  to  remove  Calorics 
from  this  branch,  and  associate  it  with  Optics ;  with  which  it  has  close  relations, 
already  recognized. 

46  2  H 


362  ACROPHTSICS. 

which  was  sanctioned  by  Boyle  and  Newton.  The  other  doctrine, 
that  heat  is  produced  by  a  peculiar  subtile  fluid,  was  maintained  by 
Boerhaave,  and  is,  we  believe,  the  one  more  generally  adopted,  in 
explaining  the  phenomena.  The  first  invention  of  the  Thermometer, 
is  by  some  writers  ascribed  to  Drebbel  of  Holland ;  but  more  gene- 
rally to  Sanctorio  of  Italy,  about  the  year  1626.  The  temperature 
was  at  first  measured  by  the  expansion  of  air ;  and  afterwards  by 
that  of  alcohol ;  till  in  1720,  Fahrenheit,  of  Dantzic,  proposed  the 
use  of  mercury,  and  introduced  the  graduation  which  bears  his  name. 
Wedge  wood's  Pyrometer  was  invented  in  1731  :  and  the  use  of 
concave  mirrors  for  reflecting  heat,  appears  to  have  been  discovered 
by  Lambert  of  Germany,  in  1758.  The  discovery  of  latent  heat, 
was  made  by  Dr.  Black  of  Edinburgh,  in  1757 ;  and  radiant  heat 
was  first  identified  by  Scheele,  about  1770.  We  have  only  room  to 
add  that  the  invention  of  the  galvanic  battery,  by  Cruikshank,  and 
of  the  compound  blowpipe,  by  Dr.  Hare,  have  furnished  the  most 
powerful  means  of  producing  heat  yet  discovered. 

The  knowledge  of  Electricity,  possessed  by  the  ancients,  was 
simply  the  fact,  known  to  Thales,  that  amber,  when  rubbed,  acquired 
the  power  of  attracting  light  bodies.  In  the  year  1600,  Dr.  Gilbert 
announced  his  discovery  of  several  other  electrics  ;  and  first  suggested 
the  idea  of  an  electric  fluid,  or  effluvium.  Otho  Guericke,  about  1 650, 
constructed  the  first  electric  machine,  by  mounting  a  globe  of  sulphur; 
with  which  he  produced  electric  light,  and  sound.  In  1733,  Dufaye 
discovered  that  two  electrics,  when  rubbed  together,  become  oppo- 
sitely excited ;  on  which  fact  he  founded  his  theory  of  two  fluids  ; 
the  one  collecting  on  glass,  which  he  called  vitreous  ;  the  other  on 
sealing  wax,  or  rosin,  hence  called  resinous  electricity.  Dr.  Franklin 
proposed  the  theory  of  one  fluid,  which,  when  accumulated,  consti- 
tutes the  vitreous  or  positive  state  ;  but  when  abstracted  or  deficient, 
causes  the  resinous  or  negative  state,  or  excitement.  In  1746,  the 
Leyden  jar  was  discovered  by  Cuneus  and  Muschenbroek  ;  and  in 
1752,  Dr.  Franklin  made  his  great  discovery  that  the  electric  fluid  is 
the  cause  of  lightning.  The  later  electric  discoveries,  belong  chiefly 
to  Galvanism ;  under  which  they  will  be  mentioned,  in  connection 
with  their  theoretical  relations.  Those  of  Professor  Faraday,  and  of 
our  countryman,  Professor  Henry,  concerning  electric  induction  and 
electro-motion,  are  brilliant,  but  transcend  our  present  limits. 

The  attraction  of  the  Magnet,  or  loadstone,  for  iron  filings,  was 
known  to  Thales  ;  but  its  property  of  pointing  to  the  poles  of  the 
earth,  though  said  to  have  been  known  to  the  Chinese,  1120  B.  C., 
appears  to  have  been  first  known  in  Europe,  to  the  French  ;  who 
availed  themselves  of  it,  in  Navigation,  about  A.  D.  1150:  and  the 
Mariner's  compass  was  improved,  rather  than  invented,  by  Flavio 
Gioia,  in  1302.  The  variation  of  the  compass,  was  first  noticed  by 
Columbus,  in  1492:  and  the  dip,  was  first  made  known  by  Robert 
Norman,  in  1581.  Dr.  Gilbert  explained  the  polarity  of  the  needle 
by  considering  the  earth  as  a  large  magnet  attracting  it;  and  .ZEpinus 
proposed  a  magnetic  theory  similar  to  the  electric  theory  of  Dr. 
Franklin.  Dr.  Knight  invented  the  mode  of  magnetizing  by  single 
touch,  in  1745  ;  and  Mr.  Mitchell's  mode,  bv  double  touch,  was  made 


CERAUNICS.  363 

public  in  1750.  The  science  of  Electro-Magnetism,  originated  in 
1820  ;  when  Oersted  of  Copenhagen  discovered  the  peculiar  action 
of  a  galvanic  current  on  a  magnetic  needle.  The  initial  discovery  in 
Thermo- Electricity,  was  made  by  Dr.  Seebeck,  in  1822.  Our  his- 
tory of  Meteorology  must  be  so  brief  that  it  will  be  deferred  until  we 
come  to  that  science  in  its  place. 

We  proceed  to  speak  briefly  of  Ceraunics  ;  taking  the  divisions  in 
the  order  above  named,  (p.  361). 

§  1.  The  science  of  Calorics,  relates  to  the  phenomena  of  heat, 
and  the  laws  of  its  action.  The  name  is  from  the  Latin,  calor,  heat : 
and  the  name  caloric,  has  been  applied  to  the  agent  which  causes 
the  sensation  of  heat,  and  which  has  long  been  regarded  as  a  subtile, 
imponderable  fluid,  self-repellent,  capable  of  penetrating  ponderable 
substances,  and  perhaps  uniting  with  them  in  definite  combinations  : 
though  recent  discoveries  strongly  favor  the  extension  of  the  undula- 
tory  theory  to  heat,  as  well  as  to  light.  The  sources  of  heat,  are  the 
sun ;  combustion,  and  other  chemical  action ;  friction,  and  other 
mechanical  action  ;  electricity  and  galvanism  ;  and  animal  life.  Calo- 
ric is  conceived  to  exist  in  two  different  states ;  sensible  and  latent. 
Sensible  caloric,  is  that  which  affects  the  thermometer,  and  produces 
the  sensation  of  heat ;  while  latent  caloric,  though  supposed  to  be 
present  in  bodies,  does  not  affect  the  thermometer  or  the  senses; 
perhaps  because  it  is,  as  it  were,  chemically  combined  with  the 
ponderable  substance. 

Caloric  is  supposed  to  emanate  from  all  warm  bodies,  either  by 
radiation  or  conduction.  It  is  said  to  be  radiated,  when  it  darts  forth 
with  great  velocity,  like  light :  and  it  is  said  to  be  conducted,  when 
it  passes  slowly  from  particle  to  particle  of  the  surrounding  bodies. 
Caloric  radiates  best  from  dark  and  rough  surfaces  ;  and  is  best  con- 
ducted by  the  metals ;  more  slowly  by  wood  and  earths ;  and  in 
liquids  it  is  carried  upwards  chiefly  by  circulation.  Radiated  caloric, 
meeting  any  substance,  is,  like  light,  either  reflected,  absorbed,  or 
transmitted  ;  and  in  the  latter  case  refracted,  as  in  the  solar  prismatic 
spectrum.  It  is  best  reflected  from  bright  and  polished  surfaces ; 
and  absorbed  by  dark  and  rough  ones.  The  cooling  of  bodies  is, 
of  course,  attributed  to  the  abstraction  of  caloric,  from  their  giving 
out  more  than  they  receive.  The  effects  of  caloric,  are  the  expan- 
sion of  nearly  all  bodies,  except  melting  ice,  or  antimony,  and  heated 
clay  ;  the  liquefaction  of  solills,  and  the  vaporization  of  liquids  ;  in 
which  cases  a  certain  quantity  of  caloric  is  supposed  to  become  latent, 
or  chemically  combined  ;  and,  finally,  the  production  of  light,  electri- 
city, and  chemical  action. 

§  2.  Electricity,  so  named  from  ytextpov,  the  Greek  word  for 
amber,  treats  of  the  phenomena  first  discovered  in  that  substance, 
when  subjected  to  friction  ;  and  ascribed  to  an  extremely  rare  or 
subtile  fluid,  pervading  the  material  world.  If  we  rub  smooth  glass 
with  a  silken  cloth,  both  substances  become  electrically  excited  ;  as 
is  proved  by  their  attracting  pith  balls,  or  other  light  bodies  near  them. 
This  is  explained,  according  to  Dr.  Franklin's  theory,  by  supposing 
that  the  glass  becomes  charged  with  an  excess  of  the  electric  fluid, 
that  is  positively  excited;  and  that  while  this  fluid  repels  its  own 


364  ACROPHYSICS. 

Crticles,  it  attracts  those  of  ponderable  substances,  as  of  the  pith 
11s.     The  silk  is  supposed  to  be  deprived  of  the  electric  fluid,  that 
is,  to  become  negatively  excited ;  and  hence  to  attract  the  pith  balls 
which  contain  the  electric  fluid,  by  attracting  the  fluid  itself.     The 

§ith  balls  which  are  attracted  by  the  glass,  become  charged  with  the 
uid,  on  touching  the  glass  ;  and  are  then  repelled  by  the  self-repellent 
power  of  the  fluid:  but  two  negatively  excited  bodies  repel  each  other, 
either  because  ponderable  matter,  when  deprived  of  the  electric  fluid, 
is  self-repellent,  or  because  they  are  attracted  in  opposite  directions 
by  the  electric  fluid  in  the  surrounding  air.  The  electric  excitement 
is  strongest  when  the  air  is  cold  and  dry ;  for  moist  air  conducts  and 
distributes  the  electric  fluid. 

Those  substances  along  or  through  which  the  electric  fluid  passes 
freely,  are  called  conductors,  or  non-electrics ;  as  metals,  charcoal, 
and  water :  but  those  substances  which  will  not  permit  the  fluid  to 
move  freely  over  them,  are  called  electrics,  or  non-conductors ;  as 
glass,  rosin,  and  silk ;  which  latter  becomes  negative  when  rubbed 
with  glass,  but  positive  when  rubbed  with  rosin  or  sealing  wax  ;  the 
resins  being  among  the  strongest  negative  electrics.  When  an  ex- 
cited electric  is  brought  in  contact  with  another  in  a  neutral  state,  the 
latter  becomes  similarly  excited  by  conduction :  and  on  this  prin- 
ciple the  prime  conductor  of  the  electric  machine  collects  the  elec- 
tric fluid  from  the  glass  plate  or  cylinder.  This  principle  applies 
also  to  the  interior  of  the  electric  jar,  commonly  called  the  Leyden 
jar  ;  when  its  knob  is  brought  near  to  the  electric  machine  :  but  the 
exterior  of  the  jar  becomes  oppositely  charged,  by  induction;  which 
is  attributed  to  the  electric  fluid  on  one  side,  repelling  that  on  the 
other.  Electric  excitement  may  also  be  produced  by  chemical  ac- 
tion, by  heat,  and  probably  by  mere  contact  of  bodies,  though  in  a 
feeble  degree. 

§  3.  To  Galvanism,  belongs  the  study  of  electrical  currents,  pro- 
duced continuously,  by  chemical  action  ;  with  their  direct  effects,  and 
the  mode  of  producing  them.  This  science  originated  with  Professor 
Galvani,  of  Bologna;  who,  in  1790,  observed  that  if  a  piece  of  zinc, 
and  another  of  silver  were  brought  in  contact,  the  one  with  a  muscle, 
and  the  other  with  a  nerve  of  a  frog  recently  killed,  muscular  convul- 
sions would  ensue,  whenever  the  two  metals  were  brought,  at  the 
same  time,  in  contact  with  each  other.  Galvani  believed  this  effect 
to  be  produced  by  a  peculiar  animal  electricity ;  while  Volta  main- 
tained that  it  was  owing  to  common  electricity  developed  by  mere 
contact  of  the  metals  :  but  Dr.  Wollaston  maintained  that  the  electric 
excitement  was  produced  by  the  chemical  action  of  the  moist  animal 
matter  on  the  more  oxidable  metal ;  which  last  is  now  fully  proved  to 
be  the  chief  cause.  So  rapid  was  the  progress  of  this  new  science, 
that  in  1800,  Nicholson  and  Carlisle  applied  it  to  the  decomposition 
of  water;  and  in  1807,  Davy  was  enabled,  by  its  means,  to  discover 
the  metallic  bases  of  the  fixed  alkalies. 

When  a  plate  of  zinc,  and  another  of  copper,  are  dipped,  with- 
out touching  each  other,  into  any  acid  solution,  the  zinc,  by  the 

action  of  the  acid,  is  supposed  to  acquire  an  electro-positive  state; 

which  enables  it  to   decompose  water,  and  seize  on  the  oxygen ; 


CERAUNICS.  365 

forming  an  oxide,  and  from  this  a  salt,  of  zinc;  in  which  the  free 
electric  fluid  of  the  zinc  is  probably  combined  ;  while  the  remaining 
zinc  attracts  more  of  that  fluid  from  contiguous  bodies.  The  hydro- 
gen of  the  water,  being  set  free,  probably  carries  with  it  the  electric 
fluid  of  the  decomposed  water ;  and  is  both  repelled  from  the  zinc 
and  attracted  by  the  copper ;  to  which  it  conveys  a  charge  of  the 
electric  fluid.  If,  then,  wires  be  attached  to  the  two  plates,  and 
brought  in  contact,  a  galvanic  current  will  pass  along  them,  from 
the  copper  to  the  zinc  plate ;  forming  what  is  called  a  simple  voltaic 
circle.  If  we  have  a  series  of  cells,  all  containing  an  acid  solution, 
the  zinc  plate  in  each  cell  having  a  metallic  connection  with  the  copper 
plate  in  the  next,  they  will  form  a  compound  circle,  or  galvanic 
battery:  in  which,  as  in  the  former  case,  the  wire  from  the  last  cop- 
per plate  is  called  the  positive,  and  that  from  the  zinc  end,  the  nega- 
tive electrode;  the  ends  of  the  wires  being  usually  termed  poles. 
If  these  poles  be  brought  near  to  each  other,  provided  there  be  at 
least  50  pairs  of  plates  in  action,  they  will  produce  vivid  ignition, 
and  other  chemical  effects  :  and  the  current  may  also  be  used  to 
charge  a  Leyden  jar,  or  to  produce  the  other  effects  of  common  elec- 
tricity. 

§  4.  Magnetism,  so  named  from  the  Greek,  ^ayi^s,  a  loadstone, 
treats  of  the  peculiar  properties  first  discovered  in  the  loadstone,  or 
native  magnet ;  with  their  applications,  and  the  means  of  observing 
them.  The  loadstone,  is  a  complex  oxide  of  iron,  with  a  small 
proportion  of  silex  and  alumina.  On  presenting  it  to  iron  filings,  it 
attracts  them  ;  and  two  opposite  parts  of  it,  which  collect  them  most 
abundantly,  are  called  the  poles.  If  a  piece  of  soft  iron  be  brought 
near  to  a  magnet,  it  becomes  magnetized  by  induction  :  the  part 
which  is  nearest  to  the  north  pole  of  the  magnet  becoming  a  south 
pole,  and  vice  versa.  As  dissimilar  poles  always  attract  each  other, 
and  similar  poles  repel  each  other,  the  preceding  fact  explains  why 
the  magnet  attracts  soft  iron  ;  and  why  it  points  in  a  fixed  direction 
in  regard  to  the  earth,  which  really  acts  as  a  large  magnet  would, 
upon  the  compass  needle.  The  magnetic  poles  of  the  earth  do  not 
coincide  with  its  geographic  poles  ;  and  hence  arises  the  variation 
of  the  compass.  As  we  approach  either  magnetic  pole  of  the  earth, 
the  dissimilar  pole  of  the  needle  is  attracted  downwards,  and  hence 
results  the  magnetic  dip.  The  property  by  which  one  magnet  acts 
upon  another,  is  called  polarity. 

Soft  iron,  is  speedily  magnetized  by  induction  ;  but  loses  its  mag- 
netism, as  soon  as  the  magnet  which  excited  it  is  removed.  Hard 
steel,  on  the  contrary,  is  magnetized  slowly ;  but  retains  its  magnet- 
ism for  a  long  time.  The  best  mode  of  magnetizing  a  bar,  is  by 
placing  the  opposite  poles  of  two  strong  magnets  at  the  ends  of  it; 
then  rubbing  it  from  the  centre  towards  the  ends  with  the  poles  of 
another  magnet ;  each  end  being  rubbed  with  a  pole  dissimilar  to 
that  which  is  to  be  produced ;  which  is  the  method  of  single  touch  : 
or  else  rubbing  it  from  end  to  end  with  two  dissimilar  poles  kept 
near  to  each  other ;  the  rubbing  north  pole  being  nearest  to  that  end 
which  is  to  become  a  south  pole ;  in  which  consists  the  method  by 
double  touch.  Pieces  of  soft  iron,  called  keepers,  or  armatures,  are 

2H2 


366  ACROPHYSICS. 

often  kept  in  contact  with  the  poles  of  magnets,  to  strengthen  them 
by  inductive  action. 

§  5.  Electro- Magnetism,  and  Thermo-Electridty,  are  kindred 
branches  of  electric  science,  treating  of  the  relations  between  gal- 
vanism, and  magnetism  and  calorics.  It  was  first  discovered  by 
Professor  Oersted,  in  1820,  that  a  galvanic  current  has  a  peculiar 
action  on  a  magnetic  needle  placed  near  it.  Supposing  the  current  to 
pass  through  the  centre  of  a  watch,  from  the  face  to  the  back,  it 
tends  to  carry  the  north  pole  of  any  magnet  around  it,  in  the  direction 
in  which  the  hands  of  the  watch  move;  and  the  south  pole  in  the 
opposite  direction.  If  the  magnet,  or  needle,  turn  on  a  pivot, 
exterior  to  the  galvanic  current,  it  will  soon  come  to  rest,  in  a  trans- 
verse position,  as  the  above  forces  require.  These  facts  were  applied 
by  Schweigger,  to  the  invention  of  the  galvanometer ;  in  which,  if 
a  very  feeble  galvanic  current  circulate  around  a  coil  of  insulated 
wire,  it  will  be  rendered  manifest,  by  acting  on  a  magnetic  needle 
suspended  within  the  coil. 

In  1820,  Arago  discovered  that  a  bar  of  steel  can  be  magnetized 
by  a  galvanic  current  made  to  circulate  around  it ;  and  hence,  that  a 
spiral  coil  of  insulated  wire,  so  long  as  a  galvanic  current  is  passing 
around  it,  acts  as  a  magnet;  manifesting  polarity;  attracting  other 
magnets ;  and  speedily  magnetizing  a  steel  bar  placed  within  it. 
This  furnishes  a  new  mode  of  forming  artificial  magnets  ;  and  it  led 
to  Ampere's  theory,  that  the  peculiar  properties  of  magnets  are  owing 
to  galvanic  currents  circulating  around  their  elementary  particles. 
On  this  ground,  it  is  now  generally  admitted  that  the  earth's  magnet- 
ism is  produced  by  such  currents,  circulating  around  it,  and  caused 
by  the  heat  of  the  sun.  This  is  farther  confirmed  by  Dr.  Seebeck's 
thermo-electric  discovery,  that  if  a  ring  be  formed  of  two  metals,  one- 
half  of  it,  for  example,  of  bismuth,  and  the  other  of  copper,  soldered 
together,  then,  on  heating  one  of  the  junctures,  a  galvanic  current  will 
pass  through  the  same,  from  the  bismuth  to  the  copper. 

§  6.  Meteorology,  so  named  from  the  Greek  ^fffwpa,  meteors, 
relates  to  atmospherical  phenomena ;  their  causes,  and  the  means  of 
observing  and  foretelling  them.  This  science,  if  it  has  now  reached 
that  dignity,  engaged  the  attention  of  Aristotle,  and  Theophrastus ; 
and,  in  more  recent  times,  of  Leslie,  Dalton,  and  other  philosophers  : 
and  it  is  at  present  the  subject  of  profound  study  and  careful  observa- 
tion. Of  our  own  countrymen,  Dr.  Franklin  first  observed  that  all 
extensive  storms,  in  the  United  States,  travelled  towards  the  north- 
east:  and  Mr.  Redfield  first  traced  their  course  from  the  southern 
to  the  northeastern  states ;  while  he  ascribed  them,  generally,  to  a 
gyratory  or  whirling  motion  of  the  air.  Mr.  Espy,  who  has  made 
extensive  and  important  researches  on  this  subject,  ascribes  their 
formation  chiefly  to  the  action  of  heat :  and  Dr.  Hare  considers  elec- 
tricity as  an  equally  prominent  agent  in  their  production. 

If  the  air  be  heated,  at  any  one  place,  it  becomes  rarified,  and  rises, 
as  balloons  do;  spreading  itself  out  above;  while  currents  of  cooler 
air  converge  to  that  place  below,  to  supply  the  partial  vacuum.  This 
principle  explains  the  trade  winds,  blowing  towards  the  equator; 
and  the  monsoons,  of  the  Indian  ocean,  (p.  163).  As  the  heated  air 


CHEMISTRY.  367 

rises,  it  becomes  cooler ;  and  the  aqueous  vapor  which  it  contains,  is 
partly  or  wholly  condensed,  thus  forming  a  cloud,  or  mist ;  which, 
by  the  aggregation  of  small  drops,  causes  rain,  or,  if  it  be  sufficiently 
cold,  hail,  or  snow.  If  the  surface  of  the  earth  be  cool  enough  to 
condense  the  aqueous  vapor  in  the  contiguous  air,  it  causes  the  depo- 
sition of  dew.  The  dew  point,  is  that  temperature  at  which  the 
condensation  commences  :  and  as  it  varies  with  the  quantity  of  vapor 
in  the  air,  being  the  highest  when  there  is  the  most  vapor,  it  furnishes 
the  best  hygrometer,  or  measure  of  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere. 
We  regret  the  want  of  room  to  explain  this  subject  more  fully. 


CHAPTER  V. 

CHEMISTRY. 

CHEMISTRY,  is  that  branch  of  Acrophysics,  which  treats  of  the 
composition  of  all  ponderable  substances ;  their  sensible  properties 
and  mutual  relations  ;  and  the  effects  produced  upon  them  by  cohe- 
sion, affinity,  light,  heat,  and  electricity.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Arabic  or  Egyptian  word  kimia  ;  originally  applied  to  Alchemy, 
and  signifying  the  occult  science.  The  general  properties  of  pon- 
derable substances,  or  those  which  can  be  collected  and  weighed, 
including  solids,  liquids,  and  gases,  have  already  been  referred  to,  in 
the  introduction  to  this  department ;  and  the  imponderables,  as  they 
are  often  termed,  have  formed  the  subject  of  the  two  preceding 
branches.  Of  course  the  study  of  Chemistry  is  aided  by  that  of  light, 
heat,  and  electricity  ;  while  it  not  only  reflects  light  upon  them  in 
return,  but  becomes  itself  subsidiary  to  the  natural  and  medical 
sciences  which  are  to  follow.  The  applications  of  Chemistry,  extend 
throughout  the  wide"  range  of  the  physical  arts,  wherever  it  is  desira- 
ble to  change  the  state  or  composition  of  the  materials  employed : 
and  hence  it  ranks  among  the  most  useful  of  the  sciences. 

The  Greeks  ascribed  the  invention  of  Chemical  science  to  Hermes, 
or  Mercurius  Trismegistus,  called  by  the  Egyptians,  Thoyt ;  and, 
in  honor  of  him,  they  gave  to  this  branch  the  name  of  the  Hermetic 
art.  It  was  brought  from  Egypt  to  Greece,  about  460  B.  C.,  by 
Democritns ;  who  had  learned  to  soften  ivory,  and  to  make  glass, 
If  we  except  the  working  of  the  metals,  little  was  known  of  this 
science  by  the  ancients  ;  and  that  little  was  obscured,  rather  than 
enlarged,  by  the  reveries  of  the  earlier  alchemists.  Alchemy,  appears 
to  have  been  first  mentioned  in  the  writings  of  Maternus,  about 
A.  D.  330 ;  and  it  was  fully  introduced  into  Europe  by  Rhazes,  and 
Geber,  Arabian  chemists  of  the  ninth  century.  The  object  of  Alche- 
my, was  to  discover  an  imaginary  substance,  called  the  philosopher's 
stone,  elixir  vitse,  universal  solvent,  or  grand  catholicon ;  which 
would  transmute  all  the  other  metals  into  gold,  and  prevent  or  cure 
all  diseases.  This  research,  though  of  course  a  failure,  led  to  several 
important  discoveries;  as  those  of  gunpowder,  of  sulphuric,  nitric, 
and  muriatic  acids,  and  of  phosphorus,  antimony,  and  zinc. 


368  ACROPHYSICS. 

The  first  collection  of  chemical  facts,  freed  from  the  mysticism  of 
Alchemy,  was  published  by  Earner,  in  1670 :  but  the  phlogistic 
theory,  suggested  by  Beccher  in  1669,  and  more  fully  developed  by 
Stahl',  first  gave  these  facts  a  connected  and  scientific  form.  This 
theory  supposed  the  metals,  and  other  combustibles,  to  be  compounds, 
containing  phlogiston,  or  the  substance  of  heat,  which  they  gave  out 
in  burning.  Chemistry  was  thenceforward  rapidly  advanced,  by  the 
labors  of  Boerhaave,  Bergmann,  Scheele,  and  others.  In  1754,  the 
discovery  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  by  Dr.  Black,  led  to  the  discovery 
of  other  gases,  and  originated  what  is  called  Pneumatic  Chemistry  ; 
forming  an  important  era  in  this  science.  In  1778,  Lavoisier  pro- 
posed his  antiphlogistic  theory  ;  that  bodies  when  burning,  instead 
of  emitting  any  substance,  absorb  and  combine  with  oxygen :  a 
theory  which  was  soon  adopted  by  Bertholet,  and  proved  by  exact 
experiments. 

The  chemical  nomenclature  now  in  use,  originated  with  Guyton 
de  Morveau,  about  1780 ;  and  was  soon  generally  adopted.  The 
idea  that  chemical  compounds  are  formed  of  elements  uniting  in  de- 
finite proportions,  originated  with  Wenzel,  of  Saxony,  in  1777,  but 
was  fully  developed  and  generalized  in  1803,  by  Dalton ;  whose 
laws  of  combination,  proved  by  the  labors  of  Wollaston,  Davy, 
Gay  Lussac,  Thenard,  Vauquelin,  Berzelius,  and  others,  are  now 
regarded  as  the  basis  of  this  great  science.  The  atomic  theory, 
already  referred  to,  (p.  343,)  as  known  to  the  ancients,  and  main- 
tained by  Epicurus,  was  revived  by  Dalton,  to  prove  these  laws ;  and 
the  electro-chemical  theory  of  Davy,  that  combination  takes  place  in 
consequence  of  the  opposite  electric  states  of  the  combining  elements, 
has  thrown  new  light  on  these  mysterious  phenomena.  To  Sir 
Humphry  Davy,  we  are  indebted,  for  the  discovery  of  the  metallic 
bases  of  the  alkalies,  in  1807 :  and  his  researches  have  been  recently 
extended  by  our  countryman,  Dr.  Hare.  The  first  discovery  of  the 
vegetable  alkalies  was  made  in  1803,  by  Sertuerner,  of  Germany  : 
since  which  time,  the  progress  of  this  science  in  all  its  divisions  has 
been  extremely  rapid  ;  though  there  is  still  room  for  new  investiga- 
tions. 

We  proceed  to  give  a  brief  outline  of  chemistry,  under  the  heads 
of  Non-metallic,  Metallic,  Organic,  and  Analytic  Chemistry. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Non-metallic  Chemistry,  we  would  in- 
clude so  much  of  this  science  as  relates  especially  to  the  non-metallic 
elements;  which,  for  the  most  part,  are  gases,  liquids,  or  light  solids; 
destitute  of  metallic  lustre  ;  and  non-conductors,  or  imperfect  con- 
ductors of  heat  and  electricity.  There  are  55  elements,  or  simple 
ponderable  substances,  now  known  to  chemists ;  42  of  which  are 
metals,  including  the  newly-discovered  metal  Lataniurn  ;  and  13  are 
non-metals,  including  Silicon.  These  elements,  by  uniting  together, 
form  compounds,  of  which  the  material  world  chiefly  consists. 
Most  of  the  elements  are  usually  solid ;  but  it  is  supposed  that  by 
intense  heat,  all  the  solids  might  be  converted  into  liquids,  and  these 
into  gases ;  and  that  by  pressure  and  abstraction  of  heat,  all  gases 
and  liquids  might  be  solidified.  The  elements,  by  combination,  often 
change  their  state ;  as  when  oxygen  gas  unites  with  sulphur,  forming 


CHEMISTRY.  369 

the  liquid  oil  of  vitriol;  or  with  iron,  to  form  the  solid  rust,  or  oxide 
of  iron. 

An  acid,  is  an  electro-negative  compound ;  which,  if  soluble,  has 
a  sour  taste  ;  and  which  will  combine  with  alkalies,  or  bases,  to  form 
salts.  An  alkali,  or  base,  is  an  electro-positive  compound  ;  which, 
if  soluble,  has  an  acrid  taste ;  and  which  will  unite  with  acids,  to 
form  salts :  these  latter  being  compounds  of  an  acid  and  base  ;  and, 
if  soluble,  having  what  is  called  a  saline  taste.  Many  acids,  and 
bases,  contain  oxygen  ;  but  others  contain  chlorine,  sulphur,  or  other 
electro-negative  elements,  in  its  stead.  An  oxide,  usually  signifies  a 
compound  containing  oxygen ;  and  which  is  neither  an  acid  nor  an 
alkali,  though  it  may  be  a  base.  Potassa,  is  an  alkali ;  composed 
of  oxygen  and  the  metal  potassium :  and  pearlash  is  a  salt,  composed 
of  potassa  and  carbonic  acid.  A  chloride,  is  a  compound  containing 
chlorine  ;  and  a  carburet  is  one  containing  carbon.  Sulphuric  acid 
contains  more  oxygen  than  sulphurous  ;  and  the  salts  of  the  former 
are  called  sulphates,  but  those  of  the  latter  are  termed  sulphites. 
Thus,  sulphate  of  soda,  denotes  a  compound  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
soda ;  and  arsenite  of  copper,  is  a  compound  of  arsenious  acid  and 
the  oxide  of  copper. 

Cohesion,  is  the  mutual  attraction  of  homogeneous,  or  similar  par- 
ticles, causing  the  formation  of  solids.  Affinity  is  the  mutual  attrac- 
tion of  heterogeneous  particles,  causing  the  formation  of  compounds. 
Thus,  by  affinity,  carbon  and  oxygen  unite,  in  ordinary  combustion, 
forming  carbonic  acid ;  and  this  unites  with  lime,  to  form  carbonate 
of  lime :  but,  by  cohesion,  the  particles  of  this  compound  are  aggre- 
gated, to  form  solid  marble.  By  affinity,  if  we  add  lime  water  to  a 
solution  of  pearlash,  the  lime  will  seize  on  the  carbonic  acid  ;  and, 
by  cohesion,  it  will  form  a  white  precipitate,  or  deposite,  of  carbonate 
of  lime  ;  leaving  the  potassa  in  solution.  When  distinct  compounds 
are  thus  formed,  the  elements,  or  constituents,  are  found  to  unite  in 
certain  definite,  invariable  proportions ;  which  may  be  represented 
by  what  are  called  their  equivalent  numbers,  or  equivalents.  Thus, 
8  parts  by  weight  of  oxygen,  unite  with  1  of  hydrogen,  to  form 
water;  and  with  16  of  sulphur,  to  form  hyposulphurous  acid: 
while  1  of  hydrogen  unites  also  with  16  of  sulphur  to  form  hydro- 
sulphuric  acid.  In  gaseous  compounds,  the  elements  have  also  a 
very  simple  ratio  to  each  other,  by  bulk,  as  well  as  by  weight. 

Of  the  non-metals,  Oxygen  is  a  colorless  gas,  somewhat  heavier 
than  the  air,  and  an  element  of  air  and  water,  as  well  as  of  nume- 
rous other  compounds.  It  is  essential  to  animal  life ;  being  converted 
into  carbonic  acid  when  inhaled,  as  also  by  the  burning  of  carbon- 
aceous substances.  Various  other  elements  burn  or  combine  with 
it,  forming  oxides,  acids,  alkalies,  and  earths.  Hydrogen,  is  also 
a  colorless  gas ;  but  14.51  times  lighter  than  the  air :  and  it  burns 
or  explodes,  with  oxygen,  forming  water ;  which  is  an  oxide  of 
hydrogen,  expressed  by  the  formula  H  +  O,  or  one  equivalent  of  hy- 
drogen to  one  of  oxygen  ;  as  above  mentioned.  Nitrogen,  is  also 
a  colorless  gas,  found  chiefly  in  the  air ;  which  consists  of  1  mea- 
sure of  oxygen  to  4  of  nitrogen ;  or  by  weight,  of  8  of  the  former 
to  28  of  the  latter.  Nitrous  acid,  (N-f  4  O,)  is  distinguished  by  its 
47 


370  ACROPHYSICS. 

pungent,  orange  colored  fumes,  from  nitric  acid,  or  aqua  fortis ; 
which  consists  of  14  by  weight  of  nitrogen  to  5  times  8  of  oxygen ; 
its  formula  being  N  +  5  O.  Ammonia,  or  spirits  of  hartshorn,  con- 
tains 14  of  nitrogen,  to  3  of  hydrogen ;  expressed  by  N-f-3  H. 

Sulphur,  is  found  chiefly  in  minerals,  or  volcanic  effusions  :  and 
by  burning,  it  forms  sulphurous  acid  gas,  S  -f  2  O,  known  by  its 
suffocating  odor.  Sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol,  contains  16  by 
weight  of  sulphur,  to  3  times  8  of  oxygen,  as  expressed  by  the 
formula  S  +  3  O ;  or  S.  Selenium,  is  a  rare  element,  resembling 
sulphur.  Carbon,  is  the  chief  constituent  of  all  kinds  of  coal ;  and, 
in  burning,  it  forms  carbonic  acid  gas,  C  -f  2  O,  which  always  exists 
in  the  air  as  an  impurity.  Coal  gas,  consists  of  various  carburets  of 
hydrogen.  Boron,  is  a  rare  element,  the  basis  of  boracic  acid, 
B  +  3  O  ;  found  in  borax.  Silicon,  is  a  dark  brown  solid,  the  basis 
of  sand ;  which  is  silicic  acid,  S  -f  3  O,  and  which  may  be  rendered 
soluble  by  heating  it  with  potassa.  Phosphorus,  a  soft,  white  inflam- 
mable solid,  abounds  in  the  bones  of  animals,  in  the  state  of  phos- 
phoric acid,  2  P  +  5  O,  but  combined  with  lime.  Chlorine,  is  a 
green  gas,  of  a  pungent  odor,  obtained  from  common  salt ;  and 
which  by  uniting  with  hydrogen  forms  muriatic,  or  hydrochloric 
acid,  H  +  Cl ;  while  with  oxygen  it  forms  highly  explosive  gases. 
Bromine,  is  a  red  liquid,  found  in  sea  water :  Iodine,  is  a  black 
crystalline  solid,  found  in  the  ashes  of  marine  plants ;  and  Fluorine, 
is  a  reddish  brown  gas,  found  in  the  mineral  called  fluorspar.  All 
these  latter  elements  are  electro-negative,  like  oxygen  and  sulphur ; 
and  they  all  form  acids  with  hydrogen ;  and,  excepting  fluorine,  they 
form  acids  also  with  oxygen. 

§  2.  Under  Metallic  Chemistry,  we  include  the  study  of  the 
metals,  and  their  various  compounds.  The  metals  are  characterized 
by  their  peculiar  lustre,  and  their  being  good  conductors  of  heat  and 
electricity.  They  may  be  classed  as  the  crypto-metals,  or  concealed 
metals,  which  are  the  bases  of  the  alkalies  and  earths ;  and  the 
sapho-melals  or  common  metals,  several  of  which  are  found  native, 
that  is,  uncombined  with  any  other  elements.  The  metals  are 
generally  obtained  from  their  ores ;  which  are  mostly  oxides,  sul- 
phurets,  or  chlorides ;  by  heating  them  with  charcoal  or  combustible 
matter,  which  unites  with  the  other  elements,  and  sets  the  metal  free. 
Of  the  crypto-metals,  Potassium,  is  as  bright  as  lead,  but  much  softer, 
and  so  light  that  it  floats  on  water ;  burning  at  the  same  time,  and 
forming  potassa,  K  -f-  O,  which  is  the  caustic  base  of  pearlash. 
Sodium,  is  a  whiter  metal,  the  base  of  soda,  N  +  O :  and  common  salt 
is  the  chloride  of  sodium.  Lithium,  is  a  very  rare  metal,  the  base 
of  the  remaining  alkali,  lithia.  Barium,  and  Strontium,  are  rare 
metals,  the  bases  of  baryta  and  strontia :  Calcium,  is  a  white  metal, 
the  base  of  lime,  which  is  an  oxide  of  calcium  ;  and  Magnesium, 
is  the  base  of  magnesia,  the  remaining  alkaline  earth.  .Aluminium, 
is  the  base  of  alumina,  the  chief  constituent  of  clay  :  and  Glucinium, 
Yttrium,  Thorium,  and  Zirconium,  are  rare  metals,  found  in  the 
remaining  earths,  technically  so  called. 

Of  the  sapho-metals,  or  metals  commonly  found  as  such,  seven 
were  known  to  the  ancients ;  to  which  the  alchemists  gave  the  names 


CHEMISTRY.  371 

of  the  planets :  calling  Gold,  Sol,  or  the  sun ;  Silver,  Luna,  Diana, 
or  the  Moon  ;  Quicksilver,  Mercury  ;  Copper,  Venus  ;  Iron,  Mars  ; 
Tin,  Jupiter ;  and  Lead,  Saturn.  Of  these,  gold  and  silver  are 
highly  valuable  for  their  rarity  and  durability ;  and  mercury  is  the 
only  metal  which  is  liquid  at  common  temperatures.  Red  lead,  is  an 
oxide  of  lead  ;  red  precipitate,  is  an  oxide  of  mercury  ;  calomel  and 
corrosive  sublimate  are  chlorides,  and  vermilion  is  a  sulphuret  of 
mercury.  Eight  other  metals  were  discovered  before  the  Lavoisierian 
revolution  in  Chemistry ;  namely,  Antimony,  Arsenic,  Bismuth, 
Zinc,  Cobalt,  Nickel,  Manganese,  and  Platinum.  Of  these  metals, 
Antimony  is  brittle ;  Arsenic,  volatile ;  Bismuth,  heavy,  and  of  a 
reddish  tinge ;  Zinc,  hard,  and  easily  combustible ;  Cobalt,  and 
Nickel,  are  rare  metals,  and,  like  iron,  magnetic  ;  Manganese,  resem- 
bles iron,  but  is  never  used  in  the  arts,  though  its  black  oxide  is 
employed  for  obtaining  oxygen  ;  and  Platinum,  is  the  heaviest  of  all 
metals,  hard  to  oxidize  or  melt,  and  hence  of  peculiar  use  in  thwarts. 
The  fifteen  remaining  metals,  more  recently  discovered,  are  rare,  and 
of  less  importance.  They  are  Cadmium,  resembling  tin  ;  Chromium, 
forming  rich  colored  salts ;  and  Columbium,  Molybdenum,  Tita- 
nium, Tellurium,  Tungsten,  Vanadium,  Uranium,  Cerium,  Lata- 
nium,  Osmium,  Rhodium,  Palladium,  and  Iridium.  Several  of  the 
metals,  as  Arsenic,  Antimony,  and  Chromium,  form  acids  with 
oxygen  ;  and  they  all,  except  arsenic,  by  rusting,  form  oxides,  which 
may  become  bases  of  salts.  On  the  properties  and  uses  of  the 
metals,  some  farther  remarks  will  be  made  in  the  subsequent  branch 
of  Hylurgy. 

Among  the  more  important  salts,  Glauber's  salt  is  the  sulphate 
of  soda,  and  Epsom  salt,  the  sulphate  of  magnesia.  Alum,  is  a 
double  sulphate  of  alumina  and  potassa ;  Green  vitriol,  or  copperas, 
is  a  sulphate  of  iron  ;  White  vitriol,  the  sulphate  of  zinc  ;  and  Blue 
vitriol,  the  sulphate  of  copper.  Nitre,  or  saltpetre,  is  the  nitrate 
of  potassa ;  and  Lunar  caustic,  is  the  nitrate  of  silver.  Pearlash, 
and  Potash,  and  salt  of  tartar,  are  carbonates  of  potassa ;  Kelp,  and 
Barilla,  are  carbonates  of  soda ;  Blue  verditer,  is  a  sub-carbonate 
of  copper ;  and  White  lead  is  a  carbonate  of  lead.  Borax,  is  a 
borate  of  soda ;  and  Glass,  a  sub-silicate  of  potassa.  Chrome  yel- 
low, is  a  chromate  of  lead ;  and  Scheele's  green,  is  the  arsenite  of 
copper.  Prussian  blue,  is  a  complex  salt,  of  iron,  carbon,  and 
nitrogen.  Sal  ammoniac,  is  the  hydrochlorate  of  ammonia ;  and 
Hartshorn,  and  smelling  salts,  are  carbonates  of  ammonia.  Cream 
of  tartar  is  the  bi-tartrate,  Soluble  tartar,  the  neutral  tartrate,  and 
Salt  of  lemons,  the  oxalate,  of  potassa ;  the  latter  being  poisonous. 
Verdigris,  is  an  acetate  of  copper ;  and  Sugar  of  lead,  is  an  acetate 
of  lead. 

§  3.  Organic  Chemistry,  is  that  division  of  this  science  which  treats 
of  animal  and  vegetable  substances.  Most  vegetable  substances,  are 
chiefly  composed  of  carbon,  oxygen,  and  hydrogen  ;  and  most  animal 
substances,  contain  these  elements,  together  with  nitrogen  ;  in  both 
cases  forming  very  complex  combinations.  Vegetable  substances 
may  be  classed  as  acids ;  alkalies ;  aliments ;  oils  and  resins  ;  alco- 
hol and  ethers ;  nitrogenous  compounds ;  and  coloring  matters. 


372  ACROPHYSICS. 

Among  the  vegetable  acids,  are  the  oxalic,  which  is  poisonous ;  the 
acetic,  which  is  the  basis  of  vinegar ;  the  tartaric,  obtained  from 
crude  tartar  in  the  lees  of  wine ;  and  the  gallic,  obtained  from  gall 
nuts,  and  used  for  ink,  and  dyeing.  The  chief  vegetable  alkalies,  are 
morphia,  and  narcotina,  from  opium ;  and  cinchona  and  quinia 
from  Peruvian  bark.  Among  the  vegetable  aliments,  are  sugar, 
starch,  and  gum ;  which,  by  fermentation,  produce  alcohol,  and  after- 
wards vinegar :  and  among  the  nitrogenous  compounds  are  gluten, 
vegetable  albumen,  and  yeast.  Indigo,  one  of  the  most  important 
coloring  matters,  also  contains  nitrogen. 

Animal  substances,  besides  the  elements  above  mentioned,  fre- 
quently contain  sulphur,  phosphorus,  chlorine,  potassium,  sodium, 
lime,  magnesia,  and  iron.  Among  the  animal  constituents,  are  fibrin, 
obtained  from  muscular  flesh;  gelatin,  or  glue,  from  the  skins,  car- 
tilages, and  tendons ;  and  albumen,  from  the  white  of  eggs,  found 
also  in  the  blood  :  these  being  the  chief  constituents  of  the  fleshy 
parts,  and  composed  essentially  of  the  four  elements  named  at  the 
head  of  this  section.  It  is  remarkable  that  while  some  vegetable 
substances  contain  nitrogen,  and  hence  are  peculiarly  subject  to  the 
putrefactive  fermentation;  the  animal  oils,  tallow,  and  fat,  do  not 
contain  nitrogen,  and  hence  are  more  permanent  compounds.  When 
the  oils  or  fats  are  boiled  with  potassa,  or  soda,  they  are  converted 
into  distinct  acids,  the  rnargaric,  oleic,  and  stearic,  which  unite  with 
these  alkalies,  and  form  soaps.  The  bones  of  animals,  consist  chiefly 
of  carbonate  and  phosphate  of  lime  ;  and  the  blood  contains  all  the 
chemical  elements  which  are  found  in  the  bodies  that  it  nourishes. 

§  4.  The  object  of  Analytic  Chemistry,  is  to  examine  substances 
and  discover  of  what  chemical  elements  or  constituents  they  are 
composed.  This  it  does,  by  a  variety  of  means,  which  we  have  here 
no  room  to  describe,  but  of  which  some  examples  may  be  presented. 
A  substance  containing  free  carbon,  or  carbon  combined  with  hy- 
drogen, will  burn  with  oxygen  ;  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas  and  watery 
vapor,  may  be  collected,  and  measured,  or  weighed.  Substances 
which  will  not  burn,  are  often  soluble  in  water  or  some  other  liquid  ; 
and  in  such  cases  they  may  often  be  tested  by  the  precipitates  which 
they  form.  Thus,  all  the  sapho-metals,  or  higher  metals,  may  be 
precipitated  from  their  solutions,  by  adding  the  hydrosulphate  of  am- 
monia, or  any  soluble  hydrosulphate  ;  and  several  of  the  metals  may 
be  distinguished  at  once,  by  the  color  of  the  irsulphurets  thus  preci- 
pitated. Substances  containing  silicic  acid,  as  sand,  quartz,  or  flint, 
may  be  rendered  soluble  in  water  by  heating  them  to  redness  with 
a  large  dose  of  potassa  or  soda :  and  the  silicic  acid  may  be  separated, 
by  its  becoming  insoluble  on  evaporating  the  solution  to  dryness. 
Among  the  best  means  of  testing  substances,  is  the  use  of  the  blow- 
pipe ;  which  by  the  acid  of  certain  fusible  salts,  called  fluxes,  will 
melt  most  substances  and  produce  certain  characteristic  effects. 


XI.  DEPARTMENT: 

IDIOPHYSICS. 


IN  the  department  of  Idiophysics,  we  include  the  immediate  study 
of  the  various  productions  of  nature,  animal,  vegetable,  and  mineral ; 
with  their  classification  and  description  ;  their  relations,  and  origin  ; 
as  far  as  these  latter  can  be  ascertained.  The  name  is  from  the 
Greek  tScoj,  special  or  particular,  and  <J>V<H$,  nature;  as  this  depart- 
ment examines  the  individual  objects  in  nature,  of  which  the  preced- 
ing department  traced  only  the  phenomena,  and  general  laws.  The 
name  Idiophysics,  here  introduced,  is  nearly  synonymous  with  the 
term  Natural  History :  but  the  latter  term  is  sometimes  used  in  a 
more  limited  sense,  as  when  it  is  made  to  exclude  Geology :  though 
this  science  belongs,  we  think,  essentially  to  the  same  group.  In 
treating  of  the  animal  kingdom,  a  place  must  necessarily  be  assigned 
to  the  human  race,  as  the  head  of  this  division :  but  the  more  im- 
mediate study  of  the  human  frame,  will  be  reserved  for  the  follow- 
ing department,  that  of  the  Medical  Sciences. 

The  popular  division  of  natural  objects,  into  the  three  kingdoms 
of  nature,  as  they  have  long  been  called, — animal,  vegetable,  and 
mineral,— gives  rise  to  the  corresponding  sciences  of  Zoology,  Bo- 
tany, and  Mineralogy ;  which  have  been  also  termed  the  classifi- 
catory  sciences,  for  reasons  soon  to  be  explained.  But  Geology  is 
also  a  classificatory  science  ;  inasmuch  as  it  classifies,  on  a  grand 
scale,  the  rocky  strata  and  mountain  masses  which  compose  the  outer 
covering  of  our  globe.  And  although  Geology  borrows  from  Aero- 
physics  the  general  laws  and  principles  which  it  uses,  in  examining 
the  structure  and  revolutions  of  the  earth  ;  the  other  sciences  of  this 
department  do  the  same,  whenever  they  find  occasion.  Thus,  the 
Zoologist  employs  the  laws  of  Mechanics,  in  studying  animal  mo- 
tion ;  and  the  Mineralogist,,  particularly,  is  guided  by  the  light  of 
Chemistry,  in  his  difficult  and  often  dubiou's  path.  In  arranging 
these  sciences  among  themselves,  we  have  been  governed  by  the 
consideration  that  Geology  is  absolutely  dependent  on  all  the  others, 
for  the  means  of  its  advancement :  since  a  knowledge  of  Zoology, 
and  even  of  Botany,  is  necessary  to  the  study  of  the  organic  re- 
mains, from  which  Geology  derives  many  of  its  most  important 
conclusions.  We  have  therefore  placed  Geology  last  in  this  group, 
although  it  thereby  interrupts  the  connexion  between  Zoology  and 
the  Medical  Sciences. 

As  the  study  of  Idiophysics,  essentially  requires  the  means  of 
distinguishing  each  object,  of  which  it  treats,  it  should  be  based  on 
a  classification  of  all  natural  objects;  or  a  System  of  Nature; 
founded  on  the  most  permanent  and  important  properties,  or  pecu- 
liarities, of  these  objects ;  and  so  arranging  them,  that  those  which 

2 1  373 


374  IDIOPHTSICS. 

agree  most  nearly,  or  have  the  strongest  points  of  resemblance,  may 
come  next  to  each  other  in  the  system.  Such  a  system  may  be 
formed  of  a  series  of  divisions,  each  more  comprehensive  than  the 
preceding,  and  characterized  by  some  more  general  property,  till  we 
come  to  the  last  and  highest  gradation  in  the  scale.  Thus,  each 
kingdom  of  nature  is  divided  into  classes,  founded  on  the  most 
prominent  distinctions ;  these  are  subdivided  into  orders,  founded 
on  the  chief  distinctions  among  objects  of  the  same  class  ;  and  the 
orders  are,  on  the  same  principle,  subdivided  into  genera;  and 
these,  in  like  manner,  are  composed  of  species,  among  which  all  the 
individual  objects  may  be  distributed.  The  most  natural  system  of 
classification,  is,  we  think,  that  in  which  the  chief  divisions  are 
founded  on  the  most  important  distinctions ;  and  in  which  objects 
that  most  resemble  each  other,  are  placed  nearest  together.  Any 
other  system,  founded  on  minor  distinctions,  may  be  characteristi- 
cally termed  artificial. 

The  laws  of  organic  life,  are,  generally,  not  so  easily  tested  by 
experiment,  as  those  of  inanimate  matter :  hence  Zoology,  and 
Botany,  are  sciences  rather  of  observation,  than  of  experiment ; 
though  often  aided  by  the  latter  also.  They  are,  however,  governed 
by  definite  laws,  no  less  remarkable  than  those  of  the  inanimate 
world.  Among  these,  we  would  mention,  that  objects  which 
resemble  each  other  in  external  form,  are  likely  also  to  have  strong 
resemblances  of  internal  structure,  and  general  properties.  The 
essential  law,  by  which  all  living  beings,  both  animals  and  plants, 
are  governed,  is  that  of  final  causes,  or  conditions  of  existence;  by 
which,  their  structure  and  functions,  must  be  adapted  to  their  habita- 
tion, and  the  circumstances  in  which  they  are  placed.  By  this  law, 
beasts  of  prey  must  be  swift  to  seize,  and  strong  to  hold,  their 
victims ;  birds,  that  dig  for  insects,  must  have  sharp  and  hard  bills  ; 
and  fishes,  living  under  water,  must  have  corresponding  organs  of 
motion,  as  well  as  a  different  mode  of  respiration  from  that  of 
animals  surrounded  by  the  air  alone.  To  trace  this  principle 
throughout  the  living  world,  in  plants,  as  well  as  animals,  would 
require  many  volumes ;  and  would  afford  to  Natural  Theology,  the 
strongest  proofs  of  design,  and  of  wisdom,  in  the  Creation. 

The  existence  of  final  causes,  and  the  marks  of  design,  are  also 
numerous  in  the  mineral,  as  well  as  the  organic  kingdoms  of  nature. 
Thus,  iron,  and  the  more  useful  metals,  are  found  the  most  abun- 
dantly scattered  over  the  earth ;  while  arsenic,  and  the  other  less 
useful,  or  even  deleterious  elements,  are  comparatively  rare.  Thus, 
again,  volcanoes,  which  seem  at  first  view  to  be  agents  of  waste 
and  destruction,  serve  rather  as  chimneys  to  the  subterranean  fires, 
to  give  vent  to  the  confined  gases,  and  prevent  the  recurrence  of 
extensive  and  devastating  earthquakes.  On  the  uses  of  Idiophysical 
studies,  we  have  no  room  to  descant ;  though  they  are  numerous  ; 
not  only  in  their  applications  to  the  various  arts,  to  the  materials  for 
which  they  specially  relate ;  but  also  as  a  means  of  recreation,  a 
gratification  of  laudable  curiosity,  and  a  clue  to  the  designs  of  the 
Great  Author  of  nature  ;  whose  Works,  and  whose  Revelation,  if 
rightly  interpreted,  must  necessarily  accord  with  each  other. 


ZOOLOGY.  375 

The  history  of  Idiophysics,  might  be  traced  back,  at  least  to  the 
time  of  Solomon ;  who  discoursed  largely  of  plants  and  animals ; 
though  his  writings,  if  he  wrote  upon  these  subjects,  are  lost. 
Aristotle,  is  generally  regarded  as  the  founder  of  Natural  History ; 
aided,  as  he  was,  by  the  munificence  of  Alexander,  in  procuring  rare 
specimens  of  plants  and  animals  from  the  east.  Among  the  Romans, 
Pliny  wrote  extensively  on  Natural  History  ;  but  his  writings  are 
full  of  fables  and  exaggeration ;  though  less  so  than  those  of  JElian. 
After  the  lapse  of  the  dark  ages,  Conrad  Gesner,  who  has  been 
styled  the  German  Pliny,  wrote  a  history  of  animals,  and  gave  a 
classification  of  plants,  according  to  the  character  of  the  seeds  and 
flowers.  Aldrovandi,  of  Bologna,  also  wrote  voluminously  on 
Zoology  and  Dendrology ;  but  his  works  are  deficient  both  in 
system  and  accuracy.  Belon's  works,  on  Ornithology,  and  Ichthy- 
ology, published  about  1555,  were  the  harbinger  of  a  brighter  age; 
but  the  first  decided  improvements  in  the  method,  of  arranging  and 
studying  natural  objects,  are  found  in  Lister's  Zoological  works,  the 
first  of  which  appeared  in  1678  ;  and,  next  to  these,  in  Willoughby's 
Ornithology  and  Ichthyology,  and  Ray's  Mazology  and  Entomology. 

The  first  writer  who  ever  gave  to  the  world  an  entire  System  of 
Nature,  comprehending  a  classification  of  animals,  plants,  and 
minerals,  was  the  celebrated  Linnaeus  :  who  did  more  than  any 
other  person  has  ever  done,  towards  the  advancement  of  this  depart- 
ment of  knowledge.  The  system  of  Linnaeus  was  first  made  public 
about  the  year  1730 ;  and  soon  found  a  numerous  school  of  admirers 
and  improvers.  Buffbn,  though  not  a  profound  observer,  nor  a 
systematic  naturalist,  gave  a  new  interest  to  the  study  of  Idiophysics, 
by  the  vivacity  of  his  style,  and  the  amusing  information  which,  by 
the  aid  of  his  friend  Daubenton,  he  was  enabled  to  diffuse  through 
his  voluminous  work.  Among  all  the  successors  of  Linnaeus,  none 
has  done  more  for  Natural  History  than  Cuvier ;  as  well  in  his 
Regne  Animal,  or  work  on  the  animal  kingdom  ;  as  in  his  exten- 
sive and  thorough  investigations  of  the  fossil  or  organic  remains,  of 
former  races  of  animals  ;  many  of  which  are  now  extinct,  but  still, 
by  the  labors  of  this  naturalist,  are  almost  as  well  known  to  us,  as 
if  they  were  still  living  in  our  presence. 

With  these  general  remarks,  we  come  to  the  individual  branches 
of  Idiophysics  ;  which  are  Zoology,  Botany,  Mineralogy,  and 
Geology. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ZOOLOGY. 


ZOOLOGY  is  that  branch  of  Natural  History  which  treats  of  ani- 
mals ;  their  appearance,  structure,  and  functions ;  their  classification 
and  distribution  ;  their  instincts  and  their  habits.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  £coos,  living,  or,  Cwoi/,  an  animal ;  and  a.oyoj,  a 
discourse.  An  animal,  may  be  defined  as  a  living  being,  having 


376  IDIOPHYSICS. 

parts  or  members,  more  or  less  numerous,  which  are  requisite  to  its 
complete  structure ;  endowed,  like  plants,  with  organs  of  growth 
and  reproduction ;  but  differing  from  plants  in  possessing  volition, 
or  the  power  of  voluntary  action,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  varying 
with  the  different  races.  In  other  words,  animals  are  characterized 
by  the  attributes  of  life,  motion,  and  organized  form.  It  should  be 
observed,  however,  that  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms  of  nature 
are  connected  by  transitions  so  gradual,  that  it  has  been  a  difficult 
point  to  ascertain  their  common  boundary.  The  study  of  animals, 
is  a  very  extensive  one,  and  possesses  high  interest ;  especially  to 
the  agriculturist,  the  sportsman,  and  the  devout  student  of  nature. 

To  the  Zoological  labours  of  Aristotle,  Pliny,  Gesner,  and  Aldro- 
vandi,  we  have  already  alluded,  in  the  introduction  to  this  department ; 
where  the  writings  of  Belon,  Lister,  Willoughby,  and  Ray,  were  also 
mentioned,  as  commencing  a  new  era  in  Zoology,  of  which  Linnaeus 
was  the  rising  sun.  Linnaeus  subdivided  the  animal  kingdom  into 
six  classes ;  founded  chiefly  on  the  respiratory  and  sanguineous 
organs;  and  arranged  as  follows:  1.  Mammalia,  animals  which 
have  warm,  red  blood,  and  nourish  their  young  at  the  breast,  being 
mostly  quadrupeds  ;  2.  Jives,  or  birds,  which  have  warm  red  blood, 
but  produce  their  young  from  eggs,  and  are  hence  called  oviparous  ; 
3.  Amphibia,  or  reptiles,  which  have  cold,  red  blood,  and  voluntary 
respiration ;  4.  Pisces,  or  fishes,  which  have  cold,  red  blood,  and 
breathe  by  means  of  gills ;  5.  Insecta,  or  insects,  which  have  the 
sanies,  a  fluid  in  the  place  of  blood,  cold  and  colorless,  and  are  pro- 
vided with  antennae,  or  horns ;  and,  6.  Vermes,  or  worms,  with 
sanies  cold  and  colorless,  and  tentacula,  or  fleshy  feelers,  instead  of 
antennae.  These  classes,  Linnaeus  subdivided  into  orders  ;  those  of 
quadrupeds  characterized  chiefly  by  the  teeth  and  feet ;  those  of 
birds,  by  the  beak  and  the  feet ;  those  of  fishes,  by  the  lower  fin  ; 
and  those  of  insects,  by  the  wings.  This  classification,  founded  on 
real  distinctions,  established  Zoology  on  a  firm  basis,  though  occa- 
sionally imperfect,  and  still  incomplete. 

Zoology  was  rendered  still  more  popular,  by  the  fascinating 
writings  of  Buflbn,  already  referred  to;  and  in  England  it  acquired 
a  new  interest,  from  the  attractive,  though  still  less  accurate  pen  of 
Goldsmith.  The  Theatrum  Insectorum  of  Mouffet,  in  1634,  was 
the  first  zoological  work  ever  printed  in  England  ;  and  the  works  of 
Margrave,  on  Brazil,  and  Bontius,  on  India,  were  the  first  local 
Faunas,  or  natural  histories  of  particular  regions.  The  work  of 
Ellis,  on  Corallines,  served  to  correct  the  views  of  Linnaeus,  by 
proving  that  these  productions  were  of  animal  origin.  Ichthyology 
was  farther  improved  by  Artedi  and  Bloch ;  and  Entomology,  by  Fa- 
bricius  and  Kirby,  before  the  era  of  Cuvier.  The  system  of  Lin- 
naeus was  an  artificial  one,  not  always  developing  the  most  important 
relations  of  the  animals  which  it  classified.  By  studying  the  func- 
tions of  animals,  and  their  conditions  of  existence,  Cuvier  was 
enabled  to  produce  a  more  natural  system,  which  by  the  aid  of  La- 
marck, in  Conchology,  and  Latreille,  in  Entomology,  he  developed 
in  his  Regne  Animal;  a  work  of  the  highest  order  of  merit. 

Among  the  more  recent  zoologists,  we  may  mention  Geoffroy  St. 


ZOOLOGY.  377 

Hilaire,  and  Illiger,  who  have  made  quadrupeds  their  particular  study ; 
Temminck  and  Audubon,  as  ornithologists  ;  and  Agassiz  and  Strack, 
as  ichthyologists  ;  who  have  extended  the  boundaries  of  this  science, 
by  additions  and  corrections.  The  doctrine  of  a  circular  progres- 
sion, in  the  arrangement  and  relation  of  animals,  propounded  princi- 
pally by  Mr.  Macleay,  is  doubtless  true  in  part ;  and  exhibits  the 
same  complexity  in  the  classification  of  animals,  which  we  have 
already  noticed  in  the  classification  of  the  various  branches  of  know- 
ledge. In  our  own  country,  Dr.  Godman  has  written  ably  on  quad- 
rupeds ;  as  Wilson,  Nuttall,  and  Audubon,  have  done  on  birds  ;  and 
Lea  on  shells.  The  invaluable  collection  of  specimens  made  by 
Mr.  Peale,  and  now  in  the  Philadelphia  Museum,  deserves,  we  think, 
to  be  mentioned,  even  in  this  brief  enumeration. 

We  proceed  to  describe  the  Zoological  system  of  Cuvier,  under 
the  popular  heads  of,  1.  Zoonomy ;  2.  Mazology;  3.  Ornithology; 
4.  Herpetology;  5.  Ichthyology;  6.  Arthrology;  and,  7.  Actinology. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Zoonomy,  including  Comparative  Ana- 
tomy, and  Animal  Physiology,  we  would  treat  of  the  general  struc- 
ture and  functions  of  animals.  Every  organic  body,  whether  animal 
or  plant,  has  a  peculiar  and  definite  form;  which  form  it  continues 
to  possess,  although,  by  accretion  and  excretion,  the  materials  of 
which  it  is  composed  may  be  changed.  All  organic  bodies  have 
also  a  peculiar  structure  ;  consisting  of  solid  fibres,  or  layers,  enclos- 
ing cellular,  or  tubular  cavities,  for  containing  the  fluids  necessary 
for  their  nutrition ;  the  whole  constituting  what  has  been  called  an 
areolar  tissue,  which  is  essential  to  every  living  body.  Of  this 
tissue,  there  are,  in  animals,  three  different  kinds ;  the  cellular  sub- 
stance, consisting  chiefly  of  gelatine,  which  forms  the  various  mem- 
branes, cartilages,  and  vessels  that  contain  fluids,  and  which,  indu- 
rated by  earthy  matter,  forms  the  bones  :  the  muscular  fibre,  con- 
sisting chiefly  of  fibrine,  and  constituting  the  muscles,  whose  con- 
tractile power  is  the  immediate  cause  of  animal  motion ;  and  the 
medullary  matter,  a  pulpy  substance,  which  chiefly  constitutes  the 
brain,  the  spinal  marrow,  and  the  nerves,  by  whose  agency  the  mind 
acts  on  the  muscles,  to  cause  their  contraction,  and  thus  produce 
voluntary  motion.  This  effect  is  doubtless  connected  with  galvanic 
action  ;  but  the  manner  and  laws  of  this  action  are  still  a  mystery. 

The  growth  of  animals,  is  owing  to  the  absorption  and  assimila- 
tion of  fluids,  derived  from  their  food:  while  their  healthiness  is 
preserved  by  the  exhalation  or  excretion  of  noxious  and  superfluous 
matter.  Having  increased  in  bulk  to  their  natural  limit,  animals 
acquire  an  increase  of  density,  in  most  of  their  parts,  which  pre- 
cedes, and  perhaps  causes  their  decay  and  ultimate  death.  The 
races  would  therefore  become  extinct  without  the  power  of  repro- 
duction ;  which  is  perhaps  the  greatest  mystery  of  life.  The  most 
essential  of  the  animal  fluids,  is  the  blood,  or,  in  lower  animals,  the 
sanies,  which  takes  its  place ;  circulating  through  the  system,  and 
supplying  nutriment  to  every  part,  while  it  absorbs  and  removes  any 
superfluous  or  deleterious  matter.  The  blood  is  elaborated  from  the 
food,  by  means  of  the  alimentary  system:  and,  by  means  of  the 
respiratory  system,  it  is  purified  and  vivified  during  the  process  of 
48  2  i  2 


378  IDIOPHYSICS. 

breathing.  More  full  details  of  animal  structure  and  functions,  we 
must  reserve  for  the  next  department ;  in  which  the  study  of  the 
human  frame  will  be  a  clue  to  that  of  the  inferior  races.  Of  animal 
intelligence,  including  instinct,  or  a  natural  spontaneous  impulse  to 
perform  certain  actions,  we  can  only  say  that  it  differs  from  the 
human  intellect,  not  so  much  in  kind  as  in  degree  ;  and  that  man's 
sense  of  divine  dependence  and  accountability  are  the  strongest  proofs 
of  his  superior  rank  in  the  scale  of  existence,  as  the  connecting  link 
between  the  creatures  of  earth  and  of  heaven. 

In  the  arrangement  of  Cuvier  and  his  coadjutors,  animals  are  classed 
under  the  four  great  divisions  of  Vertebrata,  Mollusca,  Articulata, 
and  Radiata.  The  Vertebrata,  including  quadrupeds,  birds,  reptiles, 
and  fishes,  all  have  red  blood,  and  a  muscular  heart,  which  acts  as 
a  forcing  pump  to  circulate  the  blood  ;  with  distinct  organs  for  seeing, 
hearing,  smelling  and  tasting,  associated  in  the  head  or  face  ;  with 
distinct  sexes,  and  never  more  than  four  limbs ;  and  with  a  skeleton, 
or  at  least  a  spine,  or  back  bone  ;  from  the  joints  of  which  this  divi- 
sion of  animals  derives  its  name.  They  all  have  a  stomach ;  and  all 
have  lungs,  except  the  fishes,  which  have  branchia3,  or  gills,  in  their 
stead.  The  vertebrated  animals,  from  their  more  perfect  organiza- 
tion, their  higher  importance  in  the  economy  of  nature,  and  their 
greater  interest  to  mankind,  will  form  the  subject  of  the  next  four 
sections,  in  this  outline  of  Zoology. 

§  2.  Mazology,  treats  of  mammalia,  or  animals  which  nourish 
their  young  at  the  breast ;  including  all  quadrupeds,  except  reptiles  ; 
together  with  the  whale,  dolphin,  and  porpoise,  or  family  of  Cetacea, 
the  study  of  which  is  sometimes  termed  Cetology.  The  mammalia 
are  all  viviparous;  producing  their  young  alive,  and  nourishing 
them  with  milk.  They  have  a  double  circulation  of  the  blood ; 
which  passes  from  the  heart  to  the  lungs,  and  thence  back  to  the 
heart,  before  again  pervading  the  system :  but  their  respiration  is 
simple,  that  is,  performed  by  the  lungs  only.  They  are  divided  into 
orders  ;  characterized  by  the  structure  of  their  limbs,  and  by  their 
organs  of  manducation,  or  those  which  serve  to  tear  and  chew  their 
food,  as  the  teeth  and  claws ;  for  on  these  parts  their  mode  of  life 
chiefly  depends.  The  first  order,  Bimana,  is  confined  to  the  human 
race  ;  characterized  physically  by  having  two  hands,  with  thumbs 
placed  opposite  to  their  fingers,  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  small 
objects.  Of  the  different  races  of  men,  or  rather  varieties  of  the 
human  race,  (for  they  are  not  sufficiently  distinct  to  form  species), 
we  have  already  spoken  under  Physical  Geography,  (p.  164). 

The  second  order,  Quadrumana,  or  animals  having  four  hand- 
like  extremities,  includes  the  whole  race  of  monkeys ;  among  which 
are  the  orang-outang,  the  gibbon,  baboon,  magot,  mandrel,  ouistiti, 
and  lemur.  The  third  order,  Carnaria,  or  flesh  eating  animals, 
comprises  the  families  Cheiroptera,  the  bat  and  vampyre  ;  Insectivora, 
the  hedgehog,  shrew  and  mole ;  and  Carnivora,  including  the  bear, 
raccoon,  badger  and  glutton;  the  weasel,  marten,  skunk,  and  otter; 
the  dog,  wolf,  fox,  and  hyaena;  the  lion,  tiger,  leopard,  lynx,  and 
cat ;  and  the  seal,  morse,  and  walrus.  The  fourth  order,  Marsu- 
piala,  or  pouched  animals,  comprises  the  opossum,  phalanger,  kan- 


ZOOLOGY.  379 

guroo,  and  wombat :  the  fifth  order,  Rodentia,  or  gnawing  animals, 
includes  the  squirrel,  rat,  mouse,  marmot,  jerboa,  beaver,  porcupine, 
and  hare :  and  the  sixth  order,  Edentata,  or  quadrupeds  without 
front  teeth,  includes  the  sloth,  the  extinct  megatherium,  or  megalonyx ; 
the  armadillo  and  anteater.  The  seventh  order,  P  achy  dermal  a,  or 
thick  skinned  animals,  comprises  the  elephant,  the  extinct  mastodon, 
the  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  tapir,  and  swine ;  the  extinct  anopio- 
therium,  and  palaeotherium,  and  the  horse  :  and  the  eighth  order, 
Ruminantia,  or  animals  which  chew  the  cud,  includes  the  camel, 
lama,  deer,  giraffe,  antelope,  goat,  sheep,  and  ox.  The  ninth  order, 
Cetacea,  or  the  whale  tribe,  includes  the  manatus  or  sea  cow,  the 
dolphin,  porpoise,  and  whale. 

§  3.  Ornithology,  is  that  division  of  Zoology  which  treats  of 
birds.  They  are  vertebrated  animals ;  oviparous,  or  producing  eggs, 
with  double  systems  of  circulation  and  respiration;  with  a  feathery 
or  downy  covering,  long  naked  jaws  or  beak,  two  feet,  and  two 
wings  formed  for  flying.  They  are  divided  into  orders,  according  to 
the  structure  of  the  beak  and  feet,  as  indicating  their  mode  of  living. 
The  first  order,  jlccipitres,  or  birds  of  prey,  comprehends  the  vul- 
tures, among  which  is  the  condor ;  and  the  falcons,  among  which  are 
the  eagle,  goshawk,  kite,  and  buzzard  ;  together  with  the  distinct 
family  of  the  owls.  The  second  order,  Passerine,  or  sparrowlike 
birds,  comprises  the  Dentirostres,  or  the  shrike,  fly  catcher,  thrush, 
mocking  bird,  oriole,  nightingale,  wren,  and  meadow  lark ;  the  Fis- 
sirostres,  or  swallow  and  whip-poor-will ;  the  Conirostres,  or  the  lark, 
sparrow,  finch,  linnet,  starling,  crow,  rook,  pie,  and  jay  ;  the  Tenui- 
rostres,  or  the  humming  bird  and  hoopoe ;  and  the  Syndactiles,  or 
the  kingfisher  and  hornbill.  The  third  order,  Scansores,  or  climbers, 
includes  the  woodpecker,  cuckoo,  toucan,  and  parrot :  and  the  fourth 
order,  Gallinacese,  or  fowl-like  birds,  includes  the  hocco,  peacock, 
turkey,  pheasant,  domestic  fowl,  grouse,  partridge,  quail,  pigeon,  and 
dove.  The  fifth  order,  Grallatorise,  or  stilted  birds,  includes  the 
Brevipennes,  or  ostrich  and  cassowary  ;  the  Pressirostres  or  bustard, 
plover,  and  lapwing:  the  Cultirostres,  or  crane,  boatbill,  heron,  bit- 
tern, stork,  pelican,  and  spoonbill ;  the  Longirostres,  or  ibis,  curlew, 
snipe,  woodcock,  sandpiper,  ruff,  and  avoset ;  and  the  Macrodactyles, 
or  the  rail,  coot,  water  hen,  sheathbill,  and  flamingo.  The  sixth 
order,  Palmipedes,  or  webfooted  birds,  includes  the  Brachypteres,  or 
diver,  pufHn,  and  penguin ;  the  Longipennes,  or  the  petrel,  albatross, 
gull,  tern,  and  skimmer;  the  Totipalmes,  or  the  pelican,  cormorant, 
and  booby ;  and  the  Lamellirostres,  as  the  swan,  goose,  duck,  and 
merganser. 

§  4.  Herpetology,  treats  of  amphibia  or  reptiles,  such  as  the  tor- 
toise, lizard,  serpent,  and  frog.  The  study  of  serpents  is  also  termed 
Ophiology.  Reptiles,  are  cold,  red  blooded  animals,  oviparous, 
producing  eggs  with  soft  shells,  which  hatch  spontaneously ;  and 
they  are  called  amphibia,  because  most  of  them. can  live  a  long  time 
under  water,  as  well  as  on  land  ;  and  some  of  them  can  live  entirely 
without  air  for  a  long  time.  They  have  a  heart  with  but  one  ventri- 
cle, producing  only  a  single  circulation  ;  and  their  lungs  receive  only 
a  part  of  the  blood  which  enters  the  heart :  hence  their  respiration 


380  IDIOPHYSICS. 

is  languid,  and  their  motion  generally  slow.  The  first  order  of  rep- 
tiles, Chelonia,  or  tortoises,  have  hard  shells  covering  their  backs, 
and  thinner  ones  on  the  under  side ;  with  four  feet,  which  like  the 
head  can  be  either  drawn  in,  or  protruded,  as  in  the  land  turtle. 
The  second  order,  Sauria,  or  lizard-like  animals,  covered  with  scales, 
and  most  of  them  having  four  feet  and  long  tails,  includes  the  extinct 
Ichthyosauri,  with  the  plesiosaurus,  and  megalosaurus ;  the  Crpcodili, 
or  crocodile  and  alligator ;  the  Lacertidae,  or  lizards  ;  the  Stellionidae, 
or  dragon,  and  ancient  pterodactylus ;  the  Iguanidae,  or  iguana,  and 
the  ancient  mosasaurus  and  iguanodon ;  the  Geckotidae,  or  geckos ; 
the  Chamelionidae,  or  chamelions ;  the  Scincoidae,  or  scincus ;  and 
the  Anguidae,  or  seps  and  bipes,  resembling  serpents. 

The  third  order  of  reptiles,  Ophidia,  or  serpents,  having  the  body 
exposed,  or  slightly  covered,  and  with  no  feet,  includes  the  Anguinae, 
or  glass  snake ;  the  Amphisbaenae,  so  named  from  the  head  and  tail 
appearing  alike ;  the  Colubridae,  or  boa,  anaconda,  and  blacksnake ; 
the  Viperinae,  as  the  rattlesnake,  redsnake,  viper,  adder,  and  asp  ;  and 
the  Coecilidae,  or  blindworm.  The  fourth  order,  JBatrachia,  or 
frog-like  animals,  with  the  body  naked,  and  differing  from  the  three 
preceding  orders  in  the  heart  having  but  one  auricle,  includes  the 
Anourae,  or  frog  and  toad ;  the  Urodelae,  or  salamanders ;  the  Am- 
phiumidae,  or  hellbenders  ;  and  the  Sirenidae,  or  proteus  and  siren, 
resembling  eels.  These  last  named  animals,  except  the  sirenidae, 
change  their  primary  fish-like  form,  at  a  certain  age  ;  acquiring  limbs, 
losing  their  gills,  and  afterwards  breathing  like  other  reptiles. 

§  5.  Ichthyology,  is  that  branch  of  Zoology  which  treats  of  fishes; 
the  last  division  of  vertebrated  animals.  They  live  solely  in  the 
water,  are  oviparous,  and  very  prolific ;  they  breathe  by  means  of 
branchiae,  or  gills,  consisting  of  laminae  covered  with  innumerable 
blood  vessels,  which  absorb  oxygen  from  the  air  existing  in  the 
water ;  and  most  of  them  have  a  scaly  covering,  and  swim  by  means 
of  four,  or  at  least  two  fins,  besides  the  tail :  but  in  some  of  them  the 
scales  and  fins  are  wanting.  They  are  divided  into  orders,  distin- 
guished by  the  fins  and  the  gills.  The  first  order,  Jlcanthopterygii, 
or  spiny  finned  fishes,  includes  the  Percoidae,  or  perch,  rock  fish,  and 
dragon  weaver ;  the  Buccae  loricate,  or  gurnard,  genuine  flying  fish, 
bull  head,  and  father  lasher ;  the  Sciaenoidae,  as  the  king  fish ;  the 
Sparoidae,  as  the  sheephead ;  the  Scomberoidae,  or  mackerel,  tunny, 
sword  fish,  and  pilot  fish;  the  Mugiloidae,  as  the  mullet;  the  Go- 
bioidae,  or  blenny  and  gudgeon  ;  the  Lophioidae,  as  the  angler  or  sea 
devil ;  and  the  Labroidae,  as  the  tautog  or  black  fish. 

The  next  great  division  of  fishes,  is  the  Malacopterygii,  or  fishes 
with  soft  fins,  which  compose  the  next  three  orders.  The  second 
order,  Malacopterygii  abdominales,  having  the  ventral  or  under  fin 
behind  the  pectoral  or  side  fins,  includes  the  Cyprinoidae,  or  the  carp, 
gold  fish  and  silver  fish ;  the  Esocidae,  or  pike,  and  a  kind  of  flying 
fish ;  the  Siluridae,  as  the  cat  fish ;  the  Salmonidae,  or  salmon  and 
trout ;  and  the  Clupeoidae,  or  herring,  shad,  and  anchovy.  The  third 
order,  Malacopterygii  subrachiati,  having  the  ventral  fin  under  the 
pectorals,  includes  the  Gadoidae,  or  cod,  haddock,  and  whiting;  the 
Pleuronectidae,  or  halibut,  turbot,  sole,  and  flounder ;  and  the  Disco- 


ZOOLOGY.  381 

boli,  such  as  the  lumpsucker.  The  fourth  order,  Malacopterygii 
apodes,  having  no  ventral  fin,  includes  the  common  eel,  murena,  and 
electric  eel.  The  fifth  order  of  fishes,  Lophobranchi,  having  tufted 
gills,  includes  the  sea  horse,  and  pegasus.  The  sixth  order,  Pleclo- 
gnathi,  or  fish  with  cheek  bones  knitted  to  the  jaw,  includes  the  short 
sunfish,  and  the  file  fish.  The  last  great  division  of  fishes,  Chon- 
dropterygii,  having  cartilaginous  fins,  includes  the  Sturiones,  or 
sturgeon  and  paddle  fish ;  the  Selachii,  or  shark,  angel  fish,  and 
saw  fish,  the  sting  ray,  torpedo,  and  skate ;  and  the  Suctorii,  or 
lampreys.* 

§  6.  Malacology,  including  Conchology,  treats  of  the  mollusca, 
most  of  which  are  popularly  called  shell  fish,  but  some  of  which 
live  on  the  land,  and  some  are  destitute  of  shells.  Conchology  is 
properly  the  study  of  the  shells ;  though  sometimes  applied  to  that 
of  the  animals  themselves.  The  mollusca,  Cuvier's  second  grand 
division  of  animals,  have  soft  bodies,  without  bones,  but  mostly 
protected  by  shells ;  with  a  double  circulation  of  white  blood,  in- 
cluding that  from  the  branchiae  back  to  the  heart ;  with  no  spinal 
marrow,  but  with  nervous  ganglia,  or  bunches,  connected  by  filaments ; 
having  the  senses  of  touch  and  taste ;  while  those  of  seeing,  hearing, 
and  smelling  are  mostly  wanting.  The  nautilus,  and  cuttle  fish,  hav- 
ing a  distinct  brain,  are  the  most  perfectly  organized  animals  of  this 
division ;  and  they  constitute  the  first  class,  Cephalopoda,  so  named 
from  the  feet  or  limbs  being  attached  to  the  head  ;  to  which  class  the 
fossil  belemnites  and  ammonites  probably  belong.  The  second  class, 
Pteropoda,  with  winglike  fins  attached  to  the  head,  includes  the  clio, 
and  limacina. 

The  third  class,  Gasteropoda,  having  a  fleshy  disk,  instead  of  feet, 
for  crawling,  includes  the  Pulmonea,  or  the  slug,  snail,  and  planor- 
bis ;  the  Nudibranchiata,  as  the  doris ;  the  Inferobranchiata,  as  the 
phyllidia ;  the  Tectibranchiata,  as  the  dolabella ;  the  Pectinibranchiata, 
or  trochus,  turbo,  melania,  nerita,  crepidula,  conus,  cyprea,  ovula, 
voluta,  oliva,  buccinum,  dolium,  harpa,  murex,  fusus,  and  strombus 
or  conch ;  the  Tubulibranchiata,  as  the  vermetus  ;  the  Scutibranchiata, 
as  the  halyotis ;  and  the  Cyclobranchiata,  or  patella,  and  chiton. 
The  fourth  class,  Jlcephala,  having  no  apparent  head,  includes  the 
Ostracea,  or  the  oyster,  the  pecten,  sometimes  called  scallop,  the 
anomia,  malleus,  pinna,  and  area ;  the  Mytilacea,  or  muscle,  and 
unio ;  the  Chamacea,  as  the  chama;  the  Cardiacea,  or  cardium, 
donax,  tellina,  lucina,  and  venus  ;  the  Inclusa,  as  the  mya  or  clam, 
the  sdlen  or  razor  shell,  the  pholas,  and  teredo,  all  of  which  belong 
to  the  order  Acephala  testacea ;  while  the  thalia,  ascidia,  and  botryl- 
lus,  having  no  shells,  form  the  order  Acephala  nuda.  The  fifth  class, 
Brachiopoda,  having  fleshy  arms  instead  of  feet,  includes  the  tere- 

*  Agassiz  divides  fishes  into  the  four  following  orders :  1.  Placoidians,  having  the 
skin  covered  with  enamelled  plates  ;  including  all  the  cartilaginous  fishes  of  Cuvier, 
except  the  sturgeon :  2.  Ganoidians,  having  angular  scales,  covered  with  bright 
enamel ;  among  which  are  the  bony  pike,  and  sturgeon :  3.  Ctenoidians,  having 
scales  with  rough  or  jagged  edges ;  as  the  perch ;  and  4.  Cycloidians,  having 
smooth  scales ;  as  the  herring  and  salmon. 


382  IDIOPHYSICS. 

bratula  and  orbicula  ;  and  the  sixth  class  of  mollusca,  Cirrhopoda, 
having  tufted  filaments  instead  of  feet,  includes  the  lepas  or  anatifa, 
and  the  balanus  or  barnacle.  The  shells  of  these  animals  are  dis- 
tinguished as  univalves,  bivalves,  or  multivalves;  according  as  they 
consist  of  one,  two,  or  more  pieces. 

§  7.  We  would  apply  the  name  of  Arthrology  to  the  study  of 
Cuvier's  third  grand  division  of  animals;  the  articulata ;  or  worms, 
crabs,  spiders,  and  insects,  having  jointed  trunks,  and  mostly  jointed 
limbs.  The  study  of  worms,  has  received  the  name  of  Helmintho- 
logy  ;  and  that  of  insects,  is  popularly  termed  Entomology.  The 
nervous  system  of  the  articulata,  consists  of  two  long  cords,  dilated 
at  intervals  into  knots,  called  ganglia  ;  and  their  covering  is  composed 
of  rings,  either  hard  or  soft ;  but  they  have  in  other  respects  wide 
differences,  by  which  they  are  subdivided  into  classes.  The  first 
class,  Jlnnulata,  including  red  blooded  worms,  is  the  only  class  of 
the  articulata  which  has  red  blood  :  and  it  comprises  the  Tubicolae, 
as  the  serpula,  sabella,  and  terebella,  which  have  shells  ;  the  Dorsi- 
branchiata,  having  branchiae  or  gills  along  the  back,  as  the  sand 
worm,  eunice,  and  nereis;  and  the  Abranchiata,  which  respire  only 
through  the  skin,  as  the  earth  or  angle  worm,  and  the  leech  or  blood- 
sucker. 

The  remaining  articulata,  called  by  Linnaeus  insecta,  are  dis- 
tinguished by  having  at  least  six  articulated,  that  is  jointed  feet. 
The  second  class,  Crustacea,  most  of  which  have  a  calcareous 
covering,  and  all  of  which  have  a  double  circulation  of  sanies 
or  white  blood,  includes  the  Malacostraca,  as  the  crab,  lobster, 
shrimp,  and  prawn,  the  squill,  and  the  wood  louse ;  and  the 
Entomostraca,  as  the  king  or  horseshoe  crab,  the  fish  louse,  and 
perhaps  the  fossil  trilobite.  The  third  class,  Jlrachnides,  breathing 
by  means  of  transverse  air  tubes,  called  stigmata,  includes  the  Pul- 
monariae,  or  the  spider,  tarantula,  and  scorpion ;  and  the  Trachea- 
riae,  among  which  are  the  mite  and  the  tick.  The  fourth  class, 
Insecta,  breathing  by  means  of  two  longitudinal  air  tubes,  called 
tracheae,  and  provided  with  antennae,  horns  or  feelers,  includes  the 
Myriapoda,  or  centipede,  and  scolopendra  ;  the  Thysanoura,  as  the 
podura  ;  the  Parasita,  as  the  louse  ;  the  Suctoria,  as  the  flea ;  the 
Coleoptera,  as  the  water  flea,  snap  bug,  glow-worm,  and  firefly,  the 
grub,  and  the  beetle,  the  cantharis  or  Spanish  fly,  the  weevil  fly,  the 
cow  bug,  and  lady  bug ;  the  Orthoptera,  as  the  earwig,  roach  or 
cockroach,  cricket,  and  grasshopper;  the  Hemiptera,  as  the  bed  bug; 
with  the  Homoptera,  or  locust,  and  cochineal  insect;  the  Neuroptera, 
as  the  dragon  fly,  ephemera  or  May  fly,  the  lion  ant,  and  white  ant; 
the  Hymenoptera,  as  the  saw  fly,  ichneumon  fly,  common  ant,  wasp, 
and  bee  ;  the  Lepidoptera,  or  butterfly,  moth,  and  silk  worm ;  and 
the  Diptera,  or  mosquito,  crane  fly,  horse  fly,  gad  fly,  and  the  com- 
mon fly.  Many  of  these  insects  undergo  transformations  or  meta- 
morphoses ;  taking,  when  first  hatched,  the  form  of  larvae,  as  worms 
or  caterpillars ;  which  at  length  surround  themselves  with  a  web  or 
cocoon,  and  are  then  called  pupse,  chrysalides,  anrelias,  or  nymphs  ; 
from  which  they  finally  emerge  in  their  perfect  state,  many  of  them 
with  wings  ;  prepared  to  lay  their  eggs  and' die. 


BOTANY.  383 

§  8.  Jlctinology,  or  Zoophytology,  is  the  name  applied  to  the 
study  of  Cuvier's  fourth  and  last  great  division  of  animals,  the  radiata, 
or  zoophytes  :  this  last  name  signifying  plant-like  animals.  These 
animals  generally  have  their  parts  arranged  around  an  axis,  and 
radiating  from  it.  They  have  no  distinct  circulation,  or  nervous 
system,  and  no  other  sense  than  that  of  touch ;  and  even  this,  in 
some  of  them,  is  nearly  wanting.  They  are  mostly  capable  of  loco- 
motion, and  nourished  by  digestion  of  food ;  in  which  points  they 
differ  sensibly  from  plants  ;  though  some  of  them  are  produced  by 
the  mere  separation  of  portions,  each  of  which  becomes  a  perfect 
animal.  The  first  class,  Echinodermata,  includes  the  star  fish,  sea 
urchin,  and  other  similar  genera.  The  second  class,  Entozoa,  or 
Intestini,  includes  the  Guinea  worm,  tape  worm,  and  others  which 
live  within  larger  animals.  The  third  class,  Acahplia,  includes  the 
varieties  of  sea  nettle :  the  fourth  class,  Polypi,  growing  from  the 
bottom  of  the  sea  by  stems,  like  plants,  includes  the  sea  anemone, 
tubipore,  coral  animal,  madrepore,  and  spunge :  and  the  fifth  class, 
Infusoria,  or  animalculae,  includes  all  those  small  animals  which  are 
only  visible  by  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  as  the  eel-like  animals  in 
vinegar. 


CHAPTER  II. 

BOTANY. 

BOTANY,  is  that  branch  of  Idiophysics  or  Natural  History,  which 
treats  of  plants  ;  their  structure  and  mode  of  growth;  their  classifica- 
tion, description,  localities,  and  uses.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Greek,  j3ota.vr],  an  herb  or  plant :  and  from  $vtov,  a  plant,  this 
study  is  also  termed  Phytology.  Plants,  or  vegetables,  are  organ- 
ized bodies  ;  endowed  with  life  ;  but  differing  from  animals,  in  wanting 
the  powers  of  sensation  and  voluntary  motion.  They  differ  from 
minerals,  or  inorganic  bodies,  both  in  possessing  a  principle  of  life, 
and  in  containing  a  set  of  organs,  whereby  they  assimilate  new 
matter  to  increase  their  substance  ;  in  which  consists  their  growth. 
Most  plants  have  a  root,  stem,  and  leaves  ;  and  produce  flowers,  and 
fruits,  or  seeds,  from  which  their  species  are  perpetuated  :  but  in 
some  plants  the  seeds  are  not  perceptible,  and  the  leaves  are  wholly 
wanting.  The  study  of  plants,  should  be  highly  interesting;  not 
only  from  their  beauty  and  variety,  but  from  the  important  purposes 
which  they  subserve  in  sustaining  animal  life  ;  and  the  proof,  thence 
derived,  of  the  harmonious  designs  of  the  Great  Creator. 

The  chief  ancient  writers  on  Botany,  were  Aristotle,  Theophras- 
tus,  Dioscorides,  and  especially  Pliny ;  whose  History  of  the  World 
embodies  much  of  the  botanical  knowledge  of  his  predecessors.  But 
they  formed  no  general  system  of  Botany ;  and,  after  their  times, 
this  study  declined,  until  the  modern  revival  of  learning.  The  first 
modern  work  on  Botany,  which  copied  nature,  rather  than  ancient 
authorities,  was  that  of  Brunfels,  published  in  1530.  The  arrange- 


384  IDIOPHYSICS. 

ment  of  plants  in  genera,  commenced  with  Gesner ;  but  the 
origin  of  a  natural  system  of  classification  belongs  to  Caesalpinus. 
The  description  of  plants,  was  much  improved  by  Clusius,  (or  De 
1'Ecluse)  ;  and  the  nomenclature  was  relieved  of  many  synonyms  by 
the  labors  of  the  younger  Bauhin.  New  systems  of  classification 
were  proposed,  by  Ray  in  England,  and  by  Tournefort  in  France  ; 
the  former  founded  on  the  petals  and  fruit ;  the  latter  on  the  form, 
and  presence  or  absence,  of  the  corolla  ;  but  they  both  preserved  the 
unscientific  distinction  between  herbs,  and  trees.  The  first  Flora, 
or  description  of  plants  in  one  locality,  worthy  of  notice,  was  Ray's 
Catalogue  of  Cambridge  plants,  published  in  1660. 

It  was  reserved  for  Linnaeus  to  mark  a  new  era  in  the  science  of 
Botany  ;  by  inventing  a  complete  artificial  system,  founded  on  the 
organs  of  fructification,  as  had  been  suggested  by  Quirinus  Rivinus  ; 
by  means  of  which  a  given  plant  might  be  more  readily  identified 
than  by  any  other  method.  This  system  was  adopted  by  most  of 
his  contemporaries,  except  Van  Royen,  the  Gmelins,  and  Haller, 
who  had  systems  of  their  own  :  but  it  has  the  defect  of  often  bring- 
ing together,  in  the  same  order,  plants  which  differ  most  widely  in 
their  habits  and  properties.  Of  this  defect,  Linnaeus  himself  was 
sensible  ;  and  he  endeavoured  to  remedy  it  by  the  addition  of  a 
natural  system,  in  which  plants  should  be  classed  according  to  their 
general  resemblances.  The  natural  method,  to  which  the  artificial 
may  be  regarded  as  subsidiary,  is  chiefly  indebted  to  the  labors  of 
Bernard  de  Jussieu,  and  his  nephew  Antoine,  for  the  degree  of 
perfection  and  favor  which  it  has  since  attained. 

To  Linnaeus  belongs  the  credit  of  having  studied  vegetable  physi- 
ology, or  Phytonomy,  with  great  zeal  and  success ;  and  this  division 
of  Botany  has  since  been  pursued  by  Duhamel,  Bonnet,  Malpighi, 
Mirbel,  and  Knight;  whose  names  are  connected  with  important 
investigations.  Among  the  most  extensive  works  on  descriptive 
Botany,  are  Decandolle's  Flore  Fran9aise,  and  Willdenow's  Species 
Plantarum  ;  the  latter  of  which,  published  continuously,  like  other 
periodicals,  has  become  a  great  storehouse  of  botanical  discoveries  : 
but  the  Genera  Plantarum  of  Endlicher,  according  to  the  natural  sys- 
tem, will  probably  be  the  most  satisfactory  work  on  this  subject,  yet 
undertaken.  The  plants  of  Central  America,  were  examined  to  a 
great  extent  by  Humboldt  and  Bonpland ;  and  those  of  North  Ame- 
rica, by  Kalm,  Michaux,  and  Pursh.  Among  those  who  have 
studied  the  Flora  of  the  United  States,  the  names  of  Bartram,  Bar- 
ton, Clayton,  Elliott,  Bigelow,  Eaton,  Nuttall,  and  Torrey,  deserve 
a  distinguished  place. 

We  proceed  to  give  some  farther  ideas  of  Botany,  under  the  heads 
of  Terminology;  Phytonomy;  and  Systematic,  and  Descriptive 
Botany. 

§  1.  Botanical  Terminology,  relates  to  the  numerous  terms  which 
are  used  in  describing  plants,  or  their  different  parts.  The  principal 
parts  of  a  plant,  are  the  root,  the  stem  or  trunk,  the  leaves,  and  the 
organs  of  fructification,  or  flowers  and  fruit.  The  root,  is  that  part 
which,  descending  into  the  ground,  or  adhering  to  some  other  sub- 
stance, aids  in  supporting  and  nourishing  the  plant.  Roots  are 


BOTANY.  385 

branching,  as  in  common  trees  ;  or  fibrous,  as  in  many  grasses ;  or 
creeping,  as  in  some  vines  ;  or  fusiform,  as  in  the  parsnip ;  or  bul- 
bous, as  in  the  turnip  ;  or  tuberous,  as  in  the  potato ;  or  granulated, 
as  in  the  wood  sorrel.  The  stem  of  a  plant,  is  that  part  which  rises 
from  the  root,  and  supports  the  leaves  and  flowers.  The  stalk  or 
stem  of  grasses,  is  called  a  culm;  the  flower  stalk,  as  in  dandelions, 
a  scape  ;  the  fruit  stalk,  as  in  apples,  a  peduncle ;  and  the  stalk  of 
the  leaf,  a  petiole.  The  leaves  of  plants  are  the  spreading  organs,, 
usually  of  a  green  color,  which  terminate  the  stems  and  branches. 
They  have  various  forms ;  as  ovate,  or  egg-shaped ;  cordate,  or 
heart-shaped ;  reniform,  or  kidney-shaped  ;  palmate,  like  the  hand 
with  spread  fingers ;  pedate,  like  a  bird's  foot ;  pinnatifid,  or  half 
cleft ;  sinuate,  or  lobed ;  and  several  other  forms.  Of  their  edges, 
ends,  surfaces,  and  position,  we  have  no  room  to  speak. 

The  organs  of  fructification,  or  those  connected  with  the  fruit, 
are  the  calyx,  corol,  stamen,  pistil,  pericarp,  seed,  and  receptacle. 
The  calyx,  is  the  outer,  or  lower  part  of  the  flower ;  generally  color- 
less, which  in  botany  signifies  having  a  green  color.  Every  calyx 
is  either  monophyllous,  consisting  of  but  one  leaf;  or polyphyllous, 
consisting  of  more  than  one  leaf,  or  sepal,  as  the  calyx  leaves  are 
called.  The  corol,  is  the  colored  blossom,  within  or  above  the  calyx ; 
and  its  separate  leaves  are  called  petals.  Monopetalous  corols,  are 
distinguished  as  bell-form,  funnel-form,  salver-form,  wheel-form,  or 
labiate,  that  is  lip-form  ;  and  polypetalous  corols  are  cruciform,  or 
caryophylleous  as  in  the  pink,  or  liliaceous,  or  rosaceous,  or  papi- 
lionaceous as  in  the  pea,  or  anomalous.  The  stamens,  are  organs 
within  the  corol,  each  terminating  in  an  anther  or  knob,  which  fur- 
nishes the  pollen,  or  fertilizing  dust,  to  perfect  the  seed.  The  anthers 
are  either  sessile,  or  supported  by  filaments,  which  are  the  thread- 
like part  of  the  stamen.  The  pistils,  one  or  more  in  number,  are 
the  central  organs  of  the  flower ;  their  base  becoming  the  pericarp 
and  seed.  This  base  is  called  the  germ ;  and  the  outer  end  of  the 
pistil  is  called  the  stigma;  which  is  connected  with  the  germ,  either 
directly,  or  by  a  short  stem  called  the  style. 

The  pericarp,  is  the  fruit  containing  the  seed  ;  whether  it  be  a 
silique,  or  bivalvular  pod  ;  a  legume,  or  pod  without  a  partition ;  a 
capsule,  or  cellular  enclosure,  as  in  the  poppy ;  a  drupe,  as  in  the 
cherry  and  walnut ;  a  pome,  as  in  the  apple ;  a  berry,  as  in  the  currant; 
a  pepone,  as  in  the  melon ;  or  a  strobile,  as  in  the  cone  of  the  pine. 
The  seed,  consists  of  a  tunic,  or  integument,  covering  the  cotyledons, 
or  fleshy  parts  ;  and  the  embryo,  or  corcle,  which  is  the  rudiment 
of  the  future  plant.  The  receptacle,  is  the  base,  which  being  con- 
nected with  the  stem,  supports  the  flower  and  fruit.  Flowers  are 
either  simple,  when  there  is  but  one  on  the  receptacle ;  or  aggre- 
gate, when  there  are  several  on  the  same  receptacle ;  or  compound, 
when  several  florets,  or  little  flowers,  have  their  anthers  united,  as  in 
the  sunflower.  The  different  forms  of  the  corol,  and  modes  of  in- 
florescence, we  have  no  room  to  explain. 

§  2.  The  object  of  Phytonomy,  or  Vegetable  Physiology,  is  to 
investigate  the  structure  of  plants,  and  their  mode  of  growth.     The 
seeds  of  plants,  when  mature,  are  scattered ;  by  an  inherent  repulsive- 
49  2K 


386  IDIOPHYSICS. 

force,  or  by  the  agency  of  animals,  or  the  wind ;  and  thrown  into 
situations  more  or  less  favorable  for  germination;  that  is,  for  the 
development  of  a  new  plant  of  the  same  kind.  The  necessary  con- 
ditions for  germinating  or  sprouting,  are  warmth,  moisture,  air,  and 
the  exclusion  of  light:  though  light  is  afterwards  beneficial  to  their 
growth.  Porous  earth  admits  the  air,  but  excludes  the  light,  if  the 
seeds  are  not  planted  too  deep.  The  corcle,  or  embryo,  then  ex- 
pands into  a  radicle,  which  shoots  downwards  to  form  the  root ;  and 
a  plumula,  which  shooting  upwards,  becomes  the  stem  of  the  future 
plant:  while  the  cotyledons  are  generally  converted,  by  fermentation, 
into  sugar,  for  its  nourishment.  Plants  may  be  propagated,  not  only 
by  reproduction  from  the  seed  ;  but  also  by  continuation  ;  whether 
by  grafting,  inoculating,  transplanting,  or  setting  out  shoots  or  twigs 
in  the  earth. 

Plants  are  nourished,  partly  by  the  roots,  which  absorb  moisture, 
and  nutritious  salts,  especially  those  of  potassa ;  and  partly  by  the 
leaves,  which  absorb  carbonic  acid,  and  perhaps  oxygen,  from  the 
air.  Their  carbon  is  doubtless  derived  from  the  decomposition  of 
carbonic  acid ;  and  their  hydrogen  from  water :  while  a  part  of  the 
oxygen  is  set  free.  The  leaves,  are  to  plants,  what  the  lungs  are  to 
animals  ;  but  they  exhale  oxygen,  instead  of  carbonic  acid,  at  least 
when  exposed  to  the  light  of  the  sun.  Whether  this  action  is 
reversed  by  night,  and  carbonic  acid  evolved,  we  are  not  prepared  to 
say  ;  as  authorities  differ  thereon.  In  regard  to  the  mode  of  growth, 
plants  are  divided  into  two  great  classes.  In  monocotyledonous  or 
endogenous  plants,  the  stem  has  seldom  any  external  bark,  but 
consists  mostly  of  pith  ;  and  the  growth  takes  place  at  the  centre  ; 
while  the  preexisting  parts  are  thereby  crowded  outwards,  and 
compressed,  as  in  the  palm  tree,  and  Indian  corn.  But  in  dicotyle- 
donous, or  exogenous  plants,  the  growth  takes  place  externally, 
between  the  wood  and  the  bark,  as  in  the  elder,  or  oak.  The  stem 
of  exogenous  plants,  consists  of  the  pith,  or  soft  central  core  ;  the 
heart  wood,  or  hardest  part,  and  the  sap  wood,  or  alburnum,  which 
is  the  outer  and  softer  part  of  the  wood  ;  the  liber  or  inner  bark, 
strong  and  fibrous  ;  the  cellular  integument,  or  middle  bark ;  and 
the  cuticle,  or  outer  bark,  probably  lifeless,  and  serving  merely  to 
protect  the  parts  within. 

The  substance  of  plants,  is  generally  porous,  and  consists  of  either 
cellular  or  vascular  texture;  the  former  composed  of  cells,  and 
existing  in  the  pith,  bark,  and  leaves  ;  while  the  woody  part  is 
chiefly  vascular,  consisting  of  tubular  fibres.  The  sap  of  plants,  is 
a  limpid. liquid,  which  rises  from  the  roots  to  the  leaves,  it  is  said, 
through  the  medullary  sheath,  consisting  of  spiral  vessels  surround- 
ing the  pith  ;  and  after  respiration,  it  descends  through  the  liber,  or 
inner  bark,  underneath  which  it  deposits  the  camb,  a  mucilaginous 
substance  ;  and  from  this  a  new  annual  layer  of  wood  is  formed,  by 
which  the  age  of  exogenous  plants  may  be  known.  The  proper 
juices,  or  peculiar  fluids,  secreted  by  plants,  as  gum,  oils,  and  the 
like,  are  said  to  be  elaborated  by  glandular  knots,  analogous  to  the 
glands  of  animals. 

§  3.    Under  the  head   of   Systematic  Botany,    we   proceed   to 


BOTANY.  387 

describe  briefly  the  two  great  systems  of  classification  of  plants, 
which  have  prevailed  in  recent  times.  It  was  known,  before  the 
time  of  Linnaeus,  that  the  seeds  of  plants  cannot  be  perfected  from 
the  pistil  alone,  but  require  the  agency  of  the  pollen,  or  pulverulent, 
fertilizing  substance,  from  the  stamens.  Thus,  if  we  cut  off  the  tops, 
or  staminate  flowers  of  Indian  corn,  before  the  pollen  has  fallen  on 
the  silk  of  the  ears,  these  latter,  which  contain  only  pistillate  flowers, 
will  not  fill  out  with  kernels.  Hence,  those  alone  are  called  perfect 
flowers,  which  contain  both  stamens  and  pistils;  and  the  importance 
of  these  organs  induced  Linnreus  to  make  them  the  basis  of  his 
artificial  system  of  classification.  In  this  system,  the  classes  and 
orders  are  founded  on  the  number,  positions,  and  other  relations  of 
the  stamens  and  pistils. 

The  first  ten  classes  are  Monandria,  having  one  stamen ;  Diandria, 
two  ;  Triandria,  three  ;  Tetrandria,  having  four  equal  stamens ; 
Pentandria,  five  ;  Hexandria,  six  ;  Heptandria,  seven  ;  Oclandria, 
eight ;  Enneandria,  nine  ;  and  Decandria,  having  ten  stamens.  The 
llth  class,  Icosandria,  has  more  than  ten  stamens,  inserted  on  the 
calyx  ;  and  the  12th,  Polyandria,  has  the  same,  but  not  situated  on 
the  calyx.  The  13th  class,  Didynamia,  has  two  long  stamens  and 
two  short,  with  labiate  flowers  ;  and  the  14th,  Tetradynamia,  has 
four  long,  and  two  short  stamens,  with  the  flowers  cruciform.  The 
1 5th  class,  Monadelphia,  has  the  stamens  united  by  their  filaments, 
in  one  set;  and  the  16th,  Diadelphia,  has  them  in  two  sets,  with 
papilionaceous  flowers.  In  the  17th  class,  Syngenesia,  the  flowers 
are  compound,  and  the  florets  have  their  stamens  united  by  the 
anthers.  The  18th  class,  Gynandria,  has  the  stamens  growing  on 
the  pistil,  and  separate  from  the  corol.  The  19th  class,  Moncecia, 
has  the  stamens  and  pistils  in  different  flowers,  but  on  the  same 
plant  ;  while  the  20th,  Dicecia,  has  them  not  only  in  separate 
flowers,  but  on  separate  plants.  In  the  21st  class,  Cryptogamia, 
these  organs  are  either  wanting,  or  invisible,  or  very  caduceous. 

In  the  first  twelve  classes,  the  orders  are  founded  on  the  number., 
of  pistils,  whether  with  styles,  or  only  with  sessile  stigmas.  These 
orders  are  monogynia,  having  one  pistil ;  digynia,  two  ;  and  so 
on,  following  the  Greek  numerals,  to  decagynia,  having  ten,  and 
polygynia,  having  more  than  ten  pistils.  The  13th  class  has  two 
orders,  gymnospermia,  with  naked  seeds ;  and  angiospermia, 
with  the  seeds  in  a  capsule.  The  orders  of  the  14th  class,  are 
siliculosa,  having  round  pods  ;  and  siliquosa,  with  pods  long  and 
narrow.  In  the  15th,  16th,  18th,  19th,  and  20th  classes,  the  orders 
are  distinguished  by  the  number  of  stamens,  and  have  the  same 
names  as  the  first  twelve  classes  ;  but  in  the  17th  class,  the  orders 
are  sequalis,  having  all  the  flowers  perfect;  superflua,  having  the 
disk  or  central  florets  alone  perfect ;  the  ray  florets,  if  any,  being 
pistillate  ;  frustanea,  having  the  disk  florets  perfect,  but  the  ray 
florets  neutral ;  necessaria,  having  the  disk  florets  staminate,  but  the 
ray  florets  pistillate  or  fertile  ;  and  segregata,  having  a  separate 
perianth,  or  calyx,  for  each  floret,  as  well  as  for  the  whole  flower. 
The  21st  class  is  divided  into  the  natural  orders  of  filices,  or  ferns  ; 
musci,  or  mosses  ;  hepaticse,  or  liverworts  ;  llchenes,  or  lichens, 


388  IDTOPHTSICS. 

with  leafless  stems,  often  growing  on  rocks ;  and  fungi,  or  mush- 
rooms, and  similar  plants. 

The  genera  of  plants,  are  farther  distinguished  by  characters  of  the 
flower  and  fruit ;  while  the  species,  are  distinguished  by  the  leaves, 
and  other  minor  differences.  In  general,  plants  of  the  same  genus 
possess  similar  medical  and  other  properties  ;  but  this  rule  does  not 
apply  to  the  Linnean  classes  and  orders  ;  which,  as  we  have  before 
remarked,  bring  together  plants  of  widely  different  characters.  To 
remedy  this  deficiency,  is  the  object  of  the  natural  system  ;  in  which 
plants  are  arranged  in  the  three  classes  of  dicotyledonous,  monoco- 
tyledonous,  and  acotyledonous,  distinguished  by  the  number  of 
cotyledons  found  in  the  seed,  which  is  deemed  a  predominant 
characteristic.  The  farther  explanation  of  this  system,  we  must 
reserve  for  the  next  section  ;  in  order  to  connect  it  with  references 
to  as  many  important  plants  as  we  have  room  to  mention. 

§  4.  Descriptive  Botany,  properly  includes  a  description  of  plants, 
duly  arranged ;  by  means  of  which  the  genus,  species,  and  proper- 
ties of  any  given  plant  may  be  recognized.  We  shall  here  connect 
it  with  the  natural  system  ;  and  commence  with  the  dicotyledonous, 
or  exogenous  class  of  plants :  which  have  stems  of  bark,  wood,  and 
pith  ;  leaves  with  branching  veins  ;  the  parts  of  the  flower  usually 
with  a  four  fold  or  five  fold  division ;  and  the  seeds  with  two  or 
more  cotyledons.  This  class  is  divided  by  Lindley  into  three  sub- 
classes ;  polypetalss,  having  distinct  petals,  as  the  rose,  and  pink ; 
monopetalse,  having  but  one  petal,  forming  the  corol,  as  in  the  cur- 
rant and  potato ;  and  incomplete,  without  petals,  as  the  walnut,  oak, 
and  buckwheat ;  to  which  other  writers  have  added  a  fourth  sub-class, 
anomalse,  including  the  achitospermous  plants,  which  have  no  cover- 
ing to  the  seed,  as  the  pine  and  cedar. 

The  polypetalous  plants,  are  divided  by  Lindley  into  the  albumi- 
nous group,  having  the  embryo  of  the  seed  shorter  and  smaller  than 
the  albumen  or  mealy  part,  as  in  the  currant  and  grape  ;  the  epigy- 
nose  group,  having  the  flower  above  the  ovary  or  seed  vessel,  as  in 
the  cucumber  and  melon  ;  the  parietose  group,  having  the  placenta 
to  which  the  seeds  are  attached,  parietal  or  forming  a  wall  around 
them,  as  in  the  cabbage  and  violet;  the  calycose  group,  having  two 
sepals  of  the  calyx  exterior  to  the  others,  as  in  the  maple  and  flax  ; 
the  syncarpous  group,  having  the  carpels  or  pods  compactly  united, 
as  in  the  hollyhok  and  pink  ;  the  gynobaseose  group,  having  five 
carpels  or  fewer,  around  an  elevated  axis,  as  in  the  geranium  and 
nasturtion  ;  and  the  apocarpous  group,  having  the  carpels  or  pods 
distinct,  as  in  the  rose,  apple,  peach,  pea,  and  clover. 

The  monopetalous  plants,  comprise  the  polycarpous  group,  hav- 
ing the  ovary  composed  of  many  carpels,  as  in  the  honeysuckle  and 
whortleberry  ;  the  epigynose  group,  having  the  flowers  above  the 
ovaries,  usually  with  two  carpels,  as  in  the  cardinal  flower  and  elder ; 
the  aggregose  group,  having  the  ovary  composed  of  but  one  perfect 
carpel,  as  in  the  dandelion,  thistle,  and  daisy;  the  labiose  group, 
having  ovaries  of  two  carpels,  within  unsymmetrical  flowers,  as  in 
sage,  and  mint ;  and  the  dicarpous  group,  having  ovaries  with  two 
carpels,  within  symmetrical  flowers,  as  in  the  ash,  potato,  and  tobacco. 


.    MINERALOGY.  389 

The  incomplete  dicotyledonous  plants,  comprise  the  rectembrose 
group,  having  the  embryo  straight,  and  the  calyx  very  imperfect,  as 
the  oak,  chesnut,  birch,  mulberry,  walnut,  elm,  hop,  and  hemp  ;  the 
achlamydose  group,  having  neither  calyx  nor  corol,  as  the  willow, 
poplar,  and  buttonwood,  to  which  Lindley  adds  the  achitospermous 
plants,  the  pine,  yew,  cedar,  and  sago ;  the  tubiferous  group,  hav- 
ing a  tubular  calyx,  as  the  sassafras  ;  and  the  curvembrose  group, 
having  the  embryo  curved,  as  in  the  beet,  and  buckwheat. 

The  second  class  of  plants,  the  monocotyledonous,  or  endogenous 
plants,  are  characterized  by  the  wood  and  pith  being  mingled,  and 
the  true  bark  wanting ;  the  leaves  having  parallel  veins ;  the  parts  of 
the  flower  being  ternary  or  threefold ;  and  the  perianth  often  in  two 
rows.  This  class  is  divided  by  Lindley  into  the  epigynose  group, 
having  complete  flowers,  above  the  ovary,  as  in  flower-de-luce,  and 
saffron  ;  the  spadicose  group,  with  herbaceous  or  imperfect  flowers, 
as  in  the  sweet  flag,  cat-tail,  and  asparagus  ;  the  glumose  group, 
with  scale-like  bracts  attached  to  the  flowers,  as  in  wheat,  oats,  or- 
chard grass,  rice,  cane,  and  Indian  corn ;  the  hypogynose  group, 
having  the  ovary  within  a  colored  flower,  as  in  the  palm,  lily,  tulip, 
onion,  and  bulrush  ;  and  the  gynandrous  group,  having  the  stamens 
united  with  the  styles,  as  in  the  ladies'  slipper. 

Of  the  acotyledonous  or  acrogenous  plants,  which  constitute  the 
Linnean  class  of  cryptogamia,  we  have  already  given  some  idea,  in 
mentioning  the  Linnean  orders.  They  are  cellular  plants,  wanting 
in  proper  vessels,  growing  by  increase  at  the  extremities,  and  propa- 
gated by  means  of  sporules,  instead  of  perfect  seeds. 


CHAPTER  III. 

MINERALOGY. 

MINERALOGY,  is  that  branch  of  Idiophysics,  or  Natural  History, 
which  treats  of  minerals ;  their  classification,  composition,  proper- 
ties, and  uses.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  word  mineral :  and 
this  from  the  French  word  mine,  a  mine ;  because  from  mines  are 
many  of  the  most  valuable  minerals  derived.  This  science  has  also 
been  termed  Oryctognosy,  from  the  Greek,  opvxtos,  or  fossil,  and 
yi/wtftj,  knowledge  or  science.  A  mineral,  as  the  term  is  now  used, 
signifies  any  inorganic  natural  substance  ;  whether  gaseous,  as  the 
air;  or  liquid,  as  water;  or  solid,  as  stones  and  earths  :  but  the  term 
fossil,  from  the  Latin  fodio,  I  dig,  is  now  applied  exclusively  to 
organic  remains ;  that  is  remains  of  plants  or  animals,  which  have 
been  buried  in  the  earth  ;  the  study  of  which  pertains,  in  part,  to 
the  preceding  branches.  The  study  of  Mineralogy,  is  limited  to 
simple  minerals,  considered  independently  or  individually;  and  the 
study  of  their  arrangement,  or  association,  in  the  strata  which  compose 
the  surface  of  our  globe,  together  with  the  distribution  of  fossils 
therein,  is  reserved  for  the  science  of  Geology.  But,  considered  even 
in  this  limited  sense,  Mineralogy  is  a  science  not  devoid  of  interest; 

2  K2 


390  IDIOPHYSICS.  * 

whether  it  examines  the  stones  from  which  the  vegetable  soil  is 
derived ;  or  the  ores  which  yield  the  useful  and  precious  metals ; 
or  the  gems  which  grace  the  brow  of  beauty  or  the  diadems  of 
kings. 

Aristotle  and  Pliny  wrote  vaguely  on  minerals  ;  but  the  first  regu- 
iar  classification  of  them  appears  to  have  been  made  by  Avicenna, 
the  alchemist ;  who  divided  them  into  stones,  metals,  inflammables 
and  salts.  A  similar  classification  was  made  by  Agricola ;  and 
another  by  Beccher,  the  first  writer  on  Chemistry ;  who  regarded  all 
minerals  as  composed  of  salt,  sulphur,  mercury,  earth,  and  water. 
The  first  idea  that  certain  minerals  always  crystallize  in  certain  par- 
ticular forms,  may  be  traced  to  Gulielmini,  in  1707  :  but  Linnaeus 
had  the  merit  of  first  pointing  out  the  importance  of  crystallography, 
in  classifying  and  examining  minerals.  His  views  on  this  subject 
were  corroborated  by  the  researches  of  De  Lisle ;  and  especially  by 
the  Abbe  Haiiy,  who  first  examined  the  cleavage  of  minerals,  and 
applied  the  atomic  theory  to  account  for  their  formation.  Meanwhile, 
Werner,  in  his  work  on  the  External  Characters  of  Fossils,  (as 
minerals  were  then  termed),  in  1774,  attained  great  precision  in 
describing  minerals  ;  particularly  by  means  of  their  color,  lustre, 
hardness,  and  specific  gravity  :  but  in  classifying  minerals,  he  adopted 
a  system,  like  that  of  Haiiy,  partly  natural,  and  partly  chemical,  as 
first  proposed  by  Cronstedt,  in  1758. 

The  views  of  Haiiy,  concerning  primary  and  secondary  forms  of 
crystals,  were  corrected,  in  various  instances,  by  Weiss ;  who,  in 
1809,  gave  a  new  classification  of  crystals,  forming  several  crystalline 
systems,  or  groups,  founded  on  the  axes  of  figure,  and  such  that 
those  of  the  same  group  might  be  derived  from  each  other.  This 
true,  and  probably  ultimate  theory,  was  applied  by  Mohs  to  all  the 
known  species  of  minerals  ;  and  in  his  Outlines  of  Mineralogy,  pub- 
lished in  1822,  it  was  made  the  basis  of  a  natural  classification  of 
minerals,  closely  resembling  those  of  animals  and  vegetables  now 
prevailing.  This  system,  as  at  present  modified  and  simplified, 
agrees  so  far  with  the  chemical,  as  to  show  that  it  has  a  foundation 
in  nature ;  although  it  doubtless  admits  of  farther  modifications  and 
improvements ;  and  although  the  mixed  system  has  been  adopted  by 
Brongniart,  and  more  recently  by  Naumann  of  Freiberg,  who  excels 
in  the  department  of  crystallography.  The  purely  chemical  classi- 
fication, proposed  by  Berzelius,  founded  on  the  electric  relations  of 
the  chemical  elements,  has  failed  of  giving  a  fixed  character  to  the 
science,  or  of  coming  into  general  use.  In  our  own  country,  the 
mixed  system  was  adopted  by  Cleaveland  ;  but  the  natural  classifica- 
tion has  been  preferred  by  Dana,  in  his  recent  valuable  work ;  which 
we  here  propose  to  follow,  as  far  as  our  limits  will  allow. 

We  proceed  to  give  a  brief  synopsis  of  Mineralogy,  under  the 
heads  of  Crystallography,  and  Idiographic,  Systematic,  and  Descrip- 
tive Mineralogy. 

§  1.  The  science  of  Crystallography,  has  for  its  object  the  exa- 
mination of  crystalline  forms :  and  its  connection  with  Mineralogy 
arises  from  the  fact  that  most  of  the  crystalline  forms,  with  which 
we  are  acquainted,  belong  to  simple  minerals ;  and  that  each  mineral 


MINERALOGY.  391 

species,  wherever  it  is  found  crystallized,  is  limited  to  certain  simple 
forms,  or  groups  of  forms,  by  which  its  composition  and  properties 
may  often  be  recognized.  Minerals  which  have  no  regular  shape, 
are  said  to  be  amorphous.  Others  have  what  is  called  imitative 
forms ;  as  dentiform,  or  tooth-shaped ;  filiform,  or  thread-like ; 
dendriform,  or  tree-shaped  ;  pectiform,  or  comb-shaped  ;  reniform, 
or  kidney- shaped  ;  and  botryoidal,  resembling  a  cluster  of  grapes. 
But  of  all  the  mineral  species  known,  the  larger  portion  are  found, 
at  least  occasionally,  having  a  regular  crystalline  form,  subject  to 
mathematical  laws  :  and  these  forms  alone  are  the  object  of  the  pre- 
sent section. 

A  crystal,  is  an  inorganic  solid,  bounded  by  plane  surfaces,  and 
usually  possessing  a  homogeneous  structure.  The  bounding  surfaces 
are  called  faces  ;  the  lines  of  intersection,  edges  ;  the  angles  of  the 
faces  themselves,  plane  angles;  those  which  they  form  with  each 
other,  interfacial  angles ;  and  an  angle  formed  by  three  or  more 
faces,  meeting  in  a  point,  is  called  a  solid  angle.  The  forms  of  crys- 
tals are  considered  as  either  primary,  or  secondary  ;  the  latter  being 
derivable  from  the  former,  either  by  excision  or  by  accretion.  Crystals 
generally  admit  of  cleavage,  or  splitting ;  and  when  this  can  take 
place  only  in  one  direction,  the  cleavage  is  said  to  be  single ;  but 
when  in  two  directions,  double  ;  and  it  may  also  be  triple  or  quadru- 
ple. When  the  edges  or  angles  of  a  crystal  are  cut  off  by  a  plane 
equally  inclined  to  the  sides  which  it  cuts,  they  are  said  to  be  trun- 
cated ;  but  when  the  edge  is  replaced  by  two  faces,  equally  inclined; 
or  an  angle  replaced  by  as  many  such  planes  as  there  are  contiguous 
faces,  they  are  then  said  to  be  bevelled. 

All  those  crystalline  forms  which  are  reducible  to  one  and  the  same 
primary  form,  are  said  to  constitute  a  crystalline  system.  There  are 
seven  of  these  systems,  distinguished  by  the  relations  of  their  axes. 
In  the  monometric,  or  regular  system,  the  three  axes  are  equal,  and 
at  right  angles  to  each  other ;  as  in  the  cube,  the  axes  of  which  are 
the  lines  joining  the  centres  of  the  opposite  sides;  and  in  the  regular 
octahedron,  and  the  rhombic  dodecahedron,  derived  from  the  cube 
by  truncating  all  or  a  part  of  the  edges ;  these  figures  having  their 
axes  joining  the  vertices  of  opposite  angles.  The  dimetric  system, 
has  one  axis  either  longer  or  shorter  than  the  other  two,  as  in  the  right 
square  prism :  and  the  trimetric  system  has  all  the  axes  unequal, 
but  still  at  right  angles  ;  as  in  the  right  rectangular  prism.  The 
other  systems,  which  we  have  no  room  here  to  describe,  have  one  or 
more  of  their  axes  oblique.  An  instrument  for  measuring  the  angles 
of  a  crystal,  is  called  a  goniometer  ;  one  form  of  which,  invented  by 
Wollaston,  employs  for  this  purpose  the  reflection  of  light. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Idiographic  Mineralogy,  we  would  treat 
of  the  various  physical  and  chemical  properties  of  minerals ;  which 
serve,  often  in  part,  and  for  amorphous  minerals  entirely,  to  aid  us 
in  recognizing  them.  We  speak  here  only  of  simple  minerals  ;  all 
the  separable  particles  of  which  are  homogeneous :  as  the  study  of 
compound  minerals  formed  by  the  aggregation  of  two  or  more  simple 
ones,  belongs  to  the  study  of  Geology.  The  physical  or  external 
properties  of  minerals,  are  those  which  are  obvious  by  mere  inspec- 


892  IDIOPHYSICS. 

tion,  or  by  the  aid  of  some  simple  mechanical  experiment.  Such 
are  the  color,  lustre,  hardness,  and  specific  gravity;  which  are 
easily  noted,  and  are,  perhaps,  the  most  important  external  characters 
to  which  we  can  refer. 

The  color,  of  earthy  minerals,  may  vary  from  a  very  slight  ad- 
mixture of  foreign  ingredients ;  but  in  ores,  it  is  a  better  test  of  the 
composition.  The  colors  selected  by  Werner,  as  standards  for  the 
comparison  of  minerals,  were  the  eight  following  :  snow  white  ;  ash 
gray  ;  velvet  black  ;  Prussian  blue  ;  emerald  green  ;  lemon  yellow  ; 
carmine  red;  and  chesnut  brown.  Besides  the  colors  of  minerals  in 
mass,  that  of  their  streaky  when  abraded  by  a  file,  is  often  a  useful 
characteristic.  The  lustre  of  minerals,  is  distinguished  as  metallic, 
vitreous,  resinous,  pearly,  silky,  or  adamantine  ;  either  of  which  may 
vary  in  intensity.  As  regards  the  transmission  of  light,  minerals  are 
either  transparent,  translucent,  or  opaque :  and  some  minerals  are 
characterized  by  the  degree  of  refraction,  or  by  the  double  refraction 
of  light;  as  others  are  by  the  property  of  phosphorescence,  or  assum- 
ing a  luminous  appearance  by  friction  or  by  heat. 

The  hardness  of  minerals,  is  often  an  important  characteristic ; 
and  is  expressed,  in  the  manner  which  Mohs  proposed,  by  a  scale 
of  numbers,  referring  to  a  series  of  minerals,  each  of  which  will 
scratch  any  one  of  the  preceding.  The  scale,  thus  constructed,  is 
as  follows:  1.  talc;  2.  rock  salt;  3.  calcareous  spar;  4.  fluor  spar; 
5.  apatite ;  6.  feldspar ;  7.  quartz  ;  8.  topaz  ;  9.  sapphire ;  and  10. 
diamond  ;  which  is  the  hardest  substance  known.  To  these,  Breit- 
haupthas  added  two  intermediate  degrees;  2|,  foliated  mica  ;  and  5£, 
scapolite  ;  subdividing  the  largest  intervals  of  the  scale.  As  regards 
their  aggregation,  minerals  are  either  brittle,  sectile,  malleable,  flex- 
ible, or  elastic :  and  their  fracture  is  either  conchoidal,  even,  uneven, 
or  hackly,  as  in  broken  iron.  The  specific  gravity  of  minerals,  is 
found,  on  the  principles  of  Hydrics,  by  dividing  the  weight  of  the 
mineral  by  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water ;  which  is  the  loss 
of  weight  when  it  is  suspended  in  water.  Minerals  are  also  charac- 
terized, in  some  few  cases,  by  their  electric,  or  magnetic  properties, 
or  by  their  taste,  or  odor. 

Among  the  chemical  properties  most  frequently  employed  by  the 
mineralogist,  are  the  action  of  acids,  and  the  effects  of  the  blowpipe. 
The  acids  used  for  this  purpose,  are  chiefly  sulphuric,  nitric,  and 
muriatic,  in  a  diluted  state.  Most  of  the  carbonates,  when  exposed 
to  either  of  these  acids,  are  decomposed,  with  effervescence  of  carbo- 
nic acid  gas ;  and  most  of  the  sulphurets,  when  acted  upon  by  either 
sulphuric  or  muriatic  acid,  especially  with  the  aid  of  heat,  are  recog- 
nized by  the  fetid  odor  of  the  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  otherwise  called 
hydrosulphuric  acid,  which  they  evolve.  The  blowpipe,  is  a  tube,  one 
end  of  which  is  applied  to  the  mouth,  and  the  other  end  terminates  in 
a  small  orifice,  through  which  a  jet  of  air  is  thus  forced  into  the  flame 
of  a  lamp  or  candle,  causing  a  conical  flame,  of  intense  heat,  to  pro- 
trude in  the  direction  of  the  jet.  By  this  flame,  the  fusibility,  or 
combustilify,  of  minerals  is  tested  ;  and  many  refractory  minerals 
are  rendered  fusible  by  adding  some  salt,  as  a  flux  ;  while  the  color 
and  appearance  of  the  melted  drop,  or  bead,  thus  obtained,  often  indi- 


MINERALOGY.  393 

cates  their  composition.  The  complete  analysis  of  minerals,  requires 
a  thorough  acquaintance  with  all  the  resources  of  chemistry. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Systematic  Mineralogy,  we  are  to  speak 
briefly  of  the  different  systems  according  to  which  minerals  have 
been  classified  and  named.  The  object  of  the  chemical  system,  is 
to  place  together  those  minerals  which  most  resemble  each  other  in 
composition ;  while  that  of  the  natural  system,  is  to  associate  those 
which  most  resemble  each  other  in  their  general  properties.  The 
chemical  classification,  adopted  by  several  writers,  usually  com- 
mences with  the  non-metallic  minerals,  the  gases,  combustibles,  and 
non-metallic  acids  :  proceeding  next  to  the  salts ;  both  the  soluble 
salts,  or  those  commonly  known  as  such  ;  and  the  earthy  salts,  or 
earths;  which  are  mostly  salts  of  silicic  acid  :  and  the  list  is  usually 
completed  by  the  higher  metals,  and  their  various  ores ;  of  which 
the  oxides  and  sulphurets  are  the  most  important. 

In  the  natural  classification,  as  proposed  by  Mohs,  and  modified 
by  Dana,  all  minerals  are  divided  into  three  classes :  Epigsea,  or 
minerals  found  mostly  on  the  earth's  surface,  as  gases,  acids,  and 
soluble  salts,  of  all  of  which,  the  specific  gravity  is  less  than  3-8 : 
Entogxa,  or  minerals  found  mostly  within  the  earth  ;  insoluble  and 
tasteless,  and  all  having  a  specific  gravity  above  1§8  :  and  Ifypogasa, 
or  minerals  which  were  once  on  the  earth's  surface,  being  of  vegeta- 
ble origin  ;  but  have  since  been  buried ;  as  the  coals  and  resins. 
These  classes  are  subdivided  into  orders;  which  we  shall  briefly 
describe  in  the  following  section.  The  orders  have  been  farther 
subdivided  into  genera,  and  species,  which  we  shall  not  in  this  work 
have  room  to  describe.  We  can  only  mention  the  most  important 
species,  giving  them  their  common  or  trivial  names ;  which  are  for 
the  most  part  arbitrary,  and  often  derived  from  the  names  of  indi- 
viduals who  have  distinguished  themselves  in  this  science. 

§  4.  Under  the  head  of  Descriptive  Mineralogy,  we  proceed  to 
give  some  idea  of  the  more  prominent  minerals,  arranged  according 
to  the  natural  orders  of  Dana ;  with  some  remarks  on  their  proper- 
ties and  uses.  The  first  class,  Epigaea,  is  divided  into  two  orders, 
Rheutinea,  or  fluids,  and  Sterinea,  or  solids.  The  order  Rheutinea, 
includes  the  native  gases ;  or  carburetted  hydrogen,  which  is  the 
same  as  coal,  or  oil  gas ;  phosphuretted  hydrogen,  which  is  sponta- 
neously inflammable,  and  the  cause  of  the  ignis  fatuus ;  sulphuretted 
hydrogen,  known  by  its  fetid  odor;  atmospheric  air,  essential  to 
animal  life  and  ordinary  combustion ;  carbonic  acid,  or  the  choke 
damp  of  mines,  fatal  to  animals  confined  in  it;  and  sulphurous  and 
muriatic  acids,  suffocating  gases,  evolved  from  volcanoes.  This 
order  includes  also  the  native  liquids ;  water,  and  sulphuric  and  mu- 
riatic acids  ;  these  latter  being  in  a  dilute  state.  The  order  of  Ste- 
rinea, or  solids,  includes  boracic  and  arsenious  acids,  found  sparingly; 
borax,  or  borate  of  soda,  useful  as  a  flux  to  cause  other  minerals  to 
melt;  alum,  which  is  sometimes  found  native;  solfatarite,  or  soda 
alum  ;  natron,  a  hydrous  carbonate  and  sulphate  of  soda ;  common 
salt,  found  in  mines,  springs,  and  the  sea;  Glauber's  salt,  and  Epsom 
salt,  useful  in  medicine ;  sal-ammonic,  nitre,  and  the  vitriols,  useful 
50 


394  IDIOPHYSICS. 

in  the  arts ;  and  polyhalite,  a  complex  sulphate  of  lime,  potassa,  and 
other  bases. 

In  the  second,  or  Entogaean  class  of  minerals,  the  order  Ha- 
linea,  or  saline  minerals,  includes  alum  stone,  from  which  alum  is 
made ;  fluor  spar,  or  fluoride  of  calcium,  used  for  ornaments  ; 
apatite  chiefly  phosphate  of  lime ;  gypsum,  and  anhydrite,  both 
sulphate  of  lime  ;  calcareous  spar,  and  arragonite,  carbonates  of  lime ; 
and  dolomite,  or  magnesian  limestone.  The  order  Barytinea,  or 
heavy  earthy  minerals,  includes  strontianite,  and  celestine,  or  the  car- 
bonate and  sulphate  of  strontia :  witherite,  and  heavy  spar,  or  car- 
bonate and  sulphate  of  baryta ;  bismuth  blende,  and  calamine,  or  silicate 
of  bismuth,  and  carbonate  of  zinc  ;  spathic  iron,  or  brown  spar,  a  car- 
bonate of  iron  ;  white  lead,  or  carbonate  of  lead ;  ehromate  of  lead, 
or  chrome  yellow  ;  blue  and  green  malachite,  carbonates  of  copper  ; 
and  uranite,  chiefly  phosphate  of  uranium.  The  order  Ceratinea,  or 
hornlike  minerals,  includes  horn-silver,  and  horn  quicksilver,  chlo- 
rides of  silver  and  mercury ;  and  iodic  silver,  having  also  a  resinous 
lustre.  The  order  Osmerinea,  or  minerals  possessing  odor,  includes 
allophane,  or  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina ;  serpentine,  or  hydrous 
silicate  of  magnesia ;  also  native  magnesia ;  with  talc,  and  steatite, 
or  soapstone,  which  are  chiefly  silicates  of  magnesia ;  and  chlorite, 
and  nacrite,  silicates  of  alumina  and  iron. 

The  order  Chalicinea,  or  silicious  minerals,  includes  mica,  impro- 
perly called  isinglass,  it  being  a  silicate  of  alumina,  potassa,  and  iron ; 
feldspar,  or  silicate  of  alumina  and  potassa;  hornblende,  or  silicate 
of  magnesia,  lime  and  iron ;  and  turquois,  and  lazulite,  of  a  rich  blue 
color.  The  order  Hyalinea,  or  glass-like  minerals,  includes  tourma- 
line, chiefly  a  silicate  of  alumina  and  iron ;  the  beryl,  and  chryso- 
beryl ;  the  sapphire,  which  is  pure  alumina;  the  diamond,  or  pure 
crystallized  carbon;  the  topaz,  and  chrysolite;  quartz,  or  pure  silex; 
the  garnet,  and  zircon.  The  order  Scaptinea,  or  excavated  minerals, 
includes  most  of  the  ores  of  the  metals,  other  than  sulphurets ;  most 
of  them  being  oxides,  or  containing  oxygen.  The  order  Metal- 
linea,  includes  the  native  metals,  and  their  alloys,  having  a  bright 
metallic  lustre.  The  order  Pyrltinea,  includes  those  sulphurets  of 
the  rnetals,  usually  called  pyrites,  which  have  a  full  metallic  lustre; 
as  iron  pyrites,  or  bisulphuret  of  iron ;  and  copper  pyrites,  a  double 
sulphuret  of  iron  and  copper ;  both  these  minerals  resembling  gold 
in  appearance.  The  order  Galinea,  or  shining  metals,  also  com- 
prises chiefly  sulphurets  having  a  metallic  lustre,  but  a  darker  color 
than  those  of  the  preceding  order;  as  tin  pyrites,. or  sulphuret  of 
copper  and  tin ;  galena,  or  sulphuret  of  lead  ;  and  the  sulphuret  of 
bismuth.  The  order  Jldelinea,  or  minerals  of  imperfect  lustre,  in- 
cludes those  sulphurets,  and  similar  minerals,  the  metallic  lustre  of 
which  is  not  very  manifest ;  as  blende,  or  sulphuret  of  zinc ;  cin- 
nabar, or  sulphuret  of  mercury ;  and  realgar  and  orpiment,  sulphu- 
rets  of  arsenic.  The  last  order,  Theiinea,  is  confined  to  native  sul- 
phur, chiefly  of  volcanic  origin. 

The  third  class  of  minerals,  Hypogaea,  is  subdivided  into  two 
orders ;  the  first  of  which,  Pittinea,  or  pitch-like  minerals,  easily 


GEOLOGY.  395 

fusible,  includes  amber,  retinasphaltum,  and  bitumen:  and  the  second 
order,  Jlnthracinea,  or  coal-like  minerals,  infusible,  but  combustible, 
includes  bituminous  coal,  which  burns  with  a  flame ;  anthracite, 
which  burns  without  flame ;  and  graphite,  which  is  a  compound  of 
carbon  with  a  small  portion  of  iron,  improperly  called  black  lead. 
We  are  constrained  to  express  the  opinion,  that  a  still  more  natural 
classification  of  minerals  might  be  formed  ;  and  that  the  distinctions 
of  being  soluble,  or  earthy,  or  metallic,  or  inflammable,  would  be 
proper  types  for  four  classes  in  which  all  minerals  might  naturally 
be  arranged. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

GEOLOGY. 

GEOLOGY  is  that  branch  of  Idiophysics,  or  Natural  History,  which 
treats  of  the  structure  of  the  earth,  and  the  masses  which  compose 
it;  and  of  the  changes,  both  organic  and  inorganic,  which  it  has 
hitherto  undergone,  or  to  which  it  is  still  exposed.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  777,  the  earth  ;  and  ;*.oyo$,  a  discourse  :  and  this 
branch  has  also  been  termed  Geognosy,  from  another  Greek  word 
signifying  knowledge,  or  science.  As  it  is  impossible  to  understand 
the  structure  of  mountain  masses  and  rocks,  without  knowing  the 
simple  minerals  which  compose  them,  the  study  of  Geology  evi- 
dently presupposes  and  depends  upon  a  knowledge  of  mineralogy. 
As  it  includes  the  study  of  organic  remains,  or  fossil  plants  and 
animals,  the  study  of  which  has  received  the  name  of  Paleontology, 
its  connection  with  the  other  natural  sciences  will  be  distinctly  per- 
ceived ;  and  the  more  so,  the  farther  we  advance  in  its  attainment. 
While  its  practical  importance,  in  the  arts  of  Agriculture,  Mining, 
and  Engineering,  is  generally  recognized,  it  ranks  with  Archaeology 
in  its  recondite  researches,  and  with  Astronomy  in  the  sublimity  of 
its  themes  and  results,  as  one  of  the  most  profound  and  interesting 
of  the  sciences. 

Among  the  ancient  philosophers,  Thales  believed  that  the  earth 
was  of  aqueous  origin;  an  idea  probably  derived  from  the  Egyptian 
priests  :  while  Zeno  maintained  that  it  was  produced  by  the  action 
of  fire.  In  modern  times,  Agricola  of  Saxony,  and  Bernard  de 
Palissy  in  France,  were  among  the  first  to  promulgate  rational  views 
of  the  formation  of  minerals.  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  about  A.  D.  1500, 
observing  the  shells  of  the  Appenines,  boldly  maintained  that  those 
mountains  were  formerly  covered  by  the  sea;  an  opinion  which 
thenceforward  found  advocates,  and  elicited  new  researches.  The 
idea  of  geological  maps,  appears  to  have  originated  with  Dr.  Lister, 
in  1683  ;  and  the  first  notice  that  rocks  and  earths  occur  in  regular 
strata  is  attributed  to  Mr.  Woodward  ;  who  founded  a  geological 
museum,  as  early  as  1695.  The  division  of  rocks  into  primary,  and 
secondary,  was  first  made  bv  Lehman  of  Germany,  in  1756,  and 
confirmed  by  Arduino,  in  1759  :  and  a  more  minute  classification 
was  introduced  by  Werner.  The  importance  of  the  study  of  fossils, 


396  IDIOPHTSICS. 

in  geological  classifications,  was  first  brought  into  view  by  Mr. 
Smith  of  England,  about  the  year  1793 :  but  it  was  more  fully 
appreciated  in  the  great  work  of  Cuvier  and  Brongniart,  on  the 
Environs  of  Paris,  published  in  1811;  and  further  illustrated  in 
Cuvier's  work  on  Fossil  Bones,  in  the  following  year. 

The  aqueous,  or  Neptunian  theory,  of  Thales,  was  revived,  in 
1740,  by  De  Maillet  of  France,  in  a  work  entitled  Telliamed :  and 
this  opinion  was  adopted  by  Linnaeus,  and  Werner.  Werner  carried 
this  theory  so  far  as  to  maintain  that  all  superficial  or  superincumbent 
rocks  were  formed  by  deposition  in  water :  but  the  opposite,  or  Vul- 
canian  theory,  that  basaltic  and  trap  rocks,  though  lying  on  the 
earth's  surface,  are  of  igneous  origin,  having  been  cooled  from  a 
melted  state,  was  revived  by  Hutton,  about  the  year  1785  ;  and 
afterwards  maintained  by  Playfair;  and  finally  admitted  by  all  parties 
to  be  correct.  The  theories  published  by  Burnet  in  1681,  and  by 
Whiston  in  1722,  were  merely  crude  speculations. 

Leibnitz  and  Buffon  maintained  that  the  earth  was  originally  in  a 
state  of  igneous  fusion  ;  and  that  its  whole  interior  is  still  in  a  melted 
state,  owing  to  the  intense  central  heat.  Mr.  Lyell,  has  discarded 
the  doctrine  of  central  heat,  in  his  Principles  of  Geology,  published 
in  1830,  in  which  he  attempts  to  explain  the  former  changes  of  the 
earth's  surface,  by  causes  now  in  action  :  a  doctrine  which,  in  a  qua- 
lified sense,  may  doubtless  be  true.  Dolomieu  was  one  of  the  first 
geologists  who  studied  carefully  the  nature  of  active  volcanoes  ;  and 
new  light  was  thrown  on  this  subject  by  the  researches  of  Hum- 
boldt  in  Central  America,  1799-1804.  Saussure,  in  his  travels, 
made  many  important  geological  observations  ;  as  did  also  Professor 
Pallas,  who  examined  the  minerals  and  fossils  of  Russia  and  Siberia. 
The  geology  of  Great  Britain  has  been  extensively  illustrated  by  the 
labors  of  Jameson,  Conybeare,  Phillips,  Sedgwick,  Buckland,  Mur- 
chison,  De  la  Beche,  and  others  already  named  ;  as  that  of  France 
by  Brochant  de  Villiers,  Elie  de  Beaumont,  Dufrenoy,  and  others. 
Our  own  country  is  at  present  the  theatre  of  extensive  geological 
explorations,  by  zealous  and  competent  observers ;  but  we  have  only 
room  to  cite  the  names  of  Maclure,  Silliman,  and  Eaton,  as  pioneers 
of  American  geology;  and  of  Prof.  Hitchcock,  Dr.  C.  T.  Jackson, 
Professors  H.  D.  and  W.  B.  Rogers,  and  W.  W.  Mather  Esq.,  as 
gentlemen  charged  with  important  geological  state-surveys. 

We  proceed  to  give  an  outline  of  this  science,  under  the  heads  of 
Introductory,  Systematic,  Descriptive,  and  Physical  Geology. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Introductory  Geology,  belongs  a  descrip- 
tion of  the  different  rocks  which  compose  our  globe,  so  far  as  they 
are  accessible  to  examination.  The  term  rock,  is  applied  by  geolo- 
gists, not  only  to  the  hard  masses  usually  so  called,  but  also  to  the 
various  soft  or  pulverulent  substances,  derived  from  the  former,  by 
disintegration,  or  pulverization,  and  commonly  called  earths.  The 
hard  rocks,  are  either  simple  minerals,  such  as  are  studied  under 
Mineralogy;  or  composed  of  two  or  more  simple  minerals,  united  by 
aggregation.  Among  the  minerals  which  occur  in  large  masses,  and 
hence  may  be  called  simple  rocks,  are  quartz,  feldspar,  hornblende, 
serpentine,  gypsum,  and  limestone,  or  marble. 


GEOLOGY.  397 

Of  composite  rocks,  granite  is  an  aggregate  of  quartz,  feldspar, 
and  mica ;  with  which  hornblende  is  sometimes  intermingled ;  but  it 
is  then  more  properly  called  sienitic  granite.  The  name  sienite,  is 
applied  to  an  aggregate  of  feldspar  and  hornblende,  sometimes  mingled 
with  quartz  ;  and  when  fine  grained,  and  of  a  greenish  color  it  has 
also  been  termed  greenstone.  Protogine,  is  a  granite  in  which  the 
mica  is  replaced  by  talc,  steatite,  or  chlorite ;  rendering  it  softer. 
When  feldspar  is  found  intermingled  with  augite,  hypersthene,  or 
diallage,  the  rock  thence  resulting  is  named  from  one  of  the  latter 
three  minerals :  and  diallage  rock  is  often  found  associated  with  ser- 
pentine. Gneiss  differs  from  the  preceding  granitic  rocks  only  in 
being  stratified,  or  found  in  layers ;  and  mica  slate,  differs  from  gneiss 
chiefly  in  being  stratified  in  thinner  layers,  caused  by  the  mica  being 
diffused  in  parallel  directions  through  the  quartz. 

The  name  of  trap,  or  trappean  rocks,  is  applied  to  those  which 
contain  a  considerable  portion  of  feldspar,  hornblende,  or  augite,  and 
are  supposed  to  have  been  ejected  from  the  interior  of  the  earth  in  a 
melted  state.  Indeed,  the  trappean  rocks  pass  by  insensible  grada- 
tions, on  the  one  hand  into  granite  and  gneiss,  and  on  the  other  into 
basalt,  and  similar  rocks  of  known  volcanic  origin.  Basalt,  is  now 
considered  as  a  trappean  rock ;  analogous  to  greenstone,  or  augite 
rock,  in  its  composition  :  and  wacke  is  a  softer  kind  of  basalt.  Por- 
phyry, is  an  aggregate  of  large  crystals,  usually  of  feldspar,  imbedded 
in  a  cement  or  basis  of  feldspar,  or  some  allied  mineral.  Graywacke, 
is  an  aggregate  of  various  small  mineral  fragments,  angular,  flat,  or 
rounded,  united  by  a  silicious  cement ;  and  conglomerate  or  pudding- 
stone,  is  an  aggregate  of  larger  pebbles,  or  boulders,  united  by  a 
silicious,  argillaceous,  or  ferruginous  cement.  Amygdaloid,  is  a 
rock  usually  of  basalt,  wacke,  or  greenstone,  in  which  are  vesicular 
cavities,  more  or  less  filled  up  with  various  minerals,  apparently 
formed  there  by  infiltration.  Breccia,  is  an  aggregate  of  angular 
fragments,  of  one  or  more  minerals,  united  by  some  cement.  Sand- 
stone, is  chiefly  composed  of  grains  of  quartz,  united  by  a  cement, 
which  may  be  calcareous,  argillaceous,  or  silicious,  and  is  often 
colored  red  by  the  oxide  of  iron.  *flrgillite,  or  clay  slate,  consists 
of  indurated  clay,  often  interspersed  with  particles  of  other  minerals ; 
and  passing,  by  imperceptible  gradations,  into  silicious  slate,  contain- 
ing a  large  portion  of  silex,  or  sand. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Systematic  Geology,  we  would  comprise 
a  general  analysis  of  the  structure  of  the  earth  ;  reserving  for  Descrip- 
tive Geology,  the  application  of  this  analysis,  to  the  description  of  the 
various  countries  and  regions  which  have  yet  been  explored.  The 
study  of  Paleontology,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  the  characters  of  ancient 
plants  and  animals,  belongs  to  the  branches  of  Botany  and  Zoology ; 
but  in  so  far  as  it  examines  what  particular  species  are  found  in  par- 
ticular strata  or  formations,  we  would  include  it  in  the  present  section. 
On  penetrating  deeply  into  the  earth,  at  various  contiguous  places, 
we  find  its  mass  to  be  composed  of  numerous  strata,  or  layers,  usu- 
ally nearly  horizontal,  though  sometimes  much  inclined.  The  strata 
which  are  inclined,  are  said  to  dip;  and  the  direction  in  which  they 
descend  most  rapidly,  is  called  the  direction  of  the  dip.  When,  from 

2  L 


398  IDIOPHYSICS. 

a  certain  ridge,  the  strata  dip  or  decline  in  opposite  directions,  that 
ridge  is  called  an  anticlinal  line  or  axis  :  and  when  the  strata  decline, 
on  both  sides,  towards  a  line  of  meeting,  this  latter  is  called  a  syncli- 
nal line  or  axis.  Strata  which  are  twisted,  or  bent,  are  said  to  be 
contorted :  and  they  are  said  to  be  conformable,  when  their  surfaces 
are  nearly  parallel ;  but  unconformable,  when  this  is  not  the  case. 

When  the  strata  present  their  edges  so  as  to  be  visible  at  the  sur- 
face, they  are  said  to  crop  out:  and  when  their  outcrop  is  abrupt  or 
precipitous,  it  is  called  an  escarpment.  Detached  portions  of  strata, 
which  remain  elevated,  while  the  surrounding  parts  have  been  re- 
moved, are  called  outliers.  A  stratum  of  small  extent,  is  called  a 
bed;  and  a  very  thin  stratum  is  sometimes  called  a  seam.  When 
the  strata  have  been  apparently  broken  across,  and  those  on  one  side 
raised  above  those  on  the  other,  so  as  to  break  the  continuity,  this 
break  is  called  a  fault.  When  some  volcanic  or  other  matter  has 
been  injected  into  the  break,  so  as  to  form  a  wall  or  partition  crossing 
the  strata,  this  wall  is  called  a  dyke  ;  or,  if  small,  a  vein  ;  such  as 
often  contain  metallic  ores.  A  series  of  rocks  supposed  to  have  been 
produced  at  about  the  same  time,  is  called  a  formation. 

The  lowest  rocks  which  have  been  examined  by  geologists,  are 
found  to  contain  no  organic  remains,  and  no  coal  nor  salt :  but  they  bear 
the  marks  of  igneous  origin,  and  are  supposed  to  have  crystallized 
in  cooling  from  a  melted  state,  before  the  higher  strata  were  formed, 
or  any  animals  existed.  Hence  they  have  been  called  primary 
rocks ;  including  granite,  sienite,  and  similar  rocks,  which  are  the 
lowest,  and  unstratified ;  and  gneiss,  mica  slate,  and  primary  lime- 
stone or  marble,  which  are  all  stratified,  and  crystalline,  when  they 
belong  to  this  formation.  These  rocks  extend  beneath  the  lowest 
valleys  ;  but  protrude  above  them,  and  form  the  masses  and  tops  of 
the  highest  mountains ;  towards  which  the  strata  incline  upwards,  as 
if  the  mountains  were  upraised  by  a  subterranean  force.  Talcose 
and  chloritic  slates,  and  quartz  rock,  occupy  extensive  areas  of  the 
earth's  surface ;  but  their  crystallization  is  less  distinct  than  in  those 
before  mentioned  ;  and  these  rocks  are,  in  many  places  metamorphic, 
or  more  or  less  altered  by  heat,  from  injected  igneous  rocks,  as  trap 
dykes,  or  granite,  sienite,  and  quartz  veins. 

The  rocks  next  above  the  primary,  have  been  called  transition 
rocks ;  including  the  Cambrian  and  Silurian  systems :  and  they 
contain  occasional  shells,  as  the  ammonite,  (Plate  IX.  Fig.  1.),  the 
belemnite,  (Fig.  2.),*  the  orthoceratite,  (Fig.  3.),  and  the  trilobite, 
(Fig.  4.) ;  some  fishes,  as  the  orodus,  of  the  shark  family,  (Fig.  5.) ; 
with  some  zoophytes,  marine  plants,  algae,  and  ferns,  but  no  organic 
remains,  of  a  higher  class,  and  but  slight  traces  of  coal  or  salt.  They 
include  argillite  or  clay  slate,  gray  wacke,  granular  limestone,  gypsum, 
and  sometimes  granite:  but  the  granite,  and  similar  rocks,  which 
occasionally  overlie  the  slate  or  limestone,  were  probably  ejected 
from  below,  and  deposited,  like  lava  from  volcanoes,  long  after  the 
primary  formations.  Transition  strata  often  extend  up  the  sides  of 
primary  mountains ;  and  sometimes  constitute  extensive  mountain 

*  The  belemnite  appears  to  have  been  the  internal  shell  or  skeleton  of  an  animal 
resembling  the  cuttle-fish,  hence  called,  by  Buckland,  the  belemnosepia. 


GEOLOGY.  399 

ranges.  We  may  here  remark  that  the  animals  delineated  in  Plate 
IX. ;  several  of  them  restorations  from  the  skeletons,  are  all  of  genera 
which  are  now  extinct.  :;: .;  .; 

Next  above  the  transition  strata,  are  the  secondary  rocks  ;  which 
include  numerous  organic  remains,  and  comprise  the  principal  beds 
of  coal  and  salt ;  hence  giving  rise  to  salt  springs.  The  organic  re- 
mains in  the  lower  secondary  rocks,  including  the  old  red  sandstone, 
carboniferous  limestone,  and  coal  formations,  are  chiefly  vegetable ; 
and  were  doubtless  buried  there,  for  the  most  part,  by  the  gradual 
accumulation  of  earthy  materials.  It  is  now  very  generally  admitted 
that  all  mineral  coal,  both  anthracite  and  bituminous,  was  produced 
from  vegetable  matter,  deposited  in  beds,  perhaps,  of  former  lakes, 
and  afterwards  subjected  to  subterranean  heat.  The  coal  measures, 
containing  beds  or  seams  of  coal,  consist  chiefly  of  sandstone,  and 
slate  or  shale,  with  ironstone,  or  ore ;  but  sometimes  of  limestone. 
Above  the  coal  formations,  are  the  new  red  sandstone  and  magnesian 
limestone  ;  the  former  sometimes  associated  with  rock  salt,  or  gyp- 
sum :  next  come  the  lias  and  oolite,  both  composed  of  alternating 
strata  of  clays  and  limestones,  with  some  slates ;  the  former  named 
from  its  being  in  layers ;  the  latter,  from  its  containing  rounded 
granules,  like  eggs :  and  highest  among  the  secondary  rocks  are 
compact  formations  of  clay,  sand,  and  chalk,  including  the  Weald  clay, 
and  green  sand  of  England,  containing  numerous  organic  remains. 
The  lower  secondary  rocks  contain  rare  remains  of  vertebrated  fishes, 
as  the  cephalaspis,  (Plate  IX.  Fig.  6.) ;  and  some  reptiles,  as  scorpi- 
ons ;  but  chiefly  shells  and  plants.  In  the  new  red  sandstone,  are 
found  the  palaeoniscus,  (Fig.  7.),  the  plesiosaurus,  (Fig.  8.).  the 
ichthyosaurus,  (Fig.  9.),  and  the  pterodactylus,  (Fig.  10.) ;  besides 
some  slight  traces  of  quadrupeds  and  birds.  In  the  Wealden  rocks, 
Dr.  Mantell  found  the  remains  of  the  iguanodon,  (Fig.  11.),  which 
in  some  specimens  was  nearly  70  feet  long.  The  secondary  rocks 
are  often  broken  through,  and  overlaid,  by  unconformable  masses  of 
basalt :  and,  in  a  few  instances,  porphyry,  and  even  granite,  appear 
to  have  been  thrown  up  like  lava,  through  fissures  from  below. 

Next  above  the  secondary,  are  generally  found  tertiary,  rocks,  con- 
sisting of  various  deposites,  of  soft  sandstone,  limestone,  gypsum, 
sand,  clay,  and  marl ;  which  last  is  chiefly  a  mixture  of  clay  and  car- 
bonate of  lime.  These  strata  were  apparently  formed  in  bays,  or  lakes, 
and  hence  are  of  limited  extent.  The  lower  series  contain  numerous 
marine  shells ;  while  some  of  the  upper  contain,  in  a  few  localities, 
fresh-water  shells,  and  the  bones  of  quadrupeds  and  birds,  often  of 
extinct  species  ;  and  these  sometimes  alternate  with  strata  of  marine 
formation.  Here  we  find  the  remains  of  the  anoplotherium,  (PI.  IX. 
Fig.  12.),  the  palaeotherium,  (Fig.  13.),  the  dinotherum,  (Fig.  14.), 
the  megatherium,  or  megalonyx,  (p.  379.),  and  the  mastodon,  or 
mammoth,  (Fig.  16.),  all  of  which  races  are  now  extinct.  Above  the 
tertiary  formations,  we  find  strata  of  gravel,  sand,  clay,  and  shells, 
mingled  with  large  boulders,  or  rounded  masses  of  rock,  which  have 
evidently  been  transported  from  their  original  position,  directly  or  in- 
directly by  the  action  of  water.  These  strata  have  hence  been  called 
diluvial;  and  they  contain  remains  of  the  animals  last  named  as  well 


400  IDIOPHYSICS. 

as  of  the  elephant,  rhinoceros,  and  numerous  other  genera,  such  as 
now  exist.  Lastly,  the  deposites  formed  by  the  wash  of  rivers,  the 
action  of  currents,  the  labors  of  coral  animals,  and  similar  causes, 
are  called  alluvial;  and  of  course  contain  numerous  remains,  chiefly 
of  animals  and  plants  still  living. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Physical  Geology,  we  are  to  treat  of  the 
causes  which  have  been,  or  now  are  in  operation,  producing  changes 
in  the  structure,  or  aspect  of  the  globe.  These  may  all,  it  is  be- 
lieved, be  referred  to  the  action  of  wind,  water,  heat,  or  organic  life. 
The  wind,  by  transporting  sand,  forming  hills,  and  burying  cities  or 
forests,  becomes  a  geological  agent  worthy  of  notice.  The  action 
of  water,  requires  to  be  studied  both  on  the  land,  and  in  the  ocean. 
On  the  land,  it  has  an  abrasive  action,  wearing  away  the  solid  earth, 
and  transporting  it  to  some  lower  region,  or  to  the  sea.  This  action 
is  increased  by  the  effect  of  frost ;  as  the  freezing  of  water  in  porous 
rocks,  by  its  expansion,  causes  them  to  crack  or  scale  off,  and  thus 
assists  in  their  disintegration.  The  earth,  on  mountain  sides,  be- 
coming soft  by  thawing,  is  then  more  easily  carried  away  by  torrents  ; 
forming  avalanches,  or  slides  of  earth,  like  those  of  ice.  Rocks  are 
also  corroded  by  vegetation ;  and  this  partly  by  the  action  of  acids, 
produced  from  the  mosses  or  lichens  which  cover  them. 

By  such  means,  the  loose  superficial  earth  is  believed  to  have  been 
derived  from  solid  rocks  :  and  the  detritus,  carried  away  by  streams, 
is  still  forming  alluvial  land ;  especially  in  the  deltas,  or  islands  and 
shoals,  at  the  mouths  of  rivers ;  which  are  continually  encroaching 
upon  the  sea.  Islands  may  also  be  formed  by  deposition,  from  cur- 
rents in  the  ocean  ;  or  by  coral  animals,  shells,  or  submarine  plants  ; 
and  in  some  instances  by  subterranean  forces,  as  in  modern  volcanoes, 
raising  the  bed  of  the  ocean  above  the  level  of  its  surface.  If  this 
were  done  upon  an  extensive  scale,  it  would  account  for  the  existence 
of  marine  shells  in  elevated  positions ;  and  the  currents  which  such 
upheaving  would  produce,  may  account  for  the  boulders,  or  rounded 
rocks,  which  we  find  scattered  over  the  land,  dragged  from  their  pri- 
mitive beds,  and  leaving  stratches  on  the  rocks  over  which  they  have 
passed  ;  while  beds  of  gravel  and  sand  were  deposited  in  the  eddies. 

The  cause  adequate  to  produce  such  a  rise  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean, 
must  be  sought  in  the  internal  fires  of  the  earth  ;  whose  existence 
is  proved  by  more  than  two  hundred  volcanoes,  still  burning,  as  well 
as  by  the  numerous  hot  springs,  in  various  parts  of  the  globe.  An- 
other proof  is  found  in  the  fact,  that  the  earth  grows  warmer,  as  we 
descend  in  caves  or  mines,  at  the  rate  of  1°  Fahrenheit,  for  every  50 
feet,  nearly  ;  commencing  with  the  average  temperature  not  far  below 
the  surface.  At  this  rate  of  increase,  the  earth,  at  the  depth  of  ten 
miles,  would  be  at  a  red  heat ;  at  the  depth  of  twenty  miles  it  would 
be  at  a  white  heat ;  and  at  a  depth  of  fifty  miles,  the  hardest  rocks 
would  be  in  a  liquid  state,  like  melted  iron  or  lava.  Nor  is  this 
statement  incredible,  when  we  consider  how  cool  may  be  the  exterior 
of  a  large  furnace,  while  the  iron  is  melting  within  it.  The  tempera- 
ture of  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  is  probably,  nearly  that  of  its  sur- 
face ;  while,  beneath  it,  the  heat  may  increase  according  to  the  ratio 
above  given. 


1'LATE    IX.        OKOLOOY. 


Engraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


GEOLOGY.  401 

The  facts  here  stated,  have  led  many  geologists  to  believe  that  the 
earth  was  once  completely  melted  with  fervent  heat ;  and  has  been 
gradually  cooling  for  ages,  since  elephants  lived  in  Siberia :  and  that 
the  whole  of  the  interior  is  still  in  a  melted  state  ;  the  central  heat 
still  remaining,  while  the  exterior  has  nearly  reached  its  limit  of  cool- 
ing; since  no  change  has  been  recorded  within  the  period  of  authentic 
history.  Others  deny  the  doctrine  of  central  heat,  and  attribute  the 
volcanic  fires,  which  they  suppose  to  be  of  limited  extent,  to  chemical 
action,  such  as  the  burning  of  the  alkaline  metals,  by  contact,  per- 
haps, with  water  from  the  sea.  According  to  this  theory,  the  com- 
bustion should  penetrate  deeper  and  deeper :  and  this  refers  us  back 
to  a  period  when  the  earth's  surface  might  have  been  heated  by  ex- 
ternal fires.  Either  of  these  theories  may  account  for  the  formation 
of  crystalline  rocks,  by  heat  and  pressure  ;  as  it  has  been  proved  by 
experiment,  that  such  materials  may  be  crystallized  by  these  causes* 
Either  of  these  theories  will  also  aid  in  explaining  the  action  of  earth- 
quakes, and  volcanoes  ;  the  generation  and  confinement  of  gases 
causing  the  former,  till  the  gaseous  matter  finds  vent  in  the  latter,  or 
rends  new  fissures,  to  make  its  escape.  But  farther  investigations 
are  yet  required,  to  complete  the  theory  of  Geology,  and  to  reconcile 
all  the  facts  hitherto  collected.  We  can  only  add,  that  the  book  of 
nature  and  the  book  of  revelation  will,  doubtless,  when  fully  under- 
stood, be  found  to  agree  entirely ;  both  being  the  work  of  the  same 
infinitely  wise  and  omnipotent  Author. 

§  4.  As  a  specimen  of  Descriptive  Geology,  we  have  only  room  to 
give  a  general  idea  of  the  structure  of  our  own  country  ;  which  presents 
a  rich  field  of  geological  investigation.  It  should  here  be  understood 
that  countries  are  named  geologically  from  the  strata  which  appear  on 
their  surface ;  though  other  formations  may  exist  beneath.  The  greater 
part  of  New  England,  including  the  White  and  Green  mountains,  is 
of  the  primary  formation ;  consisting  chiefly  of  granitic  rocks. 
Rhode  Island,  and  a  narrow  belt  to  the  north  of  it,  are  of  the  tran- 
sition  formation,  but  contain  traces  of  coal ;  and  the  red  sandstone 
of  the  Connecticut  river,  belongs  to  the  secondary.  The  Highlands 
of  New  York,  and  the  Blue  Ridge  in  Virginia,  are  primary  moun- 
tains ;  but  the  Catskill,  and  Alleghany  range,  are  transition :  and 
between  these  two  chains  lies  the  Great  valley,  chiefly  of  the  se- 
condary formation.  The  coal  regions  of  Pennsylvania,  Virginia, 
and  Ohio  are  chiefly  transition  and  secondary ;  and  this  latter  forma- 
tion prevails  in  New  York  and  the  Western  States,  Coal  is  found 
not  only  in  eastern  Ohio,  but  in  northern  Michigan,  western  Illinois, 
on  the  Wabash  and  Green  rivers,  and  west  of  the  Arkansas.  The 
coast  of  the  United  States,  from  Long  Island  southward  to  Florida, 
and  westward  to  Louisiana,  is  alluvial ;  widening  towards  the  south. 
Back  of  this,  is  a  belt  of  the  tertiary  formation,  rich  in  fossil  shells  ; 
and  still  farther  back,  is  an  upper  secondary,  or  cretaceous  formation, 
extending  nearly  to  the  foot  of  the  primary  mountains  already  re- 
ferred to. 


51  2L2 


XII.  DEPARTMENT: 

ANDROPHYSICS. 


IN  the  department  of  Androphysics,  we  include  the  study  of  the 
structure  and  functions  of  the  human  body ;  the  diseases  and  acci- 
dents to  which  it  is  exposed ;  and  the  remedies  for  these,  so  far  as 
they  have  been  discovered.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
my?,  a  man,  and  tjnxuj,  nature ;  and  it  may  be  regarded  as  synonymous 
with  the  appellation  of  Medicine,  or  the  Medical  Sciences,  derived 
from  the  Latin  medico,  I  cure  ;  by  which  names  this  group  is  often 
referred  to.  In  our  own  language,  the  word  physician,  has  a  relation 
to  these  sciences  alone  :  whereas  the  French  word  physicien,  is  ap- 
plied, as  we  have  already  intimated,  only  to  the  natural  philosopher. 
The  study  of  this  department,  presupposes  a  general  knowledge  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Chemistry  ;  on 
which  many  of  its  reasonings,  and  still  more  of  its  practical  applica- 
tions depend. 

The  study  of  Medicine  is  often  ranked  as  an  uncertain  science  ; 
in  contradistinction  from  the  mathematical  and  acrophysical,  which 
have  received  the  appellation  of  the  exact  sciences.  In  this  respect, 
medicine  stands  on  a  somewhat  peculiar  basis :  for  not  only  are  its 
principles,  derived  as  they  must  be  from  extensive  induction,  liable  to 
be  called  in  question ;  but  the  problems  which  it  presents,  are  so 
complicated  and  embarrassed,  that  even  when  its  principles  are  correct, 
there  may  still  be  an  uncertainty  in  making  their  application.  Grant- 
ing that  a  given  remedy  is  efficacious  in  a  certain  stage  of  a  certain 
disease,  it  may  nevertheless  be  difficult  to  identify  the  disease,  and 
especially  to  determine  the  precise  stage  at  which  the  remedy  should 
be  applied.  These  last  remarks  relate  to  medicine  considered  as  an 
art,  rather  than  as  a  science :  for  many  of  the  facts  and  principles  of 
Anatomy,  Physiology,  and  even  of  Medicine  proper,  are  as  firmly 
established  as  any  truths  in  the  whole  wide  range  of  knowledge  ; 
though  others  are  less  certain,  or  still  on  trial :  and,  after  all,  the  in- 
herent difficulty  of  rightly  applying  them  is  the  greatest  source  of 
error  ;  one  which  we  fear  can  never  be  wholly  removed. 

On  the  importance  of  the  Medical  profession  ;  the  rewards  which 
await  its  successful  votaries  ;  and  the  responsibility  which  it  imposes, 
in  cases  where  the  slightest  error  may  prove  fatal  to  the  confiding 
patient ;  on  these  themes,  we  need  not  here  expatiate.  But  we  feel 
bound  to  remark,  that  the  physician  who  has  studied  the  microcosm, 
or  little  world,  of  the  human  frame,  without  realizing  that  it  is  the 
work  of  a  Divine  Architect,  can  hardly  possess  those  reasoning  facul- 
ties, which  alone  can  merit  success  in  this  profession,  or  ensure  a 
proper  use  of  it  when  attained.  The  last  branches  of  Androphysics, 
are  among  the  ultimate  sciences  ;  subsidizing  others,  but  subsidiary  to 

402 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  403 

none  :  and  it  thus  ranks  in  the  physical  world,  with  Theology  in  the 
intellectual ;  as  alike  aiming  to  meliorate  the  condition  of  the  human, 
race.  To  the  pious  Physician,  alone,  it  belongs,  to  unite  these  noble 
aims  ;  by  caring  for  the  eternal  welfare  of  those  whose  health  he 
attempts  to  restore;  and  referring  them  to  the  great  Physician  of 
souls,  for  the  cure  of  diseases  far  more  fatal  than  any  which  his  skill 
can  remove. 

The  principle  of  life,  and  the  connection  of  the  soul  and  body,  are 
among  the  greatest  mysteries  of  nature  ;  such  as  man,  in  his  finite 
state,  probably  can  never  completely  fathom.  Hippocrates  attributed 
animal  warmth  to  a  material  fire,  residing  in  the  left  ventricle  of  the 
heart,  and  moderated  by  the  inhalation  of  the  air ;  but  the  mind  he 
regarded  as  an  ethereal  fire,  immortal,  and  intelligent,  acting  on  the 
body  by  means  of  certain  faculties  or  powers.  Plato  regarded  the 
spinal  marrow  as  the  bond  of  union  between  the  soul  and  body  :  and 
he  believed  in  three  vital  principles,  residing  respectively  in  the 
head,  the  heart,  and  the  liver,  or  stomach.  Galen  modified  this  idea, 
and  imagined  the  existence  of  three  spirits,  or  faculties  ;  the  animal, 
residing  in  the  brain,  the  source  of  sensation  and  motion  ;  the  vital, 
residing  in  the  heart,  the  source  of  warmth  and  vitality  ;  and  the 
natural,  residing  in  the  liver  or  stomach,  the  source  of  nutrition  and 
growth. 

In  modern  times,  Van  Helmont  gave  the  name  of  archeus,  or  the 
chief,  and  Boerhaave,  that  of  impetumfaciens,  or  the  active  energy, 
to  the  great  principle  of  life  ;  but  without  throwing  any  new  light 
upon  the  subject.  Glisson,  in  his  work  on  the  "  Life  of  Nature  and 
of  its  three  first  faculties,  the  perceptive,  appetitive,  and  motive," 
published  in  1672,  first  ascribed  to  the  fibres  of  the  animal  body  a 
peculiar  power  which  he  called  irritability.  This  he  divided  into 
three  kinds,  natural,  vital,  and  animal ;  pointing  out  the  differences 
in  different  organs.  The  idea  of  a  nervous  fluid,  as  the  exciting 
cause  of  muscular  action,  has  always  been  a  prominent  one ;  the 
ancients  comparing  it  to  air ;  the  alchemists  to  an  acid ;  while  New- 
ton suggested  that  it  might  be  ethereal;  an  opinion  which  was  adopted 
by  Haller  and  Cuvier.  But  although  an  ethereal  medium,  which  is 
very  probably  a  galvanic  current,  may  be  the  intermediate  agent  in 
producing  muscular  motion ;  still  the  mind,  or  soul,  the  power  which 
controls  this  mechanism,  is  left  as  inexplicable  as  ever.  The 
mechanism  itself  may  yet  be  farther  elucidated  by  new  discoveries  : 
but  the  presiding  spirit,  must,  we  apprehend,  be  loosed  from  its 
earthly  bondage,  before  it  can  turn  and  perceive  the  chains  which 
bound  it. 

In  distributing  the  medical  sciences  under  their  appropriate  branches, 
we  incline  strongly  to  the  opinion  that  Anatomy  and  Physiology, 
from  their  close  relations,  the  one  treating  of  the  mechanism  of  the 
body,  and  the  other  of  its  uses,  should  both  be  included  in  one  and 
the  same  branch;  for  which  we  would  propose  the  name  Andro- 
noiny ;  a  name  which,  we  trust,  will  often  be  found  convenient  to 
designate  these  subjects  connectedly;  with  the  greatest  possible 
brevity.  Pharmacy,  Materia  Medica,  and  Therapeutics,  in  so  far  as 
they  relate  to  the  preparation  and  properties  of  medicines,  we  would 


404  ANDROPHYSICS. 

include  in  one  branch,  under  the  name  of  Pharmacology.  The  study 
of  diseases,  and  their  proper  remedies,  forms  another  extensive  branch, 
usually  known  as  the  Practice  of  Medicine,  or  medicine  proper,  for 
which  we  would  propose  the  name  Thereology.  And  lastly,  for 
Surgery,  and  other  kindred  subjects  which  cannot  properly  appear  in 
a  general  classification,  we  would  revive  the  term  Chirurgery;  as 
admitting  of  this  extended  signification.  The  subject  of  Medical 
Jurisprudence,  being  an  application  of  the  various  principles  of 
Androphysics  to  legal  cases,  of  murder,  suicide,  wounds,  or  personal 
injuries,  may  be  considered  as  an  appendix  to  this  department,  rather 
than  a  distinct  branch  of  it. 

We  proceed  then,  to  give  a  synopsis  of  Androphysics,  under  the 
branches  of  Andronomy,  Pharmacology,  Thereology,  and  Chirurgery. 


CHAPTER  I. 

ANDRONOMY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Andronomy,  we  comprehend  the  study  of  the 
numan  frame,  in  a  healthy  state  ;  or  the  structure  and  functions  of  its 
various  organs,  and  the  means  by  which  they  have  been  made 
known.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  cu^p,  a  man,  and 
»>o,cto$,  a  law;  hence  signifying  the  laws  of  the  human  body,  as 
Zoonomy  does  those  of  animals  in  general,  and  Phytonomy  those 
of  plants.  Anatomy,  so  named  from  the  Greek  avatepva),  I  dissect, 
or  cut  in  pieces,  relates  to  the  structure  of  the  body,  or  its  organi- 
zation ;  while  Physiology,  relates  to  the  functions  of  the  different 
organs,  or  their  uses  in  supporting  animal  life:  and  both  are  included 
in  the  present  branch,  Andronomy.  Human  Anatomy  and  Physi- 
ology, have  been  greatly  illustrated  by  the  study  of  Zoonomy,  or 
Comparative  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  which  names  have  been 
applied  to  the  similar  study  of  the  various  animal  races.  The  study 
of  Andronomy  is  evidently  indispensable  to  the  physician  and  surgeon ; 
and  of  high  importance  to  the  sculptor  and  painter  :  while  all  classes 
of  men  may  profit  by  a  knowledge  of  its  general  principles,  in 
preserving  or  improving  their  health. 

The  earliest  knowledge  of  Anatomy,  probably  originated  in  the 
casual  exposure  of  skeletons,  and  the  inspection  of  wounds,  or 
diseased  parts  of  the  body.  Great  knowledge  of  this  science  has 
been  attributed  to  the  Egyptian,  Thoth,  called  by  the  Greeks, 
Hermes ;  (p.  26) ;  but  as  the  Egyptians  held  in  abhorrence  those 
who  dissected  the  human  body,  or  even  who  practised  embalming, 
their  knowledge  on  this  subject  must  have  been  very  limited.  In 
Greece,  Democritus  of  Abdera,  devoted  much  time  to  the  dissection 
of  animals;  and  perhaps  did  more  for  this  branch  than  Hippocrates, 
his  great  contemporary.  Plato  theorized  on  Andronomy  ;  but  Aristo- 
tle wrote  practical  treatises  on  it,  of  real  value,  though  frequently 
erroneous.  Hippocrates  spoke  of  the  muscles  merely  as  flesh  :  and 
•onfounded  the  nerves  with  the  ligaments  and  tendons:  but  Aristotle 


ANDRONOMY.  405 

confounded  the  nerves  with  the  muscles ;  in  saying  that  the  nerves 
originate  in  the  heart. 

Anatomy  was  cultivated  in  Egypt,  under  the  Ptolemies,  by  Hero- 
philus  and  Erasistratus,  the  two  earliest  physicians  who  are  recorded 
as  having  dissected  human  bodies.  The  former  first  taught  osteo- 
logy from  the  human  skeleton ;  and  traced  the  nerves  from  the  brain 
and  spinal  marrow :  and  the  latter  first  asserted  that  digestion  is  per- 
formed by  the  action  of  the  stomach ;  regarding  the  nerves  as  the 
primary  organs  of  sense  and  of  motion.  At  length,  Galen,  who  had 
been  educated  at  Alexandria,  collected  the  andronomical  knowledge 
of  his  predecessors,  in  a  text  book,  which  was  adopted  by  all  civil- 
ized nations  down  to  modern  times ;  and  especially  by  the  Arabians, 
whose  religion  prohibited  dissection,  and  made  them  depend  on  other 
sources  for  a  knowledge  of  the  human  frame.  Galen  held  the  liver 
to  be  the  origin  of  the  veins ;  and  the  heart,  of  the  arteries :  but  he 
has  the  merit  of  giving  prominence  to  the  doctrine  of  final  causes; 
insisting  that  every  organ  must  have  its  appropriate  functions :— a 
principle  which  has  perhaps  been  of  greater  service  to  Andronomy 
than  to  any  other  science. 

In  modern  times,  the  practice  of  Anatomy  was  revived  by  Mon- 
dini,  or  Mundinus,  who  first  made  public  dissections,  at  Bologna,  in 
1315;  and  who  published  a  regular  treatise  on  this  science:  but  a 
far  better  work  was  produced  by  Vesalius,  about  1550,  founded  on 
his  own  observations.  The  anatomy  of  the  ear,  was  soon  after 
investigated  by  Fallopius  and  Eustachius ;  and  that  of  the  eye,  by 
Meibomius.  Meanwhile,  Servetus,  who  was  burnt  as  a  heretic,  at 
Geneva,  in  1553,  had  noticed  the  smaller  circulation  of  the  blood, 
between  the  heart  and  lungs :  and  Caesalpinus  inferred  a  motion  of 
the  blood  in  the  veins,  from  their  swelling  on  the  application  of  a 
ligature.  Silvius  discovered  valves  in  the  veins,  and  Fabricius 
Aquapendente  noticed  that  they  were  all  turned  towards  the  heart : 
but  the  great  discovery  of  the  general  circulation  of  the  blood,  from  the 
heart,  through  the  arteries,  and  back  to  the  heart  through  the  veins, 
was  first  made  by  Harvey,  in  1619  ;  and  published  in  1628. 

The  lacteal  vessels  had  been  noticed  by  Eristratus,  in  ancient 
times;  bat  they  were  rediscovered  by  Asellius,  in  1622;  and  their 
use  in  conveying  chyle  into  the  blood,  was  ascertained  by  Pecquet, 
in  1651.  The  lymphatic  vessels,  were  first  noticed  by  Rudbeck,  of 
Sweden;  and  their  valves  by  Ruysch,  of  Holland:  their  use  being 
to  absorb  superfluous  fluids  from  various  parts,  and  return  the  same 
to  the  blood.  The  injection  of  small  blood  vessels  for  dissection, 
first  practised  by  Silvius,  was  greatly  improved  by  Swammerdam ; 
who,  in  1672,  used  melted  wax  for  this  purpose  ;  which,  hardening 
as  it  cools,  gives  an  exact  cast  of  the  vessels  injected.  Borelli  was 
the  first  to  show  that  the  muscles,  which  in  the  dead  body  have  but 
little  strength,  are  capable,  in  the  living  animal,  of  sustaining  an 
enormous  tension ;  acting,  as  many  of  them  do,  at  a  great  disadvan- 
tage, in  producing  force  or  motion.  The  gastric  juice  of  the  stomach 
was  first  noticed  and  examined  by  Boyle,  and  Ray  :  and  Mayow 
first  promulgated  accurate  ideas  concerning  the  nature  of  respiration. 
Haller  studied  and  wrote  very  extensively  on  Andronomy ;  and  he 


406  ANDROPHYSICS. 

was  the  first  who  treated  Physiology  as  a  distinct  science ;  though 
his  work  involves  all  the  elements  of  Anatomy.  Haller  maintained 
the  doctrine  of  animal  irritability,  proposed  by  Glisson ;  and  re- 
garded it  as  a  power  distinct  from  sensation.  The  nomenclature  of 
descriptive  anatomy  was  improved  by  Dr.  Barclay,  in  1803 ;  parti- 
cularly by  the  introduction  of  terms  for  describing  more  precisely 
the  relative  positions  of  the  parts  and  organs.  More  recently,  Bichat 
has  proposed  an  excellent  classification  of  organic  structures ;  and 
has  made  the  important  distinction  of  a  cerebral,  and  a  ganglionic  sys- 
tem of  the  nerves.  To  Sir  Charles  Bell,  and  Mr.  Mayo,  we  are  in- 
debted, for  the  discovery  that  the  nerves  are  of  two  distinct  classes, 
one  for  the  exercise  of  volition,  and  the  other  for  sensation  : — a  dis- 
covery which  has  been  termed  the  greatest,  in  this  branch  of  know- 
ledge, since  the  time  of  Harvey. 

General  Anatomy,  is  that  division  of  Andronomy  which  treats 
of  the  different  kinds  of  structure,  found  in  the  human  body,  as  re- 
gards the  mode  of  organization.  These  structures,  or  systems,  are, 
according  to  Bichat,  the  osseous,  or  bony,  constituting  the  bones ; 
the  cartilaginous,  composing  the  cartilage,  or  gristle  of  the  joints ; 
the  fibrous,  forming  the  ligaments  of  the  joints,  and  the  coverings 
of  the  kidneys,  and  other  organs ;  the  muscular,  found  in  the  mus- 
cles ;  the  vascular,  in  the  heart,  arteries,  and  veins  ;  the  nervous,  in 
the  nerves  ;  the  mucous,  forming  the  inner  lining  of  the  nose,  wind- 
pipe, and  other  parts  ;  the  serous,  enveloping  the  stomach,  lungs, 
and  other  organs  ;  the  glandular,  occurring  in  small  rounded  organs 
of  secretion ;  the  adipose,  or  fatty,  forming  the  inner  covering ;  and 
the  cellular,  forming  the  outer  covering,  of  the  kidneys,  and  other  or- 
gans ;  and  the  dermoid  structure,  occurring  in  the  skin.  The  study 
of  the  particular  parts  and  organs  of  the  human  body,  has  been 
termed,  Special  Anatomy  ;  and  this,  with  the  corresponding  parts 
of  Physiology,  will  constitute  the  remainder  of  the  present  branch, 
under  the  commonly  received  divisions  of  Osteology,  Myology,  Neu- 
rology, Angiology,  and  Splanchnology. 

§  1.  Osteology,  is  that  division  of  Anatomy  which  treats  of  the 
bones  ;  their  structure,  shape,  number,  and  position.  Bones,  are  of 
a  porous  structure ;  the  hard  part  consisting  chiefly  of  carbonate  and 
phosphate  of  lime ;  but  the  pores  being  filled  with  vessels  and  fluids, 
which  supply  the  materials  for  their  growth.  When  fully  developed, 
in  the  human  body,  they  are  about  250  in  number ;  and  collectively 
they  form  the  framework  which  supports  the  body,  called,  in  tech- 
nical language,  the  skeleton.  The  skeleton  is  generally  divided  into 
the  head,  trunk,  and  extremities.  In  the  head,  the  cranium,  or 
skull,  is  composed  of  eight  bones,  united  by  serrated  joints,  or 
sutures,  the  upper  front  bone  being  called  the  sinciput,  and  the 
hinder  bone  the  occiput.  The  face,  has  fourteen  bones,  besides 
thirty-two  teeth ;  the  incisors,  or  cutting  teeth  being  in  front,  four 
in  each  jaw;  the  canine,  or  cuspid  teeth  next;  the  bicuspid,  or 
small  molars,  next  to  these ;  and  the  molars,  or  grinding  teeth,  com- 
pleting the  series,  on  each  side.  Eight  small  bones  of  the  ears, 
might  be  added  to  the  above  enumeration. 

The  trunk,  of  the  skeleton,  is  composed  of  the  vertebrae,  the  ribs, 


ANDRONOMY.  407 

the  sternum,  and  the  ossa  innominata.  The  vertebrae,  or  joints, 
which  together  form  the  vertebral  column,  called  the  spine,  or  back 
bone,  are  twenty-four  in  number.  The  ribs,  extending  from  the 
spine  around  the  sides,  are  twelve  in  number  on  each  side  ;  of  which 
the  upper  seven  are  called  true  ribs  ;  and  the  others,  being  shorter, 
are  called  false  ribs.  The  sternum,  or  breast  bone,  generally  con- 
sisting of  three  pieces,  extends  vertically  along  the  breast;  and  is 
connected  by  cartilages,  with  the  ribs  on  each  side.  The  ossa  inno- 
minata, are  the  hip-bones;  between  which  is  the  sacrum,  a  bone 
supporting  the  spine,  and  terminated  by  the  coccyx,  of  a  conical 
form. 

The  upper,  or  atlantal  extremities,  consist  of  the  clavicula,  or 
collar  bone,  in  front,  serving  to  brace  back  the  scapula,  or  shoulder 
blade  ;  which  latter  supports  the  os  humeri,  or  bone  of  the  upper 
arm  ;  and  to  this  are  attached  the  two  bones  of  the  lower  arm,  the 
radius  and  ulna;  the  former  being  on  the  side  towards  the  thumb. 
Eight  bones  of  the  carpus,  or  wrist ;  five  of  the  metacarpus,  or 
palm  of  the  hand  ;  twelve  bones  of  the  fingers ;  and  two  of  the 
thumb  ;  complete  the  list  of  bones  in  the  upper  extremities  ;  thirty- 
two  on  each  side.  The  lower  or  sacral  extremities,  consist  of  the 
os  femoris,  or  thigh  bone  ;  the  patella,  or  knee  pan  ;  the  tibia,  or 
large  bone  of  the  leg ;  the  fibula,  or  small  hinder  bone  of  the  leg ; 
the  os  calcis,  or  heel  bone ;  and  six  other  bones  of  the  tarsus,  or 
instep;  five  bones  of  the  metatarsus,  or  body  of  the  foot;  and  four- 
teen bones  of  the  toes  ;  making  in  all,  thirty  bones  on  each  side. 
The  bones  are  covered  with  a  firm  membrane,  called  the  periosteum; 
which  receives,  where  it  invests  the  skull,  the  name  of  pericranium : 
and  the  joints  are  lined  with  cartilage  or  gristle,  to  prevent  their 
wearing.  They  are  kept  together  by  strong  fibrous  ligaments,  the 
study  of  which  is  termed  Syndesmology ;  but  of  which  we  have 
here  no  room  to  treat. 

§  2.  Myology,  is  that  division  of  Anatomy  which  treats  of  the 
muscles.  '  These  organs  are  almost  entirely  composed  of  fibres, 
usually  of  a  red  color,  and  placed  side  by  side,  but  sometimes  of 
considerable  thickness ;  as  shown  in  the  lean  part  of  animal  flesh. 
They  are  the  immediate  agents,  by  means  of  which  all  animal  motion 
is  produced,  whether  of  mere  vitality  or  of  volition.  They  act,  in 
every  case,  by  contraction ;  whether  to  expel  the  blood  from  the 
heart,  or  to  move  a  limb :  and  this  contraction,  produced  probably  by 
the  galvanic  action  of  the  nerves,  is  one  of  the  mysteries  of  animal 
life.  If  the  brain  is  compressed,  the  power  of  contracting  the  mus- 
cles, by  volition,  ceases  ;  and  life  soon  becomes  extinct.  The  mus- 
cles constitute  the  fleshy  part  of  the  body ;  and  sometimes  cross  over 
each  other,  or  interlace ;  while,  at  other  times,  they  pass  through 
loops,  like  a  cord  over  a  pulley,  in  order  to  produce  the  requisite 
motion.  Those  which  move  the  limbs,  are  attached  to  the  bones, 
mostly  near  the  joints,  by  means  of  tendons  or  sinews ;  and  those 
on  opposite  sides  often  counterbalance  each  other's  effects. 

The  muscles  are  classed  according  to  the  region  of  the  body 
which  they  occupy;  and  they  are  about  527  in  number;  of  which 
257  are  in  pairs,  and  on  opposite  sides  of  the  body.  To  describe 


408  ANDROPHTSICS. 

them,  would  far  transcend  our  limits  ;  but  we  may  observe  that  they 
are  mostly  named  from  the  organs  to  which  they  belong,  and  the  kind 
of  motion  which  they  are  intended  to  produce ;  or  from  their  struc- 
ture, or  position.  Thus,  those  which  cause  the  bending  of  the 
limbs,  are  called  flexors,  as  the  flexor  carpi  radialis,  serving  to  bend 
the  wrist  and  fore  arm ;  while  those  which  act  to  straighten  the  limb 
by  their  contraction,  are  called  extensors,  as  the  extensor  carpi  ulna- 
ris,  on  the  outer  or  upper  side  of  the  fore  arm,  serving  to  bend  the 
hand  backward.  Thus  too,  we  have  the  levator  menti,  or  muscle 
which,  by  contracting,  raises  the  chin;  the  orbicularis  oris,  serving  to 
contract  the  mouth ;  and  the  rectus  superior,  which,  by  contracting, 
raises  the  eye. 

§  3.  Neurology,  is  that  division  of  Anatomy  which  treats  of  the 
nerves,  and  the  nervous  system  ;  including  the  organs  of  sensation  ; 
among  which  are  the  eye  and  the  ear.  The  nervous  system,  con- 
sists of  the  brain ;  the  spinal  marrow  ;  the  nerves  ;  and  the  nervous 
ganglia.  The  brain,  situated  within  the  skull,  is  regarded  as  the 
immediate  seat  of  the  intellect ;  or  the  organ  by  means  of  which  we 
perceive,  feel,  reason,  and  will.  It  is  a  soft,  pulpy  substance,  and 
consists  of  the  cerebrum,  made  up  of  convolutions  or  folds,  occupy- 
ing the  whole  upper  part  of  the  skull ;  the  cerebellum,  or  smaller 
brain,  occupying  the  lower  and  back  part;  the  pons  Variolii  con- 
necting the  preceding,  at  the  centre  of  the  brain ;  and  the  medulla 
oblongata,  or  oblong  marrow,  extending  from  the  pons  Variolii  down 
to  the  spinal  marrow.  These  parts  together  are  enveloped  by  mem- 
branes, and  are  sometimes  called  the  common  sensorium,  considered 
as  the  seat  of  sensation  and  volition.  The  medulla  spinalis,  or  spi- 
nal marrow,  is  a  continuation  of  the  medulla  oblongata,  extending 
down  the  interior  of  the  spine,  and  terminating  in  a  complex  nerve 
called  cauda  equina. 

The  nerves,  are  white  cords,  usually  consisting  of  bunches  of 
filaments,  often  interweaving  with  each  other,  and  connected  by  cellu- 
lar tissue.  All  the  cerebral  and  spinal  nerves,  are  connected  with  the 
brain,  either  directly,  or  by  means  of  the  spinal  marrow :  and  they 
are  found  to  consist  of  two  classes  ;  nerves  of  sensation,  by  which 
the  mind  perceives  or  feels ;  and  nerves  of  volition,  which  are  con- 
nected with  the  muscles,  and  serve  to  produce  motion  :  but  these  two 
kinds  are  generally  associated,  forming  compound  nerves.  They 
usually  proceed  in  pairs,  branching  as  they  diverge,  towards  the 
extremities  of  the  body :  those  designed  to  produce  motion  being 
usually  the  largest.  There  are  twelve  pairs  of  cerebral  nerves,  pro- 
ceeding directly  from  the  brain,  and  chiefly  distributed  ever  the  head; 
and  thirty  pairs  of  spinal  nerves,  proceeding  from  the  spinal  marrow 
to  the  various  parts  of  the  body. 

The  ganglionic  system  consists  of  ganglia,  or  knots,  in  which 
several  nerves  unite,  forming  what  some  anatomists  have  termed 
*'  diminutive  brains1' :  but  although  these  ganglia  have  a  connexion 
with  the  nerves  proceeding  from  the  brain,  and  may  produce  sen- 
sation, they  are  more  or  less  independent  of  volition,  and  hence  may 
be  called  nerves  of  instinctive  action  :  their  use  being  to  cause  those 
muscular  motions,  of  digestion,  respiration,  and  circulation,  which 


ANDRONOMY.  409 

are  necess  try  to  the  preservation  of  life,  in  sleep  as  well  as  in  a  con- 
scious state.  The  ganglionic  system,  is,  in  fact,  a  collection  of  fila- 
ments, from  every  nerve  in  the  body,  meeting  in  the  ganglia,  and 
causing  every  part  of  the  system  to  be  affected  by,  or  sympathize 
with,  every  other  part ;  while  the  mind  takes  cognizance  of  the  state 
of  the  body,  or  is  prompted  to  action,  by  the  sensations  thus  ex- 
perienced. Hence  the  ganglionic  system  has  been  termed  the  great 
sympathetic  nerve. 

Of  the  eye,  as  the  organ  of  sight,  we  have  already  spoken  in  treat- 
ing of  Optics,  (p.  361).  The  internal  ear,  is  hollowed  out  from  the 
side  of  the  skull ;  and  the  membrane  of  the  tympanum,  is  stretched 
over  the  passage  leading  to  this  cavity ;  within  which  are  four  small 
bones,  serving  to  transmit  the  vibrations  of  the  air,  from  the  mem- 
brane to  the  labyrinth,  or  innermost  spiral  chamber,  whence  the 
auditory  nerve  conveys  the  impression  to  the  brain.  The  sense  of 
smelling,  depends  on  the  olfactory  nerves ;  that  of  tasting,  on  the 
nerves  of  the  tongue,  terminating  in  small  papillae  or  pointed  protu- 
berances;  and  the  sense  of  feeling,  is  produced  by  nervous  papillae 
extending  nearly  to  the  surface  of  the  skin.  The  skin,  consists  of 
the  cuticle,  epidermis,  or  scarf  skin,  on  the  exterior;  the  rete  muco- 
sum,  in  which  the  nerves  terminate,  and  which  gives  the  color  or 
complexion  ;  and  the  dermis,  or  true  skin,  which  is  thicker  than  the 
other  layers,  and  is  connected  with  the  cellular  membrane  covering 
the  muscles  of  the  body. 

§  4.  Jlngiology,  is  that  division  of  Anatomy  which  treats  of  the 
vessels,  of  the  human  body  ;  that  is  the  blood  vessels,  lacteals,  and 
absorbents.  The  blood  vessels,  are  the  heart,  arteries,  and  veins ; 
with  which  the  lungs  are  so  closely  connected,  that  we  shall  here 
describe  them  together.  The  heart  and  lungs  occupy  the  thorax,  or 
chest ;  and  are  separated  from  the  lower  viscera  by  a  membranous 
partition,  called  the  diaphragm.  The  heart,  formed  by  thick  and 
strong  muscular  coatings,  contains  two  cavities,  called  the  right,  and 
the  left  ventricle,  acting  as  forcing  pumps ;  below  which  are  two 
other  cavities,  called  the  right  and  left  auricle,  of  inferior  strength. 
The  blood,  whose  use  is  to  nourish  the  body,  is  collected  from  all 
parts  of  the  same,  by  the  veins,  and  enters  through  the  superior  and 
the  inferior  vena  cava,  into  the  right  auricle  of  the  heart.  From 
this  it  passes  into  the  right  ventricle,  through  an  aperture  with  a 
valve,  which  does  not  allow  it  to  return.  This  ventricle,  then  con- 
tracting, drives  the  blood,  through  the  pulmonary  artery,  into  the 
lungs  ;  whence,  after  being  acted  upon  by  the  air,  it  proceeds,  through 
the  pulmonary  veins,  into  the  left  auricle,  and  from  thence  into  the 
left  ventricle  of  the  heart,  which  also  has  a  valve  to  prevent  its  turning 
back,  in  its  course.  This  ventricle,  then  contracting,  acts  as  another 
forcing  pump,  to  drive  out  the  blood,  through  the  aorta,  or  systemic 
artery,  and  its  numerous  branches,  to  every  part  of  the  system. 

Thus,  by  the  alternate  contraction  and  relaxation  of  the  ventricles, 
the  double  circulation  of  the  blood  is  maintained,  first  through  the 
lungs,  and  then  through  the  body.  The  arteries,  are  more  deeply 
seated  than  the  veins  ;  as  any  accident  rupturing  them  would  be  more 
suddenly  fatal :  for  the  external  veins,  receiving  the  blood  through 
52  2  M 


410  ANDROPHYSICS. 

minute  or  capillary  vessels,  from  the  ends  of  the  arteries,  would  dis- 
charge it  more  slowly.  Nearly  200  arteries,  or  arterial  branches, 
have  received  distinct  names  ;  and  the  veins  are  probably  equally 
numerous.  The  lungs,  called  in  brutes  the  lights,  are  two  in  num- 
ber, and  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the  thorax,  or  upper  cavity :  the 
left  lung  consisting  of  two  lobes  or  divisions,  and  the  right  lung 
consisting  of  three  lobes,  as  it  is  the  largest.  They  are  composed  of 
membranous  cells,  which  are  permeable  to  gases,  but  not  to  the 
blood  ;  and  which  receive  the  air  inhaled  by  respiration.  The  blood, 
is  a  fluid,  consisting  of  water,  fibrin,  serum,  and  various  salts  ;  and 
receiving  its  red  color  from  small  globules  suspended  in  it,  which 
separate  when  it  coagulates.  In  the  veins,  it  has  a  dark  color :  but 
after  circulating  through  the  lungs,  absorbing  oxygen,  and  giving  out 
carbonic  acid,  it  acquires  a  rich  red  color,  and  is  then  fitted  for  giving 
nourishment,  as,  by  means  of  the  arteries,  it  pervades  the  whole  ani- 
mal system.  This  absorption  of  oxygen  by  respiration,  is  necessary 
to  animal  life ;  and  its  uniting  with  carbon  in  the  blood  is  probably 
one  source  of  vital  heat. 

The  absorbent  vessels,  are  small  pellucid  tubes,  which  occur  in 
all  parts  of  the  body,  and  which  serve  to  absorb  any  superfluous 
fluids,  and  convey  them  back  to  the  blood  ;  thus  relieving  the  several 
parts,  and  contributing  to  the  general  nourishment.  They  are  mostly 
called  lymphatic  vessels;  from  their  containing  the  lymph  or  ab- 
sorbed fluid  ;  which  has  a  slight  rose  or  yellow  color,  and  which, 
when  extracted,  coagulates,  like  the  blood.  But  those  absorbent 
vessels  which  convey  the  chyle  from  the  digested  food,  and  pour  it 
into  the  blood,  are  called  lacteals  ;  from  the  milk-like  appearance  of 
the  chyle ;  although  they  are  similar,  in  structure  and  office,  to  the 
other  lymphatics.  There  are  also  lymphatic  glands,  in  which  seve- 
ral of  the  vessels  unite,  and  thence  discharge  the  lymph  by  a  common 
reservoir. 

§  5.  Splanchnology,  is  that  division  of  Anatomy  which  treats  of 
the  viscera,  or  entrails,  occupying  the  interior  parts  of  the  body  :  but 
we  would  here  restrict  the  term  to  the  viscera  of  the  abdomen,  or 
lower  cavity  of  the  body  ;  excluding  the  lungs,  which  have  already 
been  described.  The  stomach,  next  to  the  liver,  occupies  the  upper 
part  of  the  abdomen  ;  and  is  a  strong  muscular  vessel,  presenting,  on 
its  interior  surface,  small  villi,  or  tubular  points,  for  infusing  the  gas- 
tric juice.  The  masticated  food,  passing  from  the  mouth  into  the 
pharynx,  is  forced,  by  muscular  action,  down  the  oesophagus,  or 
gullet;  and  enters  the  stomach,  at  its  left  end.  It  is  there  mixed 
with  the  gastric  juice;  by  the  aid  of  which  it  is  digested,  or  con- 
verted into  a  soft  pulpy  mass,  called  chyme.  The  chyme  then  passes 
from  the  right  end  of  the  stomach  into  the  duodenum,  where  it  re- 
ceives the  bile  and  pancreatic  juice;  by  the  action  of  which,  a 
liquid,  resembling  milk,  is  produced,  called  chyle  :  and  while  travers- 
ing the  jejunum  and  ilium,  or  small  intestines,  the  chyle  is  absorbed 
by  the  lacteal  vessels,  and  conveyed  into  the  blood. 

The  name  Adenology,  has  been  applied  to  the  study  of  the 
glands,  or  organs  of  secretion :  but  as  several  of  these  belong  with 
the  viscera,  and  with  the  organs  of  digestion,  we  shall  here  describe 


ANDRONOMY.  411 

them  under  the  present  section.  The  salivary  glands,  are  situated 
behind,  and  below,  the  lower  jaw  ;  and  their  office  is  to  secrete 
the  saliva;  which  serves  to  moisten  the  food,  during  mastication, 
and  to  aid  the  processes  of  deglutition,  and  digestion. 

The  largest  of  all  the  glands  is  the  liver  ;  which  lies  immediately 
beneath  the  diaphragm,  mostly  on  the  right  side  of  the  abdomen,  and 
partly  covering  the  stomach.  It  consists  of  three  lobes  ;  and  its  use 
is  to  secrete,  or  elaborate  the  bile  or  gall ;  a  greenish,  bitter  fluid, 
which  it  forms  from  the  blood,  and  discharges  into  the  gall-bladder, 
whence  it  is  conveyed  to  the  chyme  in  the  duodenum.  The  pancreas, 
called  in  brutes  the  sweetbread,  is  also  a  glandular  body,  situated 
behind  the  stomach,  and  secreting  the  pancreatic  juice;  which 
resembles  saliva,  and  which  goes  with  the  bile,  to  modify  the  chyme, 
and  assist  in  the  formation  of  chyle,  for  the  recruiting  of  the  blood. 
The  spleen,  or  milt,  is  a  sponge-like  organ,  much  smaller  than  the 
liver,  and  situated  below  the  diaphragm,  on  the  back  and  left  side.  It 
contains  numerous  blood-vessels,  and  its  cells  are  usually  filled  with 
blood ;  from  which  some  have  supposed  it  to  be  a  reservoir  or  safety 
vessel  for  the  blood  ;  but  others  regard  it  as  subservient  to  digestion, 
by  occasioning  an  increased  secretion  of  the  gastric  and  pancreatic 
juices.  The  kidneys,  are  small  glands,  whose  office  is  to  secrete  or 
separate  superfluous  and  noxious  fluids  from  the  blood,  and  discharge 
the  same  through  the  ureters  into  the  bladder.  If  this  action  be 
prevented  for  a  long  time,  as  by  disease,  the  result  is  fatal  to  the 
patient. 

We  have  only  room  remaining  to  speak  of  the  Voice,  which  can 
hardly  be  studied  under  any  of  the  preceding  divisions  of  Andronomy. 
The  voice  is  produced  by  means  of  air  expelled  from  the  lungs ; 
though  imperfect  sounds  may  also  be  produced  during  inhalation. 
Thus,  the  lungs  serve  the  double  purpose,  of  respiration,  and  of 
articulation,  or  speech.  The  air  vessels  of  the  lungs,  unite,  on 
leaving  these  viscera,  in  two  tubes  called  the  bronchi,  which, 
ascending,  also  unite,  to  form  the  trachea,  or  windpipe  ;  situated  in 
front  of  the  oesophagus,  or  gullet;  which  is  also  in  front  of,  and 
attached  to,  the  spinal  column.  The  principal  organ  of  the  voice,  is 
the  larynx,  at  the  upper  end  of  the  windpipe,  opening  into  the 
pharynx,  just  behind  the  root  of  the  tongue,  and  often  causing,  by 
its  size,  a  remarkable  protuberance  in  the  front  part  of  the  neck. 
The  larynx,  owes  its  vocal  powers  to  the  arytsenoid  cartilage;  the 
two  opposite  sides,  or  edges  of  which,  when  nearly  closed  together, 
are  made  to  vibrate,  like  a  reed,  by  the  air  passing  between  them. 
The  opening  which  they  form,  is  called  the  glottis;  and  the  carti- 
lage at  the  root  of  the  tongue,  which  falls  back,  when  we  swallow, 
and  thus  prevents  the  food  from  entering  the  windpipe,  is  called  the 
epiglottis.  The  part  performed  by  the  other  organs  of  speech,  has 
already  been  alluded  to,  in  giving  the  classification  of  articulate 
sounds  under  the  head  of  Phonology,  (p.  43). 


412  ANDROPHYSICS. 

CHAPTER  II. 

PHARMACOLOGY. 

PHARMACOLOGY,  is  that  branch  of  Androphysics  which  treats  of 
medicines ;  including  the  modes  of  preparing  them ;  their  properties  ; 
and  their  uses.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek  ^ap^axoj/, 
which  may  signify  either  a  medicine  or  a  poison :  as  many  of  the 
most  important  medicines,  from  their  powerful  action,  would  neces- 
sarily be  poisonous  to  a  healthy  person,  especially  if  taken  in  large 
quantities.  A  medicine  may  be  denned  as  any  substance  applied  to 
the  animal  system,  either  externally  or  internally,  to  cure  disease,  or 
restore  health.  The  art  of  comparing  and  compounding  medicines, 
is  termed  Pharmacy ;  the  person  who  prepares  them,  an  apothe- 
cary ;  the  book  which  describes  them,  a  dispensatory  ;  and  the  me- 
dicines themselves,  as  well  the  study  of  them,  are  sometimes  termed 
Materia  Medico.  The  study  of  poisons,  and  their  antidotes,  is 
called  Toxicology ;  and  is  here  included  in  the  present  branch  of 
Androphysics. 

We  think  it  proper  to  notice  a  prejudice  which  prevails,  with 
many  persons,  against  the  use  of  any  mineral  substance,  as  an  in- 
ternal medicine.  This  prejudice  supposes  that  all  mineral  substances 
are  injurious  to  the  system :  whereas,  even  vegetables  themselves, 
contain  several  of  the  mineral  medicines.  The  human  body,  in  a 
healthy  state,  contains  salts  of  potassa,  soda,  lime,  magnesia,  and 
iron;  equally  powerful  with  the  salts  administered  by  the  physician. 
Even  our  common  salt,  contains  elements,  which,  when  disunited, 
would  be  as  virulent  and  noxious  to  swallow  as  almost  any  com- 
pound which  the  chemist  can  prepare.  While,  therefore,  mineral  me- 
dicines, as  well  as  vegetable,  may  be  abused,  by  being  given  too  fre- 
quently, or  in  excess ;  they  are,  doubtless,  to  be  ranked  among  the 
most  important,  and  in  some  cases,  as  the  only  remedies,  which  can 
combat  the  disease,  or  give  the  least  promise  of  recovery. 

The  preparation  of  medicines  was,  in  the  earliest  times,  made  by 
the  physicians  themselves  :  but  it  first  became  a  distinct  branch  of 
medical  science,  at  Alexandria,  about  400  B.  C.  Mantias,  a  pupil 
of  Herophilus,  seems  to  have  been  the  author  of  the  first  systematic 
treatise  on  Pharmacology ;  and  even  kings,  as  Attalus  of  Pergamus, 
and  Mithridates  of  Pontus,  devoted  themselves  to  the  study  and  in- 
vention of  medicines.  Heras,  of  Cappadocia,  appears  to  have  written 
the  first  work  on  Pharmacy  at  Rome,  49  B.  C. ;  and  And,romachus, 
the  physician  of  Nero,  has  left  a  description  of  the  theriaca ;  an 
electuary,  or  treacle,  composed  of  about  seventy  different  ingredients, 
long  famous  as  an  antidote  against  poison.  Dioscorides  wrote  a  work 
on  Materia  Medica,  evincing  much  discrimination  ;  and  Galen  pro- 
posed a  classification  of  medicines,  founded,  however,  on  his  theory 
of  temperaments,  and  therefore,  long  since  discarded. 

The  Arabian  alchemists  introduced  several  new  chemical  medi- 
cines; among  which  were  mercury  and  its  preparations:  but  the  prin- 


PHARMACOLOGY.  413 

cipal  pharmaceutical  work  of  the  middle  ages,  was  the  Jlntidotarium, 
published  by  Prapositus,  of  Salerno,  as  early  as  the  twelfth  century 
Paracelsus,  the  founder  of  the  chemical  party  in  medicine,  published 
a  work  on  the  medical  virtues  of  antimony  ;  and  brought  that  article 
into  extensive  use.  The  Dispensatory  of  Valerius  Cordus,  published 
in  1542,  was  long  used  as  a  guide  in  compounding  medicines;  but 
the  Fundamenta  Materiae  Medicae,  of  the  German  Cartheuser, 
founded  on  the  improvements  then  already  made  in  botany  and  che- 
mistry, introduced  a  new  and  more  scientific  era,  in  the  present 
branch  of  medical  knowledge.  In  France,  this  science  was  pro- 
moted by  the  labors  of  Chomel  and  Geoffrey ;  and  in  England,  the 
treatise  of  Lewis,  improved  by  Dr.  Aiken,  contributed  much  to  its 
advancement.  A  superior  classification  of  medicines  has  since  been 
proposed  by  Dr.  Young;  and  modified  by  Dr.  A.  T.  Thompson :  nor 
should  we  here  omit  to  mention  the  U.  S.  Pharmacopeia,  prepared 
by  a  convention  of  physicians,  as  a  work  of  high  authority ;  and  the 
Dispensatory  of  Drs.  Wood  and  Bache,  as  one  of  sterling  value. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Pharmacology  under  the  heads  of  Thera- 
peutics ;  Materia  Medica  ;  Pharmacy,  and  Toxicology. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Therapeutics,  we  would  treat  of  the  clas- 
sification of  medicines,  in  reference  to  the  manner  in  which  they  act, 
or  the  effects  which  they  produce,  on  the  human  system.  The  clas- 
sification here  presented,  is  drawn  chiefly  from  Dr.  Dunglison's  re- 
cent and  valuable  treatise  on  Therapeutics.  In  reference  to  their 
mode  of  action,  medicines  are  classed  as  either  vital,  chemical,  or 
mechanical  agents.  The  vital  agents,  are  those  which  directly 
affect  the  functions  of  life ;  acting  either  as  excitants,  which  increase, 
or  sedatives,  which  diminish  organic  action.  The  chemical  agents, 
are  those  which  produce  an  immediate  chemical  change,  favorable  to 
health ;  and  the  mechanical  agents,  are  so  called,  because  they  are 
supposed  to  act  mechanically,  in  producing  their  peculiar  effects. 

The  excitant  medicines,  are  farther  subdivided  into  several  orders, 
if  we  may  use  the  term  ;  according  to  their  peculiar  effects.  The 
stimulants,  or  excitants  proper,  are  those  which  transiently  increase 
the  vital  action,  whether  locally  or  generally;  including  carminatives, 
or  remedies  against  flatulence,  or  wind  in  the  stomach.  Tonics,  not 
only  excite,  but  permanently  invigorate  the  system ;  including  an- 
thelmintics,  or  medicines  to  expel  worms.  Emetics,  are  medicines 
used  to  produce  nausea  and  vomiting ;  and  cathartics,  are  used  for 
loosening,  or  cleansing  the  system  ;  being  called  laxatives,  when 
gradual ;  purgatives,  when  sudden  ;  and  drastics  when  severe,  in  their 
operation.  Diaphoretics,  or  sudorifics,  are  used  to  produce  perspi- 
ration ;  diuretics,  to  increase  the  secretion  of  the  kidneys  ;  errhines, 
to  produce  sneezing,  or  nasal  secretion,  sometimes  relieving  the 
head  ;  and  expectorants,  to  remove  obstructions  of  the  air  passages, 
and  of  the  lungs,  Sialogogues,  are  medicines  which  increase  the  se- 
cretion of  saliva.  Sorbefacients,  are  employed  to  cause  the  absorp- 
tion and  removal  of  superfluous,  or  noxious  fluids :  revellents,  among 
which  are  rubefacients  and  vesicants,  producing  local  irritation  and 
blisters,  serve  thereby  to  reduce  the  diseased  action  of  other  parts  : 
and  antispasmodics,  on  a  similar  principle,  remove  muscular  contrac- 

2  M  2 


414  ANDROPHYSICS. 

tion,  by  relaxing  the  nerves  which  produce  it.  Astringents,  are 
sometimes  used  internally  as  tonics,  to  give  strength ;  but  more  fre- 
quently as  styptics,  to  contract  the  muscular  fiibres,  and  arrest  the 
effusion  of  blood. 

The  sedative  medicines,  include  sedatives  proper,  which,  acting 
on  the  nerves,  or  on  the  vascular  system,  diminish  vital  action ;  also 
narcotics,  which  first  excite  and  then  diminish  nervous  action,  pro- 
ducing, in  sufficient  doses,  lethargy  or  stupefaction  ;  also  refrigerants, 
which  reduce  morbid  heat,  or  heat  caused  by  disease ;  and  finally 
naitseants,  which  by  producing  nausea,  flow  of  saliva,  and  perspira- 
tion, allay  morbid  action.  The  Chemical  agents,  are  antacids,  used 
to  counteract  acidity,  particularly  in  the  stomach ;  ant  alkalies,  used 
to  counteract  alkalinity  ;  antilithics,  designed  to  prevent,  and  lit/ton- 
tripfics,  to  remove,  urinary  calculus,  or  stone  in  the  bladder ;  and 
disinfectants,  used  either  for  fumigation,  to  purify  the  air,  or  as  anti- 
septics, to  prevent  putrefaction  or  mortification.  The  Mechanical 
agents,  are  demulcents,  which  sheathe  sensitive  parts  from  irritation ; 
including  emollients,  which  soften  the  parts,  or  render  them  more 
flexible  ;  and  diluents,  which  serve  merely  to  dilute  the  animal 
fluids,  or  render  them  thinner  and  less  irritating. 

§  2.  To  Materia  Medica,  belongs  the  description  of  all  simple 
medicines,  and  their  medical  properties.  We  shall  here  classify 
them,  so  far  as  we  have  room  to  mention  them,  according  to  the  order 
established  in  the  preceding  section.  Among  the  stimulant  medi- 
cines, may  be  mentioned  alcohol ;  either  concentrated,  as  in  spirits  of 
wine  ;  or  diluted,  as  in  distilled  liquors ;  or  modified  by  other  sub- 
stances, as  in  wine  and  other  fermented  liquors.  Next  to  this,  are 
ether  ;  camphor;  and  the  essential  oils,  as  of  peppermint,  or  turpen- 
tine ;  all  of  which  are  similar  compounds  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and 
oxygen.  Ammonia,  and  its  carbonate,  which  latter  is  known  as 
hartshorn,  sal  volatile,  or  smelling  salt,  are  stimulant  and  antacid  at 
the  same  time.  Mercurial  medicines,  as  calomel,  and  red  precipi- 
tate, are  powerful  stimulants,  which  should  be  used  with  the  greatest 
caution.  Heat,  electricity,  and  some  mental  emotions,  may  also  be 
classed  with  the  stimulant  medicines. 

Among  the  tonic  medicines,  are  cinchonia,  and  quinia,  sometimes 
called  quinine  ;  as  also  their  salts  ;  all  obtained  from  Peruvian  bark  ; 
and  found  to  be  most  important  remedies  in  certain  fevers.  Several 
astringent  barks  and  roots,  have  tonic  properties  ;  as  nutgalls,  quassia, 
and  snake  root :  and  several  astringent  salts, — of  iron,  copper,  and 
zinc, — particularly  the  sulphate  of  iron,  and  its  carbonate  found  in 
chalybeate  waters,  belong  to  this  class  of  medicines.  Exercise,  and 
cheerful  emotions,  have  also  a  tonic  effect.  Among  the  anthelmintics, 
are  Carolina  pink  root ;  and  cowhage,  which  is  the  down  of  a  tro- 
pical plant.  The  powder  of  tin,  probably  acts  mechanically  to  de- 
stroy intestinal  worms;  but  as  it  is  often  poisonous,  its  use  can  in  no 
case  be  recommended. 

The  most  common  emetics,  are  tartar  emetic,  the  double  tartrate 
of  antimony  and  potassa ;  and  ipecacuanha,  the  active  principle  of 
which,  called  emetia,  is  milder  than  the  preceding.  Lobelia,  or  In- 
dian tobacco,  and  sanguinaria,  or  blood  root,  have  also  emetic  proper- 


PHARMACOLOGY.  415 

ties.  Among  the  stronger  cathartics,  are  elaterium,  colocynth,  gam- 
boge, and  aloes;  but  one  more  frequently  used  is  Epsom  salt,  or  the 
sulphate  of  magnesia.  Pure  magnesia,  and  its  carbonate,  are  milder 
cathartics ;  the  former  being  an  excellent  laxative.  The  most  im- 
portant vegetable  cathartics,  are  castor  oil,  obtained  from  the  castor 
bean ;  and  rhubarb,  and  jalap,  which  are  the  roots  of  foreign  plants. 
Calomel,  or  the  protochloride  of  mercury,  is  both  a  purgative  and 
anthelmintic  ;  or,  if  taken  in  very  small  dose,  it  has  general  stimulant 
and  alterative  effects  ;  like  those  of  metallic  mercury,  and  its  oxide, 
in  the  blue  pill. 

Among  the  reputed  diaphoretics,  are  ipecacuanha,  and  tartar 
emetic,  when  taken  in  very  small  quantity.  The  former,  mixed  with 
opium  and  sulphate  of  potassa,  forms  the  sudorific  medicine  called 
Dover's  powder.  The  acetate,  and  carbonate  of  ammonia ;  and 
nitric  ether,  often  called  sweet  spirits  of  nitre ;  also  produce  perspi- 
ration :  and  better  than  these,  in  some  cases,  are  warmth,  exercise,  and 
friction.  Among  the  diuretics,  are  several  salts  of  potassa  and  soda ; 
and  several  vegetables;  as  the  meadow  saffron,  foxglove,  juniper 
berries,  and  squills.  The  principal  errhines,  are  snuff,  euphorbium, 
and  white  hellebore  :  and  among  the  expectorants,  we  may  name  am- 
moniac, assafoetida,  squills,  and  the  balsams  of  Peru  and  Tolu.  In- 
halations of  ammonia,  vinegar,  or  tar,  in  the  state  of  vapor,  may  also 
promote  expectoration.  The  chief  sialogogues  are  tobacco,  horse 
radish,  and  the  sweet  flag;  the  habitual  use  of  which  is  however 
injurious  to  digestion.  The  mercurial  medicines  also  act  as  sialo- 
gogues, when  taken  in  sufficient  quantity. 

Among  the  sorbefacient  medicines,  are  iodine,  bromine,  ammoniac, 
and  galbanum  :  and  absorption  of  the  fluids  may  also  be  promoted 
by  compression,  or  friction.  Of  revellent  medicines,  ammonia, 
mustard,  cayenne  pepper,  and  Burgundy  pitch,  are  used  as  rubefa- 
cients,  producing  local  excitement  or  irritation.  The  Spanish  fly  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  vesicant,  to  raise  blisters  ;  and  Croton  oil,  as  a 
suppurant,  producing  pustules  or  sores.  Lunar  caustic  or  the  nitrate 
of  silver,  and  lapis  causticus,  or  caustic  potassa,  are  used  as  escha- 
rotics,  for  removing  unsound  flesh.  Among  the  antispasmodics,  are 
castor;  musk;  assafoetida;  and  sulphuric  and  nitric  ethers  ;  which 
exert  a  peculiar  soothing  effect  on  the  nervous  system. 

Of  sedative  remedies  proper,  venesection,  or  blood-letting,  is 
most  frequently  employed ;  though  it  should  be  with  caution. 
The  inhalation  of  diluted  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  carbonic  acid,  or 
carburetted  hydrogen  gases,  has  also  a,  sedative  effect.  Among  the 
narcotics,  opium,  or  its  active  principles,  morphia  and  narcotina,  are 
frequently  used.  Laudanum,  is  a  strong  tincture,  or  alcoholic 
infusion  of  opium ;  and  paregoric,  is  a  much  weaker  tincture  of 
opium,  with  camphor,  and  other  ingredients.  The  ethers,  may  have 
a  narcotic  effect,  as  in  Hoffman's  anodyne ;  and  hops,  and  tobacco, 
are  also  used  as  narcotics,  both  externally,  and  internally.  The 
refrigerants  most  employed,  are  cooling  drinks,  or  cold  external 
applications.  Nitre,  and  borax,  have  also  a  cooling  influence,  in 
proper  cases.  The  nauseant  medicines,  are  chiefly  emetics  admi- 
nistered in  very  small  doses. 


416  ADROPHYSICS. 

Of  chemical  agents,  the  antacids  are  the  alkalies;  as  ammonia, 
potassa,  soda,  lime,  and  magnesia ;  or  their  carbonates  ;  which  serve 
directly  to  neutralize  acids,  and  prevent  their  injurious  effect.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  antalkalies  are  the  acids;  as  acetic,  tartaric, 
sulphuric,  nitric,  or  muriatic;  which  however  are  seldom  required, 
unless  it  be  as  stimulants,  or  tonics.  Acids,  and  alkalies,  are  some- 
times used  as  antilithics  ;  but  not  without  careful  discrimination:  the 
tonics  and  diuretics  being  perhaps  preferable.  The  chief  disinfectants, 
are  chlorine  ;  or  in  its  place  the  chloride  of  soda,  or  of  lime  ;  and 
sulphurous,  nitric,  and  muriatic  acids,  charcoal,  creosote,  and  smoke. 
Of  mechanical  agents,  in  medicine,  we  may  name  as  demulcents, 
gum  Arabic,  or  gum  tragacanth  ;  Iceland,  or  Irish  moss  ;  flaxseed, 
barley,  oat-meal,  or  starch  ;  sassafras  pith,  or  slippery  elm  bark  ; 
and  olive  oil,  lard,  or  spermaceti.  When  the  action  of  diluents  is 
required,  water,  and  the  most  simple  beverages,  are  those  generally 
employed. 

§  3.  Pharmacy,  or  Pharmaceutics,  is  that  division  of  Pharmacology 
which  relates  to  the  selection,  preservation,  and  preparation  of 
medicines  ;  constituting  the  art  of  the  apothecary.  In  purchasing 
mineral  substances,  it  is  of  course  highly  important  that  they  should 
be  pure  and  genuine  ;  which  can  only  be  ascertained  by  chemical 
tests.  In  procuring  drugs  from  plants,  botanical  knowledge  is  also 
necessary,  in  order  to  identify  the  species,  to  which  chemical  tests 
would  be  inadequate.  It  is  moreover  important  that  the  plants,  or 
their  parts,  should  have  been  gathered  in  the  right  season,  in  a  sound 
state ;  and  that  they  should  have  been  properly  preserved.  In 
general,  the  best  seasons  for  gathering  medicinal  plants,  are  the 
spring  and  autumn  :  but  flowers  should  be  gathered  when  just 
expanded ;  and  aromatic  herbs,  when  just  in  flower. 

Among  the  chemical  processes,  employed  in  preparing  medicines, 
are  sublimation,  or  the  conversion  of  a  solid  into  vapor ;  pulveriza- 
tion, or  the  reducing  of  a  solid  to  a  powder  ;  solution,  or  the 
dissolving  of  a  solid  in  a  liquid ;  maceration,  or  the  soaking  of  a 
vegetable  substance,  for  a  long  time,  in  a  cold  liquid,  to  dissolve  some 
soluble  principle ;  digestion,  or  the  same  process  at  a  temperature 
between  90°  and  100° ;  decoction,  or  the  same  process  briefly 
conducted  at  a  boiling  heat ;  distillation,  or  the  heating  of  any 
substance,  in  a  retort,  or  close  vessel,  with  a  receiver  to  condense  the 
vapors  which  pass  over  ;  lixivation,  or  leaching,  to  extract  any 
soluble  substance  by  means  of  a  liquid  filtering  through  it ;  crystalli- 
zation, either  by  the  evaporation  of  a  liquid,  or  the  cooling  of  a 
melted  substance ;  and  calcination,  or  the  exposure  of  any  solid  to 
a  strong  heat,  to  expel  a  vaporizable  ingredient. 

In  prescribing  medicines,  and  preparing  prescriptions,  the  measures 
used,  are,  for  solids  the  grain,  (gr.)  of  which  5760  make  a  pound 
Troy,  and  7000  make  a  pound  avoirdupois ;  the  scruple,  @),  or  20 
grains ;  the  drachm,  (3),  which  is  three  scruples,  or  60  grains  ;  and 
the  ounce,  (^),  which  is  8  drachms,  or  480  grains  :  the  ounce  and 
pound  of  apothecaries'  being  the  same  as  those  of  Troy  weight,  but 
differently  subdivided.  For  liquids,  the  wine  gallon,  (c),  is  divided 
into  eight  pints,  (o),  of  28.875  cubic  inches  each ;  so  that  a  pint 


PHARMACOLOGY.  417 

of  distilled  water,  at  60°,  weighs  precisely  7289.7  grains.  The 
pint,  is  divided  into  16  Jluidounces,  (/g) ;  each  of  these  into  8 
Jluidrachms,  (/3)  5  an^  the  fluidrachm  contains  60  minims,  (m) ; 
of  which,  therefore,  480  make  one  fluidounce. 

§  4.  Toxicology,  is  the  study  of  poisons  ;  their  effects,  and  their 
antidotes.  These  should  be  understood  not  only  by  the  physician,  but 
also  by  the  apothecary,  who  may  often  be  called  on  directly  to  furnish 
a  remedy.  A  poison,  is  any  substance  which,  applied  to  the  bod  , 
will  destroy  life  ;  and  the  remedy  for  it  is  called  its  antidote.  Some 
substances  are  poisonous  when  applied  externally,  being  absorbed 
into  the  system  :  some  gases  are  poisonous  to  inhale ;  and  indeed, 
no  gas  except  pure  atmospheric  air,  can  be  considered  as  entirely 
healthy:  but  the  poisons  which  most  frequently  prove  fatal,  are  those 
taken  into  the  stomach  ;  sometimes  by  mistake  ;  but  at  other  times 
administered  with  criminal  designs.  For  these,  the  first  best  remedy, 
if  at  hand,  is  their  immediate  extraction  by  the  stomach  pump  ;  to 
be  followed  by  vigorous  curative  measures,  under  medical  direction. 

The  antidote  for  arsenic,  is  freshly  precipitated  peroxide  of  iron, 
speedily  administered  :  that  for  antimony,  or  its  preparations,  is 
tannin,  gall  nuts,  or  Peruvian  bark;  that  for  sugar  of Jead,  Epsom 
or  Glauber's  salt ;  and  for  corrosive  sublimate,  and  the  salts  of  cop- 
per, the  best  antidote  is  the  white  of  eggs,  swallowed  in  a  raw  state. 
For  oxalic  acid,  the  antidote  is  lime  water,  or  powdered  chalk ;  for 
Prussic  or  hydrocyanic  acid,  liquid  ammonia,  or  chloride  of  soda, 
if  it  can  be  administered  before  it  be  too  late  ;  and  for  other  strong 
acids,  the  best  antidote  is  magnesia,  or  the  carbonates  of  potassa,. 
soda,  magnesia,  or  lime.  For  alkalies,  as  caustic  ammonia,  potassa 
or  soda,  the  best  antidotes  are  fixed  oils,  or  vinegar,  or  lemon  juice. 
When  any  acid  gases  have  been  inhaled,  the  best  antidote  is  the 
cautious  inhalation  of  ammonia;  but  for  sulphuretted  hydrogen, 
the  cautious  inhalation  of  dilute  chlorine  is  recommended ;  and  for 
chlorine  itself,  the  inhalation  of  vapor  of  ammonia  or  ether.  For 
ammonia,  taken  into  the  lungs,  perhaps  the  fumes  of  vinegar  would 
be  the  best  antidote. 

For  most  of  the  vegetable  poisons,  containing  an  alkaline  principle, 
the  best  antidotes  yet  discovered  are  chlorine,  iodine,  or  bromine ; 
which  act  by  neutralizing  or  decomposing  the  poisonous  principle. 
As  morphia,  quinia,  ipecacuanha,  and  other  vegetable  alkalies  form 
sparingly  soluble  salts  with  iodic  acid,  perhaps  this  would  be  found 
a  beneficial  application,  when  they  are  taken  in  excess.  Tannin,  or 
infusion  of  gall  nuts,  is  also  found  to  have  a  beneficial  effect,  in  some 
cases  of  vegetable  poisoning,  particularly  as  an  antidote  for  opium, 
and  its  proximate  principles.  For  poisoning  by  the  bite  or  sting  of 
animals,  strong  ammonia,  and  chloride  of  soda,  are  among  the  best  an- 
tidotes ;  but  if  the  wound  be  severe,  a  ligature  should  be  immediately 
applied  to  the  part  affected,  to  prevent  the  poison  from  circulating ; 
and,  if  possible,  the  poison  should  be  withdrawn  by  suction,  or  the 
poisoned  part  cut  away.  In  slight  cases,  common  salt,  or  ammonia, 
in  solution,  is  often  successfully  employed. 
53 


418  ANDROPHYSICS. 

CHAPTER  III. 

TIIEREOLOGY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Thereology,  we  include  the  study  of  diseases, 
and  the  practice  of  medicine.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
8if>iu,  I  cure,  or  take  care  of;  and  hence  it  may  be  applied  to  the 
means  of  preventing,  as  well  as  of  removing  disease.  We  make  it 
therefore  to  comprehend  the  subjects  of  Hygienics,  or  the  means  of 
preserving  health;  Nosology,  or  the  classification  of  diseases;  Pa- 
thology, or  their  anatomical  and  physiological  effects  ;  Etiology,  or 
their  causes  ;  Symptomatology,  or  their  symptoms  ;  and  Clinics,  or 
the  Practice  of  Medicine,  as  the  name  implies,  at  the  bedside  of  the 
patient.  The  term  prognostics,  is  applied  to  those  symptoms  which 
indicate  the  causes  or  probable  event  of  diseases  ;  and  diagnostics, 
to  those  symptoms  which  distinguish  a  disease  from  other  similar 
ones.  The  Institutes  of  Medicine,  a  term  of  somewhat  indefinite 
meaning,  but  applied  to  the  physiological,  pathological,  therapeutic, 
and  hygienic  relations  of  medicine,  belongs  partly  to  this,  and  partly 
to  the  preceding  branch  of  Androphysics  :  but  as  the  term  Medicine, 
is  often  applied  to  all  the  branches  of  this  department,  as  well  as  to  the 
remedies  themselves,  we  have  selected  for  the  present  branch  what 
appears  to  us  a  definite  and  unexceptionable  name. 

The  Egyptians  attributed  the  invention  of  Medicine  to  Thoth,  the 
Hermes  of  the  Greeks ;  but  the  Greeks  ascribed  this  invention  to 
Chiron  the  centaur,  and  his  pupil  ^Esculapius ;  who  probably  lived 
about  1260  B.  C.  jEsculapius  is  said  to  have  first  practised  bleeding; 
and  Melampus,  probably  his  contemporary,  to  have  introduced  the 
use  of  purgatives :  but  these  remedies  are  also  said  to  have  been 
employed  in  Egypt,  more  than  200  years  earlier.  The  practice  of 
Medicine  in  Greece,  was  for  ages  confined  to  the  descendants  of 
jEsculapius ;  and  from  his  name,  Asclepias  in  Greek,  they  were 
called  Asclepiades ;  being  also  prophets  and  priests  at  the  shrine  of 
their  deified  ancestor.  While  Pythagoras  attempted  to  explain  dis- 
eases by  his  mystic  numbers,  or  planetary  influences ;  Democritus, 
by  his  theory  of  atoms,  and  a  vacuum  ;  and  Heraclitus,  by  his  ideas 
of  ethers  and  elements  ;  it  was  left  for  Hippocrates,  one  of  the  Ascle- 
piades, to  establish  the  practice  of  medicine  on  rational  principles,  of 
experiment  and  observation.  Hippocrates,  however,  believed  in  four 
constitutional  temperaments  ;  the  sanguineous,  phlegmatic,  choleric 
or  bilious,  and  melancholic;  according  to  the  predominance  of  blood, 
phlegm,  yellow  bile,  or  black  bile,  which  he  supposed  to  be  the  four 
principal  humors. 

The  successors  of  Hippocrates,  combining  his  doctrines  with  those 
of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  founded  the  dogmatic  school  in  medi- 
cine;  which  flourished  at  Alexandria,  and  often  substituted  wild 
speculations  for  facts  and  experience.  In  opposition  to  this,  Herophi- 
lus,  and  his  adherents,  founded  the  empiric  school ;  which  professed 
to  be  guided  by  experience  alone.  The  methodic  school,  originated 


THEREOLOGT.  419 

at  Rome,  with  Asclepiades  of  Bithynia,  or  Themison,  his  disciple ; 
and  founded  its  practice  on  the  principle  of  either  bracing  or  relaxing 
the  system.  The  eclectic  school,  supported  by  Aretaeus  and  Celsus, 
professed  to  select  and  combine  the  excellences  of  the  others :  and 
this  is  also  called  the  pneumatic  school,  from  its  admitting  the  exist- 
ence of  a  fifth  element,  air  or  spirit.  By  these  different  sects,  the 
practice  of  medicine  was  thrown  into  complete  confusion,  until  Galen 
of  Pergamus  appeared,  and  breaking  through  the  restraints  of  system, 
revived  the  principles  of  Hippocrates,  with  such  arguments  and  im- 
provements, as  fixed  a  standard  of  practice,  and  gave  him  almost 
absolute  authority,  as  a  physician,  down  to  modern  times.  The  Ara- 
bians paid  much  attention  to  this  branch  of  knowledge  ;  and  Avicenna 
wrote  a  work,  entitled  Canons  of  Medicine,  chiefly  a  compilation 
from  Galen  and  the  other  classic  writers,  which  was  used,  to  some 
extent,  in  the  schools  of  Europe. 

The  earliest  medical  school,  of  importance,  in  Christian  Europe, 
was  that  of  Salerno,  founded  probably  as  early  as  A.  D.  900,  and 
well  established  in  1143.  It  gave  a  new  impulse  to  this  science; 
and  aided  in  preserving  the  ancient  medical  classics.  With  the  re- 
vival of  letters,  the  Greek  writers  came  into  general  use  ;  until  the 
time  of  Paracelsus  :  who  boasted  of  intercourse  with  spirits,  and 
professed  to  have  discovered  the  elixir  of  life.  Van  Helmont  adopted 
the  views  of  Paracelsus  ;  but  Sylvius  proposed  a  new  theory,  main- 
taining that  all  animal  action  results  from  fermentation ;  a  theory 
which  was  partly  adopted  by  Sydenham  in  England.  To  these 
mystical  and  chemical  theories  succeed  that  of  the  pneumaticians, 
headed  by  Stahl ;  who  attributed  the  origin  of  all  diseases  to  the 
mind,  considered  as  acting  on  the  body,  and  ordinarily  preserving  the 
fluids  in  a  healthy  state.  On  the  other  hand  the  mechanicians,  as 
they  were  called,  commencing  with  Borelli  and  Bellini,  regarded  the 
body  as  a  complex  hydraulic  machine  ;  while  Baglivi  and  Hoffman, 
founders  of  the  dynamic  sect,  attributed  disease  to  either  excessive 
or  deficient  nervous  and  muscular  action  ;  producing  in  the  one  case 
spasms,  in  the  other,  atony  or  weakness.  The  errors  of  these  differ- 
ent theories,  are  now  too  evident  to  require  our  farther  notice. 

Meanwhile,  the  knowledge  of  practical  medicine  was  enlarged  by 
the  introduction  of  new,  and  especially  chemical  remedies  ;  and  by 
the  appearance  of  new  diseases.  The  small-pox  and  the  measles 
were  first  described  by  the  Arabians  ;  and  the  leprosy  was  spread  in 
Europe  by  the  Crusades.  An  infirmary  for  the  plague,  was  esta- 
blished at  Venice,  in  1423.  With  the  discovery  of  distant  regions, 
and  the  repetition  of  long  voyages,  the  scurvy  first  made  its  appear- 
ance :  and  a  remarkable  disease,  called  the  sweating  sickness,  first 
broke  out  among  the  English  forces  returning  from  France,  in  1483. 
The  use  of  Peruvian  or  Jesuit's  bark,  in  fevers,  dates  back  to  1639  ; 
and  inoculation  for  the  small-pox  was  introduced  from  Turkey  into 
England,  by  Lady  Montague,  in  1722.  The  milder  practice  of  vac- 
cination, was  brought  into  vogue  by  the  writings  of  Dr.  Jenner  in 
1798. 

Among  the  more  recent  physicians  who  have  promulged  new 
views  of  medicine,  we  may  mention  Dr.  Cullen,  whose  classification 


420  ANDROPHYSICS. 

of  diseases  has  been  extensively  referred  to ;  Dr.  Brown,  from  whom 
was  named  the  Brunonian  theory,  that  all  disease  results  from  excess 
or  deficiency  of  excitement ;  Dr.  Darwin,  who  taught,  in  his  Zoo- 
nomia,  that  all  organic  life  results  from,  or  consists  in,  living,  irritable 
filaments;  and  Dr.  Good,  who  has  given  a  new  and  unique  classifica- 
tion of  diseases,  in  his  work,  on  the  study  of  Medicine.  In  France, 
the  new  doctrine  of  Broussais,  that  all  febrile  diseases  originate  in 
inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  alimentary  canal,  has 
found  its  votaries :  and  in  Germany,  the  homoeopathic  system  of 
Hahnemann,  maintaining  that  all  diseases  may  be  cured  by  producing 
similar  artificial  diseases,  of  transient  duration,  and  with  extremely 
small  doses  of  medicine,  has  attracted  much  attention,  notwithstanding 
its  extravagance.  We  may  add  that  animal  magnetism,  originally 
proposed  by  Mesmer,  has  been  recently  revived  as  a  means  of  cure,  by  a 
supposed  sympathetic  effect  upon  the  nerves,  communicated  from  the 
operator  to  the  patient.  These  various  innovations  have  been  useful 
in  promoting  new  researches,  but  none  of  them  has  ever  been  gene- 
rally and  implicitly  received;  and  the  eclectic  principle,  of  selecting 
the  good  from  all  systems,  and  rejecting  the  rest,  has  been  the  guide 
of  modern  physicians.* 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Thereology,  under  the  heads  of  Hygienics  ; 
and  Febrile,  Eruptive,  Nervous,  and  Secretive  diseases. 

§  1 .  Hygienics,  we  have  already  defined  as  that  division  of  The- 
reology which  relates  to  the  preservation  of  health.  Among  the 
conditions  on  which  it  depends,  are  diet,  exercise,  air,  temperature, 
clothing,  occupation,  rest,  habits,  and  passions.  The  consideration 
of  diet,  or  the  quantity  and  quality  of  food,  is  so  important  that  it  has 
sometimes  been  regarded  as  a  distinct  study,  under  the  name  of  Die- 
tetics. The  structure  of  the  teeth,  and  other  organs,  indicates  that 
animal  as  well  as  vegetable  food  is  the  proper  diet  of  mankind ;  and 
experience  has  shown  that  animal  food  is  generally  the  most  nutri- 
tious, but  vegetable  food  is  the  most  easily  digested,  and  that  which 
should  be  the  most  freely  used.  The  name  aliment,  is  applied  to 
substantial  articles  of  food ;  and  the  substances  used  for  flavor  or 
seasoning,  are  called  condiments.  Of  course  both  the  food  and 
drink  should  be  wholesome,  taken  at  proper  intervals,  and  never  in 
excess. 

Of  animal  substances,  jelly  is  the  most  easily  digested;  and  next 
to  this,  fibrin,  or  muscular  flesh ;  while  fat,  or  oily  matter,  is  less 
digestible,  and  should  therefore  be  taken  sparingly.  Milk  and  eggs, 
containing  albumen,  are  moderately  digestible,  but  the  latter  should 
not  be  cooked  hard.  The  common  scaly  fish,  when  properly  cooked, 
are  of  easy  digestion ;  and  oysters  much  more  so  than  other  shell 
fish.  Salted  meat,  and  fish,  are  best  adapted  to  stronger  stomachs, 
of  persons  accustomed  to  vigorous  exercise.  Of  vegetable  substances, 
gluten,  contained  in  wheat,  rye,  peas,  and  beans,  is  quite  nutritive 

*  The  school  of  the  arithmeticians,  founded  very  recently  by  Baron  Louis,  pro- 
poses to  improve  medicine  by  a  strict  analysis  of  symptoms,  and  a  rigid  investigation 
ot  organic  lesions;  and  thus, by  a  close  adherence  to  the  numerical  results,  to  ascer- 
tain the  essential  qualities  of  every  disease.  The  same  method  is  also  applied  to 


THEREOLOGY.  421 

and  digestibb  ;  and  the  same  may  be  said  of  starch,  which  abounds 
in  all  kinds  of  grain,  and  especially  in  rice  and  the  potato,  as  well  as 
in  sago  and  arrowroot.  Fruits,  containing  mucilage,  as  the  melon ; 
or  sugar,  as  the  grape  ;  or  acids,  as  the  apple ;  are  healthy  and 
digestible,  if  taken  when  ripe,  and  in  moderate  quantities.  Sweet- 
meats,  spices,  and  other  stimulants,  tend  to  weaken  the  digestive  or- 
gans; and  should  therefore  be  taken  sparingly. 

Besides  receiving  nourishment,  the  vital  organs  require  to  be  sti- 
mulated by  frequent,  but  not  too  violent  exercise.  This  is  best  taken, 
when  the  weather  permits,  in  the  open  air ;  and  the  greatest  care 
should  be  taken  by  all  persons  to  breathe  a  pure  and  fresh  air  ;  as 
being  absolutely  necessary  to  vivify  the  blood,  and  to  preserve  the 
system  in  a  healthy  state.  A  due  degree  of  moisture,  in  the  air,  so 
that  it  be  not  too  damp,  is  also  favorable  to  health.  Extreme,  or 
sudden  changes  of  temperature,  should  be  avoided ;  especially  after 
exercising,  or  when  in  a  state  of  debility ;  lest  the  perspiration  should 
be  checked,  and  colds,  coughs,  fever,  or  consumption  ensue.  For 
the  same  reason,  the  clothing  should  be  properly  regulated,  and 
cleanliness  be  carefully  attended  to ;  as  essential  to  a  healthy  cuta- 
neous action.  Regular  intervals  of  rest  and  sleep,  are  also  among 
the  requisites  of  long  continued  health.  In  general,  those  occupa- 
tions are  the  most  healthy,  which  furnish  due  exercise  both  to  the 
body  and  mind,  in  a  pure  atmosphere,  and  with  moderate  exposure. 
Regular  and  cheerful  habits,  are  highly  conducive  to  health  and  lon- 
gevity ;  but  the  indulgence  of  violent  and  exhausting  passions,  fre- 
quently causes  disease,  and  aggravates  it  when  otherwise  produced. 
On  some  of  these  points  we  have  already  spoken,  and  more  fully,  in 
treating  of  Physical  Education,  (p.  93.) 

§  2.  We  come  now  to  the  study  of  diseases  ;  commencing  with 
Febrile  Diseases,  as  forming  the  most  numerous  and  important  divi- 
sion. They  are  classed  as  Pyrexix,  or  inflammatory  diseases,  by 
Cullen ;  and  as  Hsematica,  or  sanguineous  diseases,  by  Good  ;  and 
are  generally  characterized  by  chilliness  at  the  commencement,  fol- 
lowed by  preternatural  heat,  and  acceleration  of  the  pulse,  denoting 
an  irritated  state  of  the  system.  The  Febres,  or  fevers  proper,  are 
called  intermittent,  when  they  return  at  stated  intervals  ;  as  quoti- 
dian, returning  every  day ;  tertian,  returning  every  other  day,  or 
every  third  day,  inclusive ;  and  quartan,  returning  every  fourth  day, 
or  with  intervals  of  two  entire  days ;  these  returns  being  followed 
by  stages  of  perspiration,  and  of  ague,  or  chilliness.  Fevers  are 
called  remittent,  when,  although  continued,  they  present  periodical 
abatement ;  as  the  bilious,  or  gastric  fever,  connected  with  derange- 
ment of  the  liver  and  alimentary  canal ;  and  the  yellow  fever,  very 
similar  to  the  bilious,  but  often  more  violent,  and  less  remittent. 
Continuous  fevers,  are  those  which  have  no  marked  abatement ;  as 
the  synochal,  or  inflammatory  fever,  with  strong  pulse ;  and  the 
typhus  fever,  characterized  by  great  debility,  and  a  morbid  state  of 
the  animal  fluids. 

The  second  division  of  febrile  diseases,  consists  of  the  Phlegma- 
six,  or  inflammations  ;  usually  manifesting  themselves  locally,  or  in 
some  particular  part;  though  accompanied  by  general  irritation,  pro- 

2  N 


422  ANDROPHYSICS. 

bably  from  a  diseased  state  of  the  blood.  Among  these  diseases,  are 
phrenitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  brain ;  glossitis,  or  inflammation 
of  the  tongue  ;  tonsillitis,  of  the  tonsils,  commonly  called  quinsy ; 
parotitis,  called  also  the  mumps,  an  inflammation  of  the  parotid 
gland ;  laryngitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  larynx ;  trachitis,  of  the 
trachea,  or  windpipe  ;  bronchitis,  of  the  bronchi ;  and  pneumonitis, 
or  pneumonia,  an  inflammation  of  the  lungs.  These  latter  diseases 
often  commence  with  a  catarrh,  or  cold,  and  may  terminate  in 
phthisis,  or  consumption.*  To  the  phlegmasiaB  also  belong  gas- 
tritis, or  inflammation  of  the  mucous  membrane  of  the  stomach  ; 
enteritis,  or  similar  inflammation  of  the  bowels,  which,  when  acute, 
is  termed  dysentery,  but  when  caused  by  irritation,  with  but  slight 
fever,  is  called  diarrhoea;  hepatitis,  or  inflammation  of  the  liver; 
splenitis,  of  the  spleen ;  nephritis,  of  the  kidneys ;  and  cystitis,  of 
the  bladder. 

To  these  diseases,  we  may  add  rheumatism,  or  inflammation  of 
the  muscles  and  tendons ;  and  arthritis,  podagra,  or  gout,  charac- 
terized by  inflammation  in  the  joints  of  the  feet  and  hands.  Ophthal- 
mia, or  inflammation  of  the  eyes ;  and  otitis,  of  the  internal  ear, 
are  the  last  of  the  phlegmasiae,  which  we  have  room  to  name.  The 
treatment  of  these  diseases,  of  course,  varies  with  their  causes  and 
symptoms ;  but  it  consists  generally,  in  removing  obstructions,  by 
cathartic  medicines ;  reducing  the  febrile  action,  if  necessary,  by 
blood-letting ;  and  otherwise  soothing  and  relaxing  the  parts  affected, 
so  that  they  may  be  restored  to  their  proper  state,  and  enabled  to  re- 
sume their  functions  in  a  healthy  manner. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Eruptive  Diseases,  we  would  compre- 
hend those  disorders  which,  though  usually  accompanied  by  fever, 
are  characterized  by  cutaneous  eruptions ;  and  hence  termed  Exan- 
themata, in  several  systems  of  Nosology.  Of  this  class  of  diseases 
are  the  oriental  plague,  and  the  variola,  or  small  pox ;  diseases 
which  have,  in  times  past,  made  such  fearful  ravages  among  man- 
kind. The  varicella,  or  chicken  pox ;  the  vaccinia,  or  cow  pox ; 
and  other  varioloid  affections,  come  next  in  this  class ;  after  which 
we  would  name  rubeola,  or  the  measles ;  scarlatina,  or  scarlet 
fever ;  and  erysipelas,  or  St.  Anthony's  fire ;  all  attended  with  erup- 
tions of  the  skin.  These  diseases,  though  febrile,  are  regarded  as  of 
a  specific  character,  or  produced  by  special  causes ;  and  they  are 
generally  contagious.  The  mode  of  treating  them,  is  of  course, 
similar  to  that  of  fevers  proper ;  and  consists  in  arresting  dangerous 
action,  if  possible ;  and  watching  the  disease,  until  it  has  run  its 
course. 

The  minor  Exanthemata,  or  eruptive  diseases,  comprise  the  differ- 
ent forms  of  herpes,  or  tetter ;  as  the  ringworm,  and  shingles,  dis- 
tinguished by  an  assemblage  of  small  ulcers ;  also  pemphigus,  or 
vesicular  fever,  producing  small  blister-like  eruptions  ;  urticaria,  or 
nettle  rash,  with  smarting  blotches ;  miliaria,  or  miliary  fever,  with 
small  white  vesicles,  resembling  millet  seed  ;  erythema,  with  red 
spots  on  the  skin ;  roseola,  or  rosy  rash,  affecting  the  skin  with  rose- 

*  Several  of  them  are  comprehended  under  the  designation  of  cynanche,  or  sore 
throat. 


THEREOLOGY.  423 

colored  spots ;  and  purpura,  in  which  the  spots  are  of  a  livid  or 
purple  color.  In  this  class  of  diseases  may  be  placed  boils,  (or 
biles),  termed  by  some  writers  phlogosis ;  and,  perhaps,  the  paro- 
nychia,  or  whitlow  ;  though  this  may  be  caused  by  local  injury,  fol- 
lowed by  inflammation. 

In  this  division  of  medicine,  we  may  place  the  diseases  termed 
Hsemorrhagise,  or  effusions  of  blood ;  which,  though  not  eruptive 
diseases  in  a  technical  sense,  are  yet  placed  next  to  them  by  most 
nosologists,  and  partake,  at  least,  of  their  febrile  character.  They 
are,  in  fact,  an  eruption  of  the  blood ;  sometimes  owing  to  an  irritated 
state  of  the  capillary  vessels,  in  which  the  blood  passes  from  the  arte- 
ries to  the  veins ;  and  sometimes  caused  by  the  rupture  of  a  blood 
vessel.  Among  these  diseases  are  epistaxis,  or  bleeding  of  the  nose  ; 
hsemoptisis,  or  spitting  of  blood  from  the  lungs ;  hsematemesis,  or 
vomiting  of  blood  from  the  stomach  ;  hsematuria,  or  sanguineous  effu- 
sion from  the  bladder ;  and  hsemorrhois,  or  piles,  with  sanguineous 
discharges  from  the  bowels.  Organic  diseases  of  the  heart,  might, 
we  think,  here  find  their  proper  place.  The  treatment,  in  most  of 
these  cases,  must  have  a  reference  to  their  locality ;  and  consists  in 
relieving  the  blood  vessels,  if  necessary,  and  strengthening  the  parts 
affected. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Nervous  Diseases,  we  include  those 
disorders,  termed  by  Cullen,  Neuroses,  in  which  the  nervous  system 
is  more  immediately  affected  ;  whether  originally,  or  by  sympathy; 
and  whether  the  mind  be  disordered  thereby,  or  not.  First,  among 
these  diseases,  we  would  place  the  Mynamise,  or  diseases  resulting 
from  nervous  debility  ;  as  apoplexy,  or  sudden  and  continued  failure 
of  the  powers  of  sense  and  motion ;  paralysis,  or  loss  of  sensation 
and  motion  in  only  a  part  of  the  body ;  catalepsy,  or  a  temporary 
suspension  of  consciousness,  without  lethargy  or  spasms  ;  and  syn- 
cope, or  fainting,  with  deficient  circulation  and  respiration  during  the 
swoon :  to  which  we  may  add  anorexia,  or  failure  of  appetite  ;  dys- 
pepsia, or  indigestion,  often  attended  with  hypochondriasis,  or  lan- 
guid melancholy ;  aphonia,  or  loss  of  the  voice ;  amarosis,  or 
gutta  serena,  consisting  in  paralysis  of  the  optic  nerve ;  cophosis,  or 
failure  of  hearing ;  and  similar  diseases,  arising  from  weakness,  or 
suspension,  of  the  nervous  functions.  Dementia,  or  wandering  of 
the  mind ;  and  amentia,  or  idiotism,  also  belong,  we  think,  to  this 
group  of  diseases. 

Next,  among  the  nervous  diseases,  we  place  the  Erethismi ;  in 
which  the  nerves  are  irritated,  or  their  sensibility  increased.  These 
include  agrypnia,  or  watchfulness,  through  nervous  excitement ;  and 
oneirodynia,  or  the  incubus,  or  night  mare,  consisting  in  a  sense  of 
oppression,  during  sleep;  to  which  we  may  add  bulimia,  or  pre- 
ternatural hunger ;  and  pica,  or  appetite  for  unnatural  food.  In  this 
class  we  may  also  comprehend  Neuralgia,  or  local  pains  in  the 
nerves;  as  cephalagia,  or  headache;  prosophalgia,  or  faceache; 
otalgia,  or  earache  ;  odontalgia,  or  toothache  ;  gastrodynia,  or  pain 
in  the  stomach ;  and  pleurodynia,  or  pain  in  the  side.  These 
diseases  are  produced,  sometimes  by  local  injury  to  the  nerves,  and 
sometimes  by  miasmata,  or  other  causes.  In  the  latter  case,  relief  is 


424  ANDROPHYSICS. 

often  obtained  from  tonic  medicines  ;  but  in  the  former  case,  recourse 
is  sometimes  had  to  dividing  the  nerves. 

The  last  class  of  nervous  diseases,  Spasmi,  or  spasmodic  affec- 
tions, includes  mania,  or  violent  madness ;  epilepsy,  or  the  falling 
sickness,  with  sudden  insensibility,  and  convulsions  ;  chorea,  or  St. 
Vitus's  dance,  with  frequent  convulsive  motions  of  the  limbs ;  rapha- 
ma,  or  cripple  disease,  with  spasms  of  the  joints ;  hysteria,  or  hyste- 
rics, affecting  the  whole  nervous  system  ;  tetanus,  or  spasmodic 
rigidity  of  the  body,  including  trismus,  or  the  locked  jaw;  and 
hydrophobia,  caused  by  the  bite  of  a  rabid  animal,  but  characterized 
by  dread  and  loathing  of  water.  In  this  class  of  diseases,  we  may 
also  place  asthma,  or  difficult  respiration  at  intervals,  with  cough 
and  stricture  across  the  breast ;  dyspnoea,  or  difficult  respiration, 
and  cough,  without  a  sense  of  pressure ;  pertussis,  or  whooping 
cough ;  asphyxia,  or  suspended  animation,  as  by  suffocation  or 
drowning;  angina  pectoris,  or  spasms  of  the  chest,  usually  caused 
by  some  disease  of  the  heart ;  colic,  or  spasmodic  pains  in  the  abdo- 
men, usually  caused  by  irritation  of  the  stomach  or  bowels;  and 
cholera,  or  spasmodic  vomitings  and  purgings,  probably  caused  by 
derangement  of  the  liver. 

§  5.  In  our  last  division,  Secretive  Diseases,  we  would  include 
various  disorders  of  the  absorbent,  secretive,  and  assimilative  func- 
tions ;  affecting  different  parts  of  the  system.  To  this  class  belong 
most  of  the  Epischeses,  or  suppressions,  and  the  rfpocenoses,  or 
fluxes,  so  named  by  Dr.  Cullen.  Of  the  former,  are  icterus,  or 
jaundice,  caused  by  retention  of  the  bile ;  and  constipation,  or  cos- 
tiveness;  and  of  the  latter  kind,  are  ptyalismus,  or  flow  of  saliva; 
ephidrosis,  or  excessive  perspiration ;  and  diabetes,  or  excessive  secre- 
tions of  the  kidneys.  Here  also  we  would  mention  the  hydrops,  or 
dropsy,  attended  with  watery  swellings  ;  as  hydrocephalus,  or  dropsy 
of  the  brain;  hydrothorax,  or  dropsy  of  the  chest;  ascites,  or 
dropsy  of  the  abdomen ;  and  anasarca,  or  dropsy  of  the  skin  or 
cellular  system.  These  diseases  are  said  to  be  best  counteracted  by 
venesection  and  powerful  cathartics. 

Last,  in  this  class  of  diseases,  we  would  place  a  part  of  the 
Cachexise,  of  Cullen,  attributable  to  morbid  humors  ;  as  scrofula,  or 
king's  evil,  producing  external  tumors  and  ulcerations ;  scorbutus, 
or  scurvy,  with  spongy  gums,  debility,  tumors,  and  ulcers ;  ele- 
phantiasis, producing  swollen  limbs,  and  a  rough,  wrinkled  skin ; 
lepra,  or  leprosy,  producing  dry  scaly  patches  on  the  skin  ;  psora, 
or  the  itch,  produced  by  small  insects  penetrating  the  skin ;  tinea, 
or  scald  head,  causing  ulcers  and  scabs  at  the  root  of  the  hair ;  and 
plica,  or  trichoma,  a  disease  in  which  the  blood  flows  from  the  hair ; 
all  of  which  might  have  been  classed  with  eruptive  diseases,  but  are 
not  usually  attended  with  sensible  inflammation.  Bronchocele,  or 
the  goitre,  producing  a  large  tumor  in  the  throat;  scirrhus,  or  a 
hard  glandular  tumor,  often  resulting  in  a  cancer;  exostosis,  a  tumor 
or  morbid  enlargement  of  a  bone ;  and  caries,  or  decay  of  the 
bones,  are  the  last  diseases  which  we  have  room  here  to  name ; 
reserving  for  Surgery  the  mention  of  those  which  are  curable  chiefly 
by  surgical  operations. 


CHIRURGERr.  425 

CHAPTER  IV. 

CHIRURGERY. 

UNDER  the  former  name  of  Chirurgery,  we  would  comprise  all 
that  branch  of  Androphysics  which  relates  to  manual  operations  for 
medical  purposes ;  including  Surgery,  as  at  present  defined,  and 
other  subordinate  subjects.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
#£tp,  the  hand ;  and  epyof,  a  work  or  operation ;  and  the  word 
Surgery,  may  be  traced  to  the  same  original.  It  relates  chiefly  to  the 
treatment  of  wounds,  fractures,  dislocations  or  sprains,  tumors, 
ulcers,  and  such  deformities  as  can  be  removed  by  mechanical  means  ; 
but  for  these  purposes,  it  presupposes  a  general  knowledge  of  Medi- 
cine, and  a  thorough  knowledge  of  Anatomy,  both  to  perform  the 
operations  aright,  and  to  administer  the  proper  means  of  recovery 
from  their  effects.  The  practice  of  Surgery,  requires  the  utmost 
firmness,  self-possession,  skill,  and  dexterity ;  without  which,  the 
more  critical  operations,  where  life  hangs  upon  a  single  touch,  should 
not  be  attempted. 

The  practice  of  Surgery,  doubtless  commenced  with  the  dressing 
of  wounds,  caused  by  accident,  or  inflicted  in  war.  It  is  related  that 
Chiron,  and  his  disciple  JEsculapius,  accompanied  the  Argonautic 
expedition,^  to  take  care  of  the  wounded  and  sick ;  and  that  this 
office  was-"performed,  during  the  Trojan  war,  by  Machaon  and  Po- 
dalirius,  the  sons  of  jEsculapius.  The  Greek  and  Roman  physi- 
cians practised  both  medicine  and  surgery,  as  far  as  then  known ; 
though  the  latter  branch  began  to  be  treated  separately,  as  early  as 
300  B.  C.  Hippocrates  practised  blood-letting,  with  the  lancet ; 
trepanning,  for  injuries  of  the  brain ;  and  cauterizing,  for  the  removal 
of  ulcers.  Celsus  invented  ligatures,  for  wounded  arteries ;  ampu- 
tation, for  gangrened  limbs ;  couching,  for  cataract  in  the  eye ;  the 
use  of  cupping-glasses,  for  drawing  blood  by  scarification;  and  a 
mode  of  lithotomy,  still  called  the  Celsian  operation.  Galen  wrote 
on  ruptures,  and  bandages  ;  and  Paulus  ^Egineta,  who  flourished 
A.  D.  640,  and  invented  bronchotomy,  wrote  the  last  classic  work  of 
merit  on  this  science. 

Among  the  Arabians,  Avenzoar,  and  Albucasis  wrote  briefly  on 
Surgery ;  but  this  art  was  practised  chiefly  by  women  and  slaves. 
In  Christendom,  it  was  practised  by  the  monks,  till  A.  D.  1163; 
when  this  avocation  was  prohibited  to  them,  by  the  Council  of 
Tours ;  on  the  plea  that  the  church  abhorred  all  bloodshed.  Surgery 
was  then  given  over  to  the  barbers  ;  and  degenerated  to  mere  blood- 
letting, and  bandaging  of  wounds,  with  minor  empirical  operations. 
The  first  English  work  on  this  art,  was  written  by  Gilbert  Anglicus, 
about  the  year  1300  ;  and  this  was  followed  by  the  French  work  of 
Chauliac,  and  the  Latin  one  of  Vidius  :  but  it  was  not  until  1585, 
that  Ambrose  Pare,  who  styled  himself  barber-surgeon,  profiting  by 
the  new  anatomical  discoveries,  wrote  a  work  on  Surgery,  which 
greatly  assisted  in  raising  this  branch  to  its  proper  station  in  the 
54  2N2 


426  ANDROPHYSICS. 

department  of  Androphysics.  The  later  works  of  Fabricius  Aqua- 
pendente  in  Italy,  and  Hildanus  in  Germany,  also  contributed  to  this 
effect ;  and  especially  the  founding  of  a  Surgical  Academy  in  France, 
in  1731. 

In  later  times,  a  host  of  distinguished  surgeons  has  arisen,  whom 
we  have  not  room  here  even  to  name.  Pare,  we  should  have  added, 
revived  the  Celsian  invention  of  ligatures  for  wounded  arteries, 
instead  of  cauterizing  them  ;  and  Desault  has  again  revived  this 
practice,  when  fallen  into  disuse.  Petit  is  celebrated  as  the  inventor 
of  the  screw  tourniquet,  for  compressing  the  arteries ;  by  which  the 
danger  from  amputations  is  greatly  diminished.  More  recently, 
Desault  has  enriched  surgery  with  various  improvements  ;  and  he 
was  the  first  clinical  lecturer  on  this  branch  of  medical  knowledge. 
In  England,  surgery  was  greatly  neglected,  till  the  publication  of 
Wiseman's  treatises,  in  1676  :  but  it  has  since  profited  by  the  labors 
of  Chesselden,  celebrated  for  his  practical  skill ;  of  Alexander  Monro, 
who  studied  the  pathology  of  surgery  ;  of  John  Hunter,  who  wrote 
on  inflammation,  and  gunshot  wounds  ;  and  of  John  Bell,  who  also 
wrote  on  wounds,  and  improved  the  means  of  taking  up  arteries,  in 
difficult  cases  of  aneurism. 

We  proceed  to  offer  some  illustrations  of  this  branch  of  Andro- 
physics, under  the  heads  of  Vulnar,  Normal,  and  Topical  Surgery. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Vulnar  Surgery,  we  comprise  the  treat- 
ment of  external  injuries;  as  wounds,  fractures,  and  dislocations, 
in  all  their  various  forms.  To  this  section  belongs  the  process  of 
blood-letting  ;  which,  though  beneficial  in  many  diseases,  is  itself  a 
surgical  operation,  producing  one  or  more  wounds,  which  require 
surgical  attention.  The  diseases  for  which  this  process  is  remedial, 
are  most  frequently  those  in  which  there  is  plethora,  or  fulness  of 
blood  ;  or  which  are  accompanied  by  inflammation.  The  method 
usually  employed,  is  the  drawing  of  blood  from  a  vein :  called  also 
phlebotomy,  or  venesection.  The  veins,  being  more  superficial  in 
the  body  than  the  arteries,  are  more  accessible ;  and  as  they  convey 
the  blood  from  capillary  vessels  back  to  the  heart,  there  is  less 
danger  from  them,  of  excessive  bleeding.  In  using  the  lancet,  in 
this  process,  the  greatest  care  must  be  taken,  neither  to  wound  an 
artery,  which  might  be  fatal,  through  loss  of  blood,  or  might  produce 
a  dangerous  aneurism;  nor  to  wound  a  nerve,  which  might  eventually 
cause  convulsions,  equally  dangerous.  The  other  modes  of  blood- 
letting, are  scarification,  or  cupping,  where  many  small  punctures  are 
made  at  once,  and  the  cupping-glass  applied,  having  a  syringe  for 
exhausting  the  air,  and  thus  increasing  the  flow  of  blood ;  and  leeching, 
or  the  extraction  of  blood  by  the  application  of  leeches,  often  called 
bloodsuckers. 

The  stoppage  of  blood,  when  flowing  by  hemorrhage,  or  from 
bruises  or  wounds,  may  often  be  effected  by  some  simple  application  ; 
as  of  adhesive  plaster,  lint,  flour,  or  agaric,  or  an  astringent.  If  these 
do  not  succeed,  the  application  of  pressure  is  necessary,  either  by  a 
common  bandage,  or  by  means  of  the  tourniquet,  which  is  a  bandage 
that  can  be  tightened  by  turning  a  screw.  When  applied  to  a  wounded 
artery,  it  should  be  placed  on  the  side  towards  the  heart,  from  which 


CHIRURGERY.  427 

the  blood  is  flowing.  When  an  artery  is  completely  divided,  the  ends 
contract  spontaneously  into  the  cellular  tissue,  and  the  coagulated 
blood  may  prevent  farther  bleeding ;  but  with  the  risk  of  ulceration. 
Hence,  a  badly  wounded  artery  should  if  possible  be  taken  up  on  both 
sides,  and  secured  by  ligatures,  that  the  wound  may  heal.  A  great 
object,  in  these  cases,  is  to  avoid  inflammation  ;  or,  if  produced,  to 
allay  it,  by  bleeding,  and  laxatives  ;  or  to  bring  it  to  a  healing  suppu- 
ration. Should  gangrene,  or  mortification  ensue,  as  when  the  wounded 
arteries  fail  to  nourish  the  limb,  the  last  resort  is  amputation,  or  the 
cutting  off  of  the  part  affected. 

Wounds,  are  either  incised  wounds,  inflicted  by  a  sharp  cutting 
instrument,  without  injury  to  the  surrounding  parts ;  or  contused 
wounds,  as  punctures,  lacerations  and  gunshot  wounds,  in  which  the 
surrounding  parts  are  bruised  and  injured.  The  dressing  of  wounds, 
requires  that  the  blood  should  be  stanched,  and  the  large  arteries 
secured  ;  after  which,  the  wound  is  washed,  the  sides  approximated, 
and  held  together,  by  narrow  strips  of  adhesive  plaster,  with  openings 
between ;  or,  if  necessary,  by  more  powerful  bandages,  or  sutures. 
When  the  wound  is  slight,  and  the  parts  heal  immediately,  they  are 
said  to  unite  by  the  first  intent:  otherwise  suppuration  follows, 
with  a  discharge  of  pus,  or  fluid  matter.  Contused  wounds,  or 
bruises,  and  especially  punctured  wounds,  or  stabs,  are  often  more 
dangerous  than  cuts  ;  as  the  bruised  and  deadened  parts  must  be 
removed  by  suppuration,  before  the  wound  can  heal.  The  applica- 
tion of  a  poultice  ;  the  allaying  of  inflammation,  by  reduced  diet,  and 
blood-letting  if  necessary  ;  and  entire  rest  and  composure,  with  opi- 
ates, if  required,  to  allay  extreme  pain  ;  are  among  the  best  remedial 
measures. 

In  case  of  the  dislocation  of  a  limb,  the  bone  should  be  restored  to  its 
place  ;  and  in  the  case  of  a  fracture,  the  broken  parts  require  to  be 
carefully  readjusted  to  each  other,  and  kept  in  their  position  by  proper 
fixtures  and  bandages.  A  thorough  knowledge  of  Anatomy,  is  of 
course  requisite,  to  detect  fractures  or  dislocations,  and  readjust  the 
parts ;  which,  in  some  cases,  requires  the  application  of  powerful 
forces.  When  the  skull  is  fractured,  the  broken  parts  are  frequently 
forced  inward,  and  exert  a  pressure  on  the  brain  ;  which  must  be 
relieved  as  speedily  as  possible,  or  the  insensibility  which  it  produces 
will  soon  result  in  death.  The  last  resort  in  this  case,  and  in  other 
cases  of  like  pressure,  is  trepanning,  or  cutting  a  circular  piece  out 
of  the  skull.  The  instrument  employed,  is  a  cylindrical  saw,  turning 
like  an  auger,  but  with  teeth  set  around  one  end  of  it :  and  it  is  called 
a  trepan,  or  trephine.  This  operation  should  generally  be  followed 
by  blood-letting ;  to  diminish  the  subsequent  inflammation  of  the 
brain. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Normal  Surgery,  we  would  treat  of  those 
operations  which  are  necessary  to  promote  recovery  from  ordinary 
diseases  ;  or  to  remedy  malformations  ;  excepting  diseases  or  mal- 
formations of  the  eye,  the  ear,  and  the  teeth,  which  are  reserved  for 
the  following  section.  The  word  normal,  from  the  Latin  norma,  a 
rule,  is  here  used  in  reference  to  the  regular  action  of  the  organs,  or 
the  proper  shape  and  state  of  the  parts,  on  which  it  is  intended  to  act. 


428  ANDRONOMY. 

To  this  section  belongs  the  treatment  of  hernia,  or  rupture  ;  in  which 
some  of  the  viscera  are  protruded  from  their  natural  cavity  ;  producing 
tumors,  and  sometimes  dangerous  consequences.  This  disease  may 
often  be  cured  by  a  truss,  exerting  mechanical  pressure,  to  keep  the 
parts  in  place.  Here  also  we  may  speak  of  tumors  of  the  blood  ves- 
sels ;  as  aneurism,  or  the  unnatural  enlargement  of  an  artery  in  some 
part ;  and  varix,  or  varicose  aneurism,  which  is  the  similar  enlarge- 
ment of  a  vein.  Aneurism  is  generally  best  cured  by  passing  a 
ligature  around  the  artery  ;  which  is  thus  obliterated,  and  the  wound 
allowed  to  heal.  Ecchymosis,  is  the  effusion  of  blood,  from  a  vein 
or  artery,  into  the  surrounding  cellular  tissue:  but  this  blood  is,  in 
general,  easily  absorbed  and  removed. 

Abscesses,  or  swellings,  usually  result  from,  or  are  connected  with, 
inflammation  :  and  they  sometimes  require  to  be  opened  with  a  sharp 
instrument,  to  remove  the  purulent  matter,  or  to  allay  pain.  If  they 
cannot  be  removed  by  friction,  or  cooling  applications,  at  an  early 
stage,  then  suppuration  is  necessary  to  their  cure ;  and  they  are  then 
called  ulcers.  A  sore  which  remains  for  a  long  time  without  either 
healing  or  spreading,  is  called  an  indolent  or  callous  ulcer;  but  one 
which  continues  to  spread  and  corrode  the  flesh  is  called  a  malignant 
or  phagadenic  ulcer ;  of  which  class  is  the  cancer.  Ulcers,  unless 
produced  by  wounds  or  bruises,  indicate  a  morbid  or  indolent  state 
of  the  system  :  and  they  require  various  treatment ;  either  soothing, 
as  by  poultices,  lint,  and  cooling  applications  ;  or  stimulating,  as  by 
mercurial  or  styptic  applications  ;  or  sometimes  they  require  cauter- 
izing, either  with  escharotics  or  the  actual  cautery.  The  moxa,  used 
as  a  cautery,  is  made  of  cotton,  immersed  in  a  solution  of  nitre,  then 
rolled  up  in  a  small  mass,  and  when  dry,  burnt  in  contact  with  the 
part  which  is  to  be  cauterized.  When  ulcers  heal  by  a  healthy 
action,  they  are  said  to  granulate;  the  forming  of  new  flesh  being 
termed  granulation. 

To  this  division  of  Surgery,  also  belongs  the  treatment  of  mal- 
formations; or  natural  defects  and  deformities,  which  admit  of 
surgical  remedies.  Many  of  these  can  be  obliterated  by  proper 
operations ;  especially  if  attended  to  in  the  vigor  of  youth,  when 
nature  exerts  the  greatest  recuperative  power.  Among  them,  we 
would  mention  curvature  of  the  spine ;  and  especially  loxarthrus, 
or  club-foot,  consisting  in  an  irregular  growth  or  developement,  and 
hence  an  unnatural  shape,  of  that  important  member.  The  applica- 
tion of  pressure,  by  preventing  the  growth  in  a  wrong  direction,  and 
promoting  it  in  a  right  one,  is  among  the  remedies  proposed  for  this 
deformity. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Topical  Surgery,  we  would  comprise  the 
surgical  treatment  of  diseases  of  the  eye,  the  ear,  and  the  teeth; 
which,  from  their  difficulty,  and  importance,  have  been  separated,  in 
large  cities,  from  general  surgery,  and  assigned  respectively  to  the 
Oculist,  the  Aurist,  and  the  Dentist.  The  diseases  of  the  eye,  re- 
quiring the  attention  of  the  Oculist,  are  numerous,  and  sometimes 
difficult  to  discover.  Among  them,  is  ophthalmia,  or  inflammation 
of  the  eye,  farther  distinguished  according  to  the  part  most  affected  ; 
also  hydr  ophthalmia,  or  dropsy  of  the  eye ;  albugo,  or  leucoma, 


CHIRURGERY.  429 

that  is  opacity  of  the  cornea ;  cataract,  or  opacity  of  the  crystalline 
lens ;  glaucoma,  or  disease  of  the  vitreous  humor ;  and  amaurosis, 
or  gutta  serena,  a  disease  of  the  retina,  or  optic  nerve.  Albugo,  and 
cataract,  may  be  removed ;  the  former  by  a  careful  application  of 
nitrate  of  silver,  at  intervals  ;  and  the  latter,  either  by  extraction,  or 
by  the  operation  of  couching  ;  which  consists  in  pushing  the  crystal- 
line lens  aside,  so  that  it  shall  not  interfere  with  regular  vision. 

The  diseases  of  the  ear,  the  care  of  which  belongs  to  the  Jlurist, 
are  less  numerous  than  those  of  the  eye  ;  but,  like  them,  often  require 
surgical  operations.  The  introduction  of  foreign  substances  into  the 
ear,  sometimes  thoughtlessly  effected  by  children,  may  cause  serious 
injury,  and  deafness,  unless  speedily  removed.  When  insects  pene- 
trate the  ear,  they  may  be  killed  by  dropping  in  olive  oil,  or  a 
decoction  of  tobacco ;  and  they  may  then  be  removed,  like  other 
substances,  by  syringing,  or  by  means  of  the  forceps,  or  probe. 
Deafness  may  also  be  produced  either  by  too  abundant,  or  too  scanty 
secretion  of  cerumen,  or  wax  of  the  ear;  and  when  this  aggregates 
and  hardens,  it  may  be  softened  by  means  of  olive  oil. 

To  the  Dentist,  belongs  that  division  of  Surgery  which  relates  to 
operations  on  the  teeth.  The  teeth,  are  organized  substances,  con- 
taining nerves,  and  vessels,  by  means  of  which  they  grow :  and  the 
pressure  of  these  vessels,  when  swollen,  causes  the  very  common 
complaint  of  odontalgia,  or  toothache ;  which  sometimes  results 
from  injury  or  decay  of  the  teeth,  and  sometimes  from  inflammation, 
as  in  colds  or  fevers.  Hence,  toothache  is  often  removed  by  subdu- 
ing the  inflammation :  but  when  it  is  chronic,  or  long  continued,  it 
indicates  exposure  or  disease  of  the  nerves  ;  and  when  the  teeth  are 
decayed  beyond  repairing,  the  last  resort  is  their  removal.  Teeth 
often  decay  from  injury  to  the  enamel ;  which  is  a  peculiar  coating, 
protecting  the  sensitive  parts  ;  and  which  being  gradually  supplied, 
is  not  easily  restored  where  it  is  once  worn  or  broken  through. 
Young  persons  should  be  cautioned  against  biting  hard  or  rough 
substances,  lest  they  suffer  severely  for  this  imprudence  in  after  life ; 
and,  for  a  like  reason,  we  prefer  prepared  chalk,  as  a  dentifrice,  in 
habitually  cleansing  the  teeth,  and  removing  acid  matter,  rather  than 
charcoal,  which  may  injure  the  enamel. 


FOURTH  PROVINCE; 

TECHNOLOGY. 


IN  the  province  of  Technology,  is  here  included  the  study  of  the 
Physical  Arts  ;  or  those  which  relate  to  material  objects,  and  result 
from  the  physical  constitution  of  the  human  race.  The  name  is  de- 
rived from  the  Greek,  tijcv^  an  art,  or  trade ;  and  xoyoj,  a  word,  or 
discourse :  and  although  the  term  has  been  sometimes  applied  in  a 
more  limited  sense,  to  the  mere  mechanic  arts,  we  feel  entirely  jus- 
tified, from  its  convenience  and  propriety,  in  giving  it  the  extension 
here  proposed.  We  comprehend  in  this  province,  the  departments 
of  rfrchitechnics,  or  the  arts  of  Construction  and  Communication ; 
Chreotechnics,  or  Agriculture,  Manufactures,  and  Commerce ;  Ma- 
chetechnics,  or  the  Arts  of  War ;  and  Callotechnics,  or  the  Fine  Arts, 
in  a  limited  sense ;  exclusive  of  Poetry  and  Romance,  which  have 
formed  the  basis  of  a  preceding  department.  The  reasons  for  this 
arrangement  have  already  been  given,  in  the  introduction  to  the  pre- 
sent work  ;  (pp.  34 — 36) ;  with  the  distinction  between  the  Sciences 
and  Arts ;  and  the  reasons  why  they  have  not  been  uniformly  sepa- 
rated, in  the  present  classification.  The  claims  of  Technology,  as 
here  defined,  may,  we  think,  be  easily  vindicated,  to  constitute  one 
of  the  four  great  provinces  of  human  knowledge ;  the  relative  im- 
portance of  which  has  never  been  more  highly  estimated  than  at 
the  present  day. 


430 


XIII.  DEPARTMENT : 

ARCHI  TECHNICS. 


IN  the  department  of  Architechnics,  we  include  the  study  of  the 
Arts  of  Construction,  and  Communication  or  Convection ;  that  is  of 
building  and  conveyance ;  comprehending,  of  course,  the  requisite 
preliminary  information.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek, 
ap^ojj  chief;  and  fegw?,  an  art;  being  suggested  by  the  name  of 
Architecture,  one  of  its  prominent  branches  ;  though,  perhaps,  suffi- 
ciently appropriate,  aside  from  this  consideration.  It  naturally  com- 
prehends the  study  of  the  materials  used  in  the  arts,  which  may  be 
termed  Hylurgy ;  the  construction  of  preparatory  apparatus,  or  Ma- 
chinery ;  and  the  kindred  branches  of  Architecture  ;  Civil  Engineer- 
ing, or  Viatecture  ;  Ship  Building,  or  Navitecture  ;  and  the  manage- 
ment of  vessels,  or  Navigation,  including  Seamanship. 

The  study  of  materials  and  machinery,  including  the  application 
of  mechanical  forces,  belongs  in  some  degree  to  all  the  departments 
of  Technology  :  but  as  they  find  in  this  department  some  of  their 
most  important  uses,  and  must  therefore,  be  studied  here,  at  least  in 
part,  we  have  chosen  to  include  them  generally,  as  introductory 
branches  of  Architechnics  ;  referring  back  to  them,  in  the  subsequent 
parts  of  the  work,  whenever  there  shall  be  occasion.  We  might 
have  considered  these  subjects  as  merely  contingent  to  other  branches; 
and  have  treated  of  each  kind  of  material  or  machine,  only  when 
speaking  of  its  application :  but  as  the  same  article  is  often  used  for 
various  purposes,  the  description  of  it  would  still,  in  many  cases, 
have  been  separated  from  the  account  of  its  use ;  while  many  im- 
portant principles,  relating  to  materials  and  machines  in  general, 
would  thus  have  been  entirely  neglected. 

The  arts  of  construction,  and  of  conveyance,  are  among  those 
which  have  highly  contributed  to  the  intellectual  advancement  of  our 
race ;  and  which  have,  therefore,  received  much  attention  from  both 
scientific  men  and  statesmen.  The  modern  improvements  in  public 
and  private  edifices,  especially  in  regard  to  warming  and  ventilation, 
have  provided  new  facilities  for  the  elevated  pursuits  of  science,  and 
safer  depositories  for  its  accumulated  stores  ;  while  public  halls  have 
become  more  comfortable  and  attractive  resorts,  for  those  who  seek 
instruction  or  amusement.  As  knowledge  has  thus  been  accumulated 
at  central  points,  the  numerous  means  of  conveyance  and  communi- 
cation, provided  by  ancient  and  modern  art,  have  furnished  the  ne- 
cessary channels  for  its  general  diffusion  and  circulation ;  often  re- 
flecting back  new  and  fresh  supplies  to  the  original  sources.  Con- 
sidered in  this  point  of  view,  the  arts  of  Commerce  and  Printing 

431 


432  ARCHITECHNICS. 

might  be  associated  with  the  present  group,  as  powerful  means  of 
diffusing  useful  knowledge :  but  on  account  of  other  relations  and 
dependences,  those  arts  are  reserved  for  the  subsequent  departments. 

We  have  here  spoken  of  the  intellectual  utility  of  the  arts  of  con- 
struction and  conveyance ;  from  which  their  favorable  influence  on 
morals,  might,  we  think,  be  justly  inferred  :  but  their  immediate  im- 
portance to  the  physical  comfort  and  well-being  of  our  race,  is  much 
more  obvious,  if  not  more  certain.  The  improvements  in  architec- 
ture, above  referred  to,  have  doubtless  contributed  essentially  to  the 
general  improvement  in  health,  and  corresponding  decrease  in  the 
bills  of  mortality,  exhibited  in  modern  statistics  ;  while  the  improve- 
ments in  conveyance,  have  greatly  stimulated  commercial  pursuits, 
and  thus  furnished  greater  supplies  of  desirable  commodities ;  be- 
sides enlarging  the  personal  intercourse,  and  with  it  the  social  rela- 
tions, of  the  various  branches  of  the  human  family.  That  there  are 
drawbacks  to  these  advantages,  we  must,  indeed,  admit,  in  the  in- 
creasing opportunities  for  crime,  and  temptations  to  luxury  and  vice ; 
but  most  reluctantly  should  we  believe  that  these  drawbacks  could 
ever  countervail  the  positive  benefits  already  adverted  to. 

The  arts  embraced  in  the  present  department,  depend,  generally, 
like  most  of  the  following  branches  of  Technology,  on  the  principles 
of  Acrophysics,  or  Natural  Philosophy  and  Chemistry.  Accordingly, 
they  have  been  mostly  classed  by  Dr.  Ure,  in  his  Philosophy  of 
Manufactures,  under  the  divisions  of  Mechanical,  and  Chemical  J%rts. 
Were  these  arts  intermingled  with  the  sciences  on  which  they  depend, 
this  principle  of  classification  would  become  a  necessary  one  ;  although 
it  would  separate  processes  which  are  closely  connected  in  their  prac- 
tice and  application.  But  since,  in  the  present  work,  we  have  adopted 
the  plan  of  separating  the  physical  arts  from  the  physical  sciences,  in 
order  that  the  principles  peculiar  to  each  may  be  examined  in  their 
natural  connection ;  we  here,  for  a  similar  reason,  adopt  the  method 
of  treating  the  arts,  rather  in  reference  to  their  general  uses  and  objects, 
than  to  the  scientific  principles  on  which  they  depend.  These  prin- 
ciples we  suppose  to  have  been  previously  studied  ;  and  they  may 
then  be  easily  referred  to,  in  treating  of  Technology,  as  often  as  they 
are  called  in  question. 

The  history  of  Architechnics,  will  be  more  naturally  distributed 
under  its  different  branches  :  but  we  may  here  remark  how  rapidly 
most  of  these  arts  have  been  improved  in  modern  times.  The 
ancients  were  not  entirely  unacquainted  with  machinery  ;  though  their 
ponderous  structures  appear  to  have  been  raised,  chiefly,  at  a  great 
sacrifice,  by  unaided  human  force.  They  made  roads,  and  even 
canals  ;  though  without  locks  to  overcome  inclinations  of  the  ground : 
and  they  built  ships,  some  of  which  were  of  great  size ;  though  gene- 
rally they  were  small,  and  their  voyages  confined  to  the  coasts,  lest 
they  should  lose  themselves  in  venturing  more  widely.  But  it  was 
reserved  for  modern  science,  to  apply  the  magnetic  needle,  to  guide 
the  beclouded  mariner,  over  trackless  seas,  to  worlds  before  unknown; 
and  to  invent  the  steam  engine,  driving  the  rapid  wheel  along  the 
iron  road,  or  through  the  billowy  deep;  instinct  with  life  and  motion  ; 
performing  the  labor  and  relieving  the  toils  of  thousands  of  horses  ; 


HYUJRGTT.  433 

yet  governed  by  a  touch  of  the  hand ;  by  which  a  vapor,  light  as 
smoke,  is  revolutionizing  the  world.  That  these  great  results  are 
due  to  physical  science,  it  were  vain  to  deny ;  and  well  has  art  repaid 
the  debt,  by  procuring  for  mankind  the  leisure  to  study  science  more 
profoundly,  while  seeking  every  channel  for  ameliorating  the  condition 
of  the  human  race. 

We  proceed  to  treat  of  Architechnics,  under  the  branches  of 
Hylurgy  ;  Machinery ;  Architecture ;  Civil  Engineering,  or  Viatec- 
ture :  Ship  Building,  or  Navitecture ;  and  Navigation,  including 
Seamanship. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HYLURGY. 

WE  propose  the  term  Hylurgy,  to  include  the  study  of  the  various 
materials  used  in  the  arts,  and  of  those  elementary  processes,  for  pre- 
paring and  working  them,  which  belong  to  no  particular  art,  but  are 
of  general  application.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  vjuy, 
matter,  or  any  material ;  and  wpyta,  work :.  and  it  was  suggested  by 
the  term  Metallurgy,  signifying  the  working  of  metals,  which  is  of 
course  included  in  this  branch,  at  least  so  far  as  regards  its  elementary 
processes.  The  other  classes  of  materials,  which  are  here  studied, 
are,  as  regards  their  origin,  either  earthy,  vegetable,  or  animal ;  and 
the  present  study  relates  to  their  selection,  properties  and  qualities  ; 
their  strength,  and  durability,  or  preservation  ;  their  uses,  and  their 
preparation.  These  subjects  have  been  made  the  themes  of  large 
volumes  ;  and  they  are  deemed  sufficiently  important  to  merit  a  place, 
as  constituting  a  distinct,  introductory  branch  of  the  arts. 

Vitruvius,  one  of  the  earliest  writers  on  Architecture,  treats  at 
large  of  the  materials  used  in  building,  as  a  part  of  that  branch ;  and 
in  this  he  has  been  followed  by  several  later  writers.  But  the  same 
description  of  materials  would  apply,  for  the  most  part,  equally  well 
to  Civil  Engineering,  and  Fortification  ;  and  as  regards  the  use  of 
wood,  to  Ship  Building  and  various  other  arts.  Hence,  the  propriety 
of  separating  these  subjects,  and  forming  them  into  a  distinct  branch, 
will,  we  trust,  be  fully  evident.  Among  the  leading  topics  which 
this  branch  should  embrace,  we  will  here  mention  Mining,  Metallurgy, 
and  Smithery,  as  belonging  chiefly  to-the  metals  ;  Quarrying,  Brick- 
making,  Masonry,  and  Stonecutting,  as  belonging  chiefly  to  earthy 
materials  ;  and  Forestwork,  Carpentry,  and  Joinery,  relating  chiefly  to 
wood;  to  which  may  be  added  various  minor  subjects,  not  belonging 
immediately  to  special  manufactures  ;  since  these  latter  are  reserved 
for  the  next  department  of  the  arts.  The  important  topic  of  the 
strength  of  materials,  may  properly  form  the  subject  of  a  distinct  and 
concluding  section  of  Hylurgy. 

The  history  of  the  materials  used  in  the  arts,  is,  as  might  be 
expected,  quite  obscure.  Vulcan  is  reputed  to  have  been  the  first 
blacksmith  ;  and  some  writers  have  supposed  this  personage  to  have 
55  20 


434  ARCHITECHNICS. 

been  the  Tubal  Cain,  mentioned  in  the  Scripture,  as  the  instructor 
of  every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron,  long  before  the  Deluge.  Ithonus, 
of  Thessaly,  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  who  melted  the  metals,  and 
coined  money  ;  that  is,  as  we  must  limit  the  tradition,  the  first  among 
the  Greeks.  Iron  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  accidentally,  by 
the  burning  of  Mount  Ida,  1406  B.  C.;  but  the  early  mention  of  it 
in  the  Scriptures,  above  quoted,  shows  that  this  could  not  have  been 
its  first  discovery ;  though  it  is  generally  admitted  that  gold,  silver, 
and  copper  were  the  metals  first  known.  The  brass  and  copper 
mines  of  Cyprus,  were  discovered  by  Cinyra ;  and  the  iron  mines  of 
Crete  are  said,  by  Hesiod,  to  have  been  discovered  by  the  Dactyli, 
or  priests  of  Cybele.  The  other  metals,  known  to  the  ancients,  have 
already  been  referred  to,  under  Chemistry;  (p.  370);  but  we  may 
here  add  that  the  brass  spoken  of  in  Scripture,  was  probably,  for  the 
most  part,  bronze;  or  an  alloy  of  copper  with  tin,  rather  than  zinc. 
Masonry,  perhaps  of  a  simple  kind,  was  practised  at  least  as  early 
as  at  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel ;  and  the  walls  of  Babylon, 
like  the  present  houses  in  the  east,  were  made  of  bricks  unburnt,  but 
dried  in  the  sun. 

If  we  may  judge  from  the  progress  of  the  arts  among  savage  na- 
tions, the  working  of  stone  would  naturally  precede  that  of  the  metals : 
and  not  only  might  rude  edifices  be  built  of  them ;  but  rude  instru- 
ments could  be  formed  of  them,  for  cutting  wood,  and  for  domestic 
uses.  The  employment  of  leaves,  vegetable  fibres,  and  skins  of 
animals,  for  clothing,  was  probably  the  first  application  of  Hylurgy ; 
and  next  to  this,  the  use  of  stones,  bark,  and  wood,  for  constructing 
shelters,  and  procuring  warmth.  The  invention  of  carpentry,  was 
attributed  by  the  Greeks  to  Daedalus  :  but  this  art  must  have  been 
practised  at  a  much  earlier  period  ;  that,  for  instance,  of  the  building 
of  the  Ark,  which  sheltered  the  patriarchal  family  from  the  deluge. 
In  modern  times,  the  progress  of  scientific  discovery  has  not  only 
suggested  new  uses  for  materials  already  known  ;  but  it  has  added 
various  other  materials  to  the  list,  and  furnished  new  supplies,  where 
the  former  ones  seemed  almost  exhausted. 

Some  of  these  substances  we  are  now  to  mention,  under  the  heads 
of  Metallic  materials  ;  Earthy  materials ;  and  Organic  materials  :  and 
a  section  on  the  strength  of  Materials,  will  conclude  the  branch  of 
Hylurgy. 

§  1.  Of  the  Metallic  Materials  used  in  the  arts,  on  which  some- 
thing has  already  been  said  in  the  branch  of  Chemistry,  a  few 
prominent  examples  must  here  suffice.  Of  all  the  known  metals, 
iron  is  the  most  useful ;  and  its  ores,  particularly  the  oxides,  are  the 
most  abundantly  diffused.  From  its  great  strength,  and  its  property 
of  welding,  or  uniting  with  another  piece  of  iron,  by  hammering  at 
a  white  heat,  it  serves  many  purposes  for  which  no  other  metal  could 
be  employed.  Although  hard  of  itself,  it  is  rendered  much  harder 
by  combining  it  with  charcoal,  as  in  cast  iron,  or  steel;  and  then 
tempering  it,  by  sudden  cooling.  Next  to  iron,  in  importance,  is 
copper ;  the  only  metal,  except  titanium,  which  has  a  red  color.  It 
is,  like  iron,  quite  malleable  and  ductile ;  and  hence  much  used  in 
rolled  sheets,  to  cover  ships,  and  roofs,  and  form  various  utensils. 


HYLURGY.  435 

When  used  for  cooking,  it  should  be  tinned  over ;  as  its  rust  and 
salts  are  poisonous.  Tin,  is  a  white  metal,  which  produces  a  pecu- 
liar crackling  sound  when  bent.  It  is  used  sparingly,  for  coating 
iron  or  copper;  and  for  forming,  with  copper,  bell-metal  and  bronze. 
Lead,  is  a  heavy,  but  soft,  bluish  metal,  easily  tarnished,  and,  like 
tin,  easily  melted.  It  is  poisonous  internally;  but  there  are  few 
substances  which  will  dissolve  it:  and  it  is  much  used  for  covering 
roofs  and  cisterns,  and  forming  water  pipes.  Zinc,  is  a  hard  and 
brittle  metal ;  though  ductile  when  hot ;  and  melting  at  a  heat  below 
redness.  With  copper,  it  forms  brass,  and  pinchbeck. 

Metallurgy,  properly  comprises  the  reducing  of  the  metals  from 
their  ores,  and  the  elementary  processes  of  working  them.  Most  of 
the  metals  are  obtained  from  their  oxides,  sulphurets,  or  chlorides, 
by  smelting ;  that  is  by  heating  them  with  charcoal,  or  coke,  and 
adding  sometimes  a  flux,  as  of  lime,  or  sand,  to  react  upon  the  ores, 
and  fuse  them.  The  charcoal  combines  with  the  oxygen,  and  thus 
separates  the  metal ;  which,  in  most  cases,  runs  down,  and  is  drawn 
out  from  the  furnace.  The  sulphurets  and  chlorides,  by  roasting, 
or  heating  in  the  air,  are  converted  into  oxides ;  and  then  reduced  as 
above  explained.  The  furnaces  used,  are  either  draught  furnaces, 
which  burn  by  the  natural  draught ;  or  blast  furnaces,  into  which 
the  air  is  driven  by  bellows,  or  by  machinery.  Reverberatory  fur- 
naces, have  arched  roofs,  to  reflect  the  flame  back  upon  the  ores. 
Among  the  processes  of  working  iron,  are  casting,  from  the  impure 
melted  iron  first  obtained  ;  forging,  or  purifying  cast  iron,  which  is 
brittle,  and  hammering  it  into  wrought  iron,  which  is  malleable  ; 
rolling  and  drawing  wrought  iron  into  sheets,  bars  or  wire ;  and  the 
converting  of  iron  into  steel,  by  combining  it  with  a  due  portion  of 
carbon.  The  worker  in  rough  iron  is  called  a  blacksmith :  but  the 
filing  and  polishing  of  iron  or  steel  is  the  work  of  the  whitesmith  ; 
and  the  worker  in  lead  is  called  a  plumber. 

The  art  of  Mining,  or  procuring  metallic  ores,  mineral  coal,  and 
rock  salt,  from  mines  dug  in  the  earth,  supposes  a  knowledge  of 
Geology ,  and  often  requires  the  aid  of  Machinery  and  Civil  Engi- 
neering. Mines,  are  worked,  either  by  sinking  a  shaft,  or  pit,  like 
a  well,  and  drawing  up  the  materials,  by  means  of  a  wheel  and  axle, 
or  other  machinery ;  or,  when  lying  beneath  a  considerable  slope, 
they  are  entered  by  tunnels ;  commencing,  externally,  on  the  level 
of  the  bottom  of  the  mine,  or  lower,  in  order  to  draw  off  the  water 
which  may  infiltrate.  The  minerals  sought,  lie  sometimes  in  veins  ; 
but  oftener  in  beds,  or  in  successive  thin  strata  ;  requiring  the  removal 
of  much  superfluous  matter.  The  occurrence  of  a  fault,  where  the 
beds  are  broken  across,  and  one  part  raised  above  the  other,  often 
perplexes  the  miner,  and  interrupts  the  work. 

§  2.  The  Earthy  Materials,  used  in  the  arts,  are  principally  stones, 
clay,  sand,  and  lime ;  used  chiefly  for  building.  In  this  relation, 
stones  may  be  classified  as  either  calcareous,  containing  lime,  or  its 
metallic  base ;  or  siliceous,  containing  sand  or  silicic  acid.  Of  cal- 
careous stones,  the  most  important  is  marble,  which  is  simply  crys- 
tallized limestone ;  it  being  easy  to  cut,  and  in  mild  climates  suffi- 
ciently durable,  though  gradually  disintegrated  by  frost.  Gypsum, 


436  ARCHITECHNICS. 

or  sulphate  of  lime,  may  also  be  used  for  building ;  but  it  is  much 
softer  than  marble,  and  found  in  less  abundance.  Of  silicious  stones, 
granite  is  the  most  valuable  for  building;  being  sufficiently  hard  and 
strong,  and  very  durable.  Basalt,  and  hornblende,  are  much  harder, 
and  of  rarer  occurrence  ;  but  sienitic  granite,  and  sienite,  containing 
hornblende,  are  very  useful  and  durable,  though  hard  to  cut.  Gneiss, 
and  especially  mica  slate,  are  highly  useful  for  flagstones ;  on 
account  of  their  splitting  in  thin  layers.  Sandstone,  also  called 
freestone,  is  more  easily  wrought,  but  less  durable  ;  and  argillite,  or 
clay  slate,  is  chiefly  used  for  covering  roofs,  and  as  a  material  for 
writing.  Steatite,  or  soapstone,  is  valuable  for  resisting  the  effects 
of  fire.  To  these  and  other  similar  materials,  some  reference  has 
already  been  made,  under  the  branches  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology. 
The  quarrying  of  stones,  is  analogous  to  mining :  but  quarries  are 
generally  open  to  the  sky ;  and  the  stones  are  loosened  by  drilling 
holes,  and  either  splitting  the  rock  with  wedges,  or  blasting  with 
gunpowder. 

Clay,  a  hydrous  silicate  of  alumina,  is  extensively  used  in  brick- 
making,  as  well  as  in  pottery.  Bricks,  are  made  of  well  kneaded 
clay,  struck  in  moulds  of  proper  shape  and  size,  then  thoroughly 
dried  in  the  sun,  and  afterwards  burnt,  to  give  them  the  requisite 
hardness.  Lime,  is  obtained  by  calcining  marble,  limestone,  chalk, 
or  shells,  to  drive  off  the  carbonic  acid.  Pure  lime  slakes  freely, 
and  swells  greatly  by  the  absorption  of  water ;  hence  it  is  also  called 
fat  lime  ;  but  mortar  made  of  it  does  not  harden  under  water.  Hy- 
draulic lime,  contains  alumina,  silex,  iron,  or  some  other  impurity  ; 
which  makes  it  hard  to  slake,  but  causes  it  to  harden  under  water, 
and  thus  to  form  what  is  called  hydraulic  mortar.  Common  sand 
may  be  used  with  hydraulic  lime,  to  form  this  mortar ;  or  it  may  be 
formed  of  common  lime  with  burnt  clay,  or  bricks  finely  pulverized, 
which  constitute  what  may  be  called  a  hydraulic  base.  Common 
mortar,  contains  from  two  to  four  parts  of  sand,  to  one  of  lime. 

Masonry,  is  the  art  of  building  with  stones  or  bricks,  and  mortar ; 
or  it  is  the  structure  itself  thus  built.  When  laid  without  mortar,  it 
is  called  dry,  or  open  masonry ;  to  distinguish  it  from  mortar 
masonry.  The  stones,  or  bricks,  should  always  be  laid  with  their 
upper  and  lower  surfaces  horizontal,  except  in  arches.  When  the 
stones  are  laid  without  any  regular  order,  they  form  rubble  masonry : 
but  when  in  horizontal  courses,  they  form  coursed  masonry;  and 
when  the  vertical  joints  are  also  regular,  they  constitute  ashlar 
masonry.  A  header,  is  a  stone  laid  crosswise  in  the  wall ;  and  a 
stretcher,  is  one  laid  lengthwise  ;  the  bottom  of  a  stone  being  called 
the  bed,  and  the  top,  the  build.  Masonry  is  strongest,  when  the  stones 
break  joints:  the  vertical  joint,  in  one  course,  coming  over  or  under 
the  middle  of  a  stone,  above  or  below.  The  art  of  Stone  cutting, 
rests  on  principles  of  Geometry,  which  we  have  no  room  here  to 
apply. 

§  3.  Of  the  Vegetable  Materials,  used  in  the  arts,  the  most  im- 
portant are,  the  different  kinds  of  wood,  obtained  from  the  trunks  of 
trees  ;  and  vegetable  fibres,  used  for  making  cloth  and  cordage.  Of 
animal  materials,  we  shall  have  no  room  here  to  treat.  The  most 


*•'       HYLURGT.  437 

important  kinds  of  wood,  are  the  oak  and  pine.  The  oak,  of  the 
genus  of  plants  called  quercus,  is  hard,  heavy,  strong,  and  durable; 
particularly  the  white  oak,  and  live  oak  ;  which  are  the  species  most 
used  in  ship  building.  The  pine,  or  genus  pinus,  is  softer,  and 
more  easily  wrought ;  and,  from  its  straightness,  is  generally  used  for 
the  masts  of  vessels.  The  spruce,  and  cedar,  resemble  pine,  in  their 
properties  and  uses :  the  ash,  is  elastic  and  fissile ;  the  elm,  and 
hickory,  are  tough  and  strong,  but  less  durable  when  exposed ;  and 
the  maple,  and  black  walnut,  are  used  for  furniture,  as  substitutes  for 
mahogany.  Chesnut,  and  hemlock  or  Canada  spruce,  are  used  for 
fences  and  coarse  purposes ;  and  the  bark  of  the  hemlock  and  oak  is 
used  for  tanning  leather.  Trees,  after  felling,  or  cutting,  require  to 
be  seasoned,  or  freed  from  the  sap,  by  drying,  before  they  are  used 
for  building.  Water  seasoning,  consists  in  laying  the  wood  for 
some  time  under  water;  in  order  that  the  fermenting  juices  may  be 
dissolved  out,  before  drying :  and  timber  is  also  rendered  more  dura- 
ble, by  saturation  with  corrosive  sublimate,  or  blue  vitriol ;  as  proved 
by  Mr.  Kyan,  and  others. 

Carpentry,  is  the  art  of  working  in  timber  and  boards,  in  framing 
and  covering  buildings ;  though  the  covering,  and  especially  the 
internal  finishing,  is  distinctly  called  joinery.  Timber,  after  being 
hewed,  or  sawed,  into  a  proper  shape,  is  framed,  when  the  pieces 
form  an  angle  with  each  other,  by  cutting  mortices,  or  cavities,  and 
tenons  or  projections,  fitting  closely  together.  When  the  timbers 
are  at  right  angles,  braces  are  required,  extending  obliquely  across, 
from  one  to  the  other,  to  prevent  the  joints  from  springing.  The 
great  principle  in  framing,  is,  to  arrange  the  timbers  in  triangles  ;  so 
that  each  side  becomes  a  brace  to  the  other  two.  A  piece  of  timber 
which  acts  by  pushing,  or  resisting  compression,  is  called  a  strut; 
and  one  which  acts  by  drawing,  or  tension,  is  called  a  tie.  Timber 
may  be  lengthened,  by  uniting  two  or  more  pieces  endwise  ;  either 
by  splicing,  or,  as  when  they  are  notched  into  each  other,  by  scarf- 
ing. Thick  boards  are  called  planks ;  and  small  timber  is  called 
scantling. 

§  4.  The  Strength  of  Materials,  is  ascertained,  primarily,  by  ex- 
periments on  each  different  kind  :  but  when,  by  trials  on  specimens 
of  various  dimensions,  the  law  of  variation  is  found,  the  strength  of 
other  pieces,  of  the  same  kind,  may  be  approximately  determined 
by  calculation.  When  any  material  is  drawn  asunder  lengthwise, 
the  strain  which  it  undergoes,  is  called  tensive :  when  it  is  crushed 
lengthwise,  as  may  happen  to  a  column,  the  strain  is  compressive : 
when  broken  crosswise,  the  strain  is  transverse;  and  when  fractured 
by  twisting,  the  strain  is  called  torsive.  Hence,  to  resist  these  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  strain,  there  are  required  four  corresponding  kinds  of 
strength  ;  which  may  take  the  same  names  as  the  kinds  of  strain  or 
force  which  they  resist.  It  is  remarkable  that  oak  is  stronger  than 
iron,  for  equal  weights  of  the  two  materials. 

The  tensive  strength,  is  directly  proportional  to  the  cross  section ; 
without  regard  to  the  length.  A  bar  of  wrought  iron,  one  inch 
square,  will  sustain  about  65,000  Ibs.  of  tension ;  and  a  like  sized 
bar  of  oak,  will  require  about  14,000  Ibs.,  to  draw  it  asunder.  The 

2  o  2 


438  ARCHITECHNICS. 

compressive  strength  of  a  post,  is  nearly  proportional  to  the  greater 
side,  into  the  square  of  the  lesser,  divided  by  the  square  root  of  the 
length.  A  cubic  block  of  wrought  iron,  each  side  of  which  is  one 
inch  long,  will  bear  a  pressure  of  about  17,000  Ibs. ;  and  a  like  cube 
of  oak,  will  bear  about  5,000  Ibs.,  before  crushing.  The  transverse 
strength,  of  a  horizontal  beam,  is  proportional  to  the  breadth,  into 
the  square  of  the  depth,  divided  by  the  length.  The  torsive 
strength,  is  nearly  proportional  to  the  cube  of  the  diameter,  divided 
by  the  square  root  of  the  length.  These  formulae  are  only  approxi- 
mations ;  and  reference  should  always  be  had,  as  far  as  possible,  to 
experiments  on  the  same  materials,  and  masses  of  nearly  the  same 
dimensions. 

The  manufacture  of  chemical  articles,  as  the  alkalies,  acids,  and 
various  salts ;  and  the  preparation  of  paints  and  dye  stuffs,  on  a  large 
scale  ;  would  probably  find  its  most  appropriate  place,  in  our  ar- 
rangement, as  an  appendix  to  Hylurgy. 


CHAPTER  II. 

MACHINERY. 

IN  the  branch  of  Machinery,  we  would  comprehend  the  appli- 
cation of  the  moving  forces  used  in  the  arts,  such  as  water,  wind, 
and  steam  power ;  and  the  construction  of  machines  in  general,  so 
far  as  it  may  be  considered  to  form  a  distinct  class  of  arts.  The 
name  machine,  is  of  French  extraction ;  but  derived  originally  from 
the  Greek,  pyzavy,  having  the  same  signification.  The  construction 
and  management  of  machinery,  has,  at  the  present  day,  become  so 
extensive  and  technical,  as,  in  our  opinion,  to  require  its  separation 
from  the  science  of  Mechanics,  and  its  location  as  a  distinct  branch 
of  the  arts ;  depending,  of  course,  on  the  principles  of  Mechanics 
and  Hylurgy ;  with  special  reference,  also,  to  the  objects  for  which 
machines  are  constructed.  Although  subservient  to  Civil  Engineer- 
ing, Manufactures,  and  various  other  arts,  most  machines  have  so 
much  similarity  of  construction,  and  are  so  often  compared  or  con- 
trasted, that  a  connected  study  of  them  seems  necessary  to  a  full 
course  of  Technology. 

A  machine,  may  be  defined  as  a  structure  serving  to  produce,  or 
to  regulate  motion ;  and  to  apply  it  to  some  special  purpose  in  the 
arts :  the  object,  in  general,  being  a  saving  of  time,  or  of  force. 
Machines  are  applied,  for  accumulating  power,  as  in  the  tilt  hammer, 
and  pile  engine ; — for  regulating  power,  as  in  the  fly  wheel,  and 
governor ; — for  increasing  the  velocity,  as  in  the  turning  lathe,  and 
carding  machine  ; — for  increasing  the  pressure,  or  tension,  as  in  the 
lever,  and  other  simple  mechanical  powers  ; — for  prolonging  the  ac- 
tion of  a  power,  as  in  the  clock,  and  watch  ; — for  registering  opera- 
tions, as  in  the  gas-meter,  and  anemometer ; — and  for  performing  de- 
licate operations,  more  accurately  than  can  be  done  by  the  hand  alone, 
as  in  graduating  machines,  for  dividing  scales  and  circles,  or  in  ma- 


MACHINERY.  439 

chines  for  card-setting,  dye-engraving,  and  coining.  Machines  do 
not  create  power ;  but  they  serve  as  vehicles,  or  agents,  by  means 
of  which  it  is  applied  :  and  whatever  is  gained  by  them,  in  the  in- 
crease of  pressure,  or  tension,  is  compensated  for  by  the  consequent 
loss  of  velocity.  Generally,  machines  are  employed  to  transmit  mo- 
tion ;  but  in  the  case  of  presses,  and  in  some  other  instances,  their 
object  is  merely  to  maintain  a  continued  pressure,  or  tension. 

The  simpler  forms  of  machinery,  known  to  the  ancients,  have 
already  been  referred  to  under  the  branch  of  Mechanics ;  and  their 
warlike  machines  will  be  reserved  for  the  department  of  Machetech- 
nics.  Machines  for  grinding  grain,  were,  doubtless,  of  very  early 
invention ;  and  the  hand-mill  is  referred  to  in  the  New  Testament. 
The  upper  stone  was,  in  later  times,  attached  to  a  shaft,  and  turned 
by  oxen  or  asses.  The  invention  of  mills,  has  been  ascribed  to 
Myles  of  Sparta,  and  to  Pilumnus,  one  of  the  gods  of  Rome :  but 
they  were  certainly  known,  at  an  earlier  period,  to  the  oriental  na- 
tions. Water-mills,  were  invented  about  the  time  of  Mithridates ; 
near  whose  residence  one  was  built :  and  floating  water-mills,  or 
tide  mills,  were  constructed  by  Belisarius,  when  the  Goths  stopped 
the  Roman  aqueducts,  A.  D.  536.  Wind-mills,  are  said  to  have 
been  invented  in  the  time  of  Augustus;  but  they  were  first  introduced 
into  central  Europe,  by  the  Crusaders,  about  the  year  1100.  Saw- 
mills, are  said  to  have  existed  in  Germany  as  early  as  A.  D.  350 ; 
but  more  certain  mention  is  made  of  them  at  Augsburgh,  in  1322. 
Paper-mills,  are  said  to  have  been  invented  in  the  14th  century. 

The  elastic  power  of  steam,  was  known  to  Hero  of  Alexandria ; 
who  applied  it  to  produce  the  rotation  of  a  hollow  sphere,  about  120 
B.  C.  The  invention  of  the  steam  engine,  has  been  ascribed  to 
Garay  in  Spain,  in  1543  ;  to  Mathesius  of  Germany,  in  1560;  to 
Branca  of  Italy,  in  1629 ;  to  Solomon  de  Caus,  of  France,  in  1615  ; 
to  the  Marquis  of  Worcester,  in  1663  ;  and  to  Denis  Papin  of  France, 
in  1690 :  but  none  of  their  inventions  deserves  the  name  of  a  steam 
engine  ;  though  they  may  have  illustrated  its  principles.  The  first 
available  application  of  steam  power,  was  made  in  1698,  by  Savery  of 
England  ;  whose  apparatus  would  more  properly  be  called  a  steam 
pump.  It  was  not  till  1705,  that  the  first  steam  engine,  properly  so 
called,  was  invented  by  Newcomen,  a  blacksmith  of  Dartmouth.  It 
was  an  atmospheric  engine ;  the  pressure  of  steam  indirectly  raising 
the  piston,  and  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  driving  it  down,  when 
the  steam  was  condensed. 

Newcomen's  engine  was  greatly  improved  by  the  addition  of  the 
safety  valve,  invented  by  Papin  ;  and  of  the  self-acting  valve  rods,  con- 
trived by  Humphrey  Potter;  by  which  the  engine  was  made  to  work 
itself,  while  he  found  time  to  play.  This  engine  suffered  an  enor- 
mous waste  of  heat,  by  the  cooling  of  the  cylinder  at  each  stroke  ;  to 
remedy  which  was  the  object  of  James  Watts's  great  improvement, 
in  using  a  separate  condenser.  This  was  invented  in  1763,  but  pa- 
tented in  1769,  to  Watt  and  Roebuck,  afterwards  Watt  and  Bolton. 
By  this  invention,  and  by  the  application  of  the  crank,  to  enable  it  to 
produce  rotary  motion,  the  steam  engine  has  become  that  powerful 
agent  in  the  arts  which  it  is  at  the  present  day.  The  use  of  high 


440  ARCHITECHNICS. 

pressure  engines,  at  least  in  England,  commenced  with  Messrs.  Tre- 
vithick  and  Vivian,  in  1802  ;  of  which  more  will  be  said  under  Via- 
tecture,  in  treating  of  locomotives  ;  and  under  Navitecture,  in  relation 
to  steamboats.  The  present  water,  wind,  and  steam  power  of  Great 
Britain,  are  estimated  to  perform  the  labor  of  more  than  twenty 
millions  of  men. 

Our  farther  remarks  on  Machinery  will  be  arranged  under  the  heads 
of  Elements  of  Machinery  ;  Water  power  ;  Wind,  and  Animal  power ; 
and  Steam  power. 

§  1.  The  Elements  of  Machinery,  include,  besides  the  simple  me- 
chanical powers,  and  the  theory  of  forces,  already  referred  to  under 
the  branch  of  Mechanics,  the  various  means  of  changing  the  direc- 
tion and  application  of  forces ;  and  the  classification  of  machines. 
Motion,  in  machinery,  is  either  continuous,  or  alternate,  that  is  alter- 
nately in  opposite  directions.  Continuous  motion,  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face, can  only  be  circular,  or  curvilinear,  unless  by  a  succession  of 
matter,  as  in  a  running  stream  :  but  alternate  or  reciprocating  motion 
may  be  either  curvilinear,  or  rectilinear,  that  is  either  in  a  curve,  or 
in  a  straight  line.  Rotary,  or  circular  motion,  is  transmitted  from 
one  axle  to  another,  by  band  wheels,  one  of  which  is  turned  by  the 
friction  of  the  band  around  them  both  ;  or  by  rag  wheels,  having  pro- 
jections, and  surrounded  by  a  chain  instead  of  a  band ;  or  by  cog 
wheels,  the  teeth  of  which  interlock;  or  by  the  perpetual  screw, 
acting  on  a  cog  wheel ;  or  by  a  universal  joint,  directly  connecting 
the  axles  ;  or  by  double  cranks,  with  two  connecting  rods,  from  the 
cranks  on  one  axle,  to  those  on  the  other.  The  axle  of  large  wheels 
is  often  called  the  shaft;  and  when  two  unequal  wheels  gear 
together,  the  smaller  is  sometimes  called  a  pinion. 

Rotary  motion  may  be  made  to  produce  alternate  motion,  by  means 
of  cams,  or  eccentric  and  irregular  wheels,  pressing  on  levers  ;  and 
especially  by  means  of  cranks.  Rectilinear  motion  may  be  made  to 
produce  circular,  by  acting  on  a  circumference ;  as  in  the  rack,  or 
toothed  bar,  acting  on  a  wheel ;  or  in  the  unwinding  of  a  cord  ;  or  in 
the  motion  of  windmills  and  water  wheels.  Alternate  motion  may 
be  changed  from  circular  to  rectilinear,  or  the  reverse,  by  means  of  a 
belt  passing  over  a  segment  of  a  circle  ;  or  by  a  vibrating  crank  and 
connecting  rod.  Alternate  motion  may  be  converted  into  continuous, 
by  ratchet  wheels,  and  catches ;  or  by  scapements,  as  in  clocks  and 
watches.  The  engaging  and  disengaging  of  machinery,  is  performed, 
in  the  case  of  cogwheels,  by  moving  one  of  them  backward  or 
forward  in  the  direction  of  the  axle  ;  in  band  wheels,  by  having  live 
and  dead  pulleys,  the  latter  turning  separate  from  the  axle  ;  and  in 
other  cases,  by  means  of  attaching  pins,  or  separable  levers,  or  con- 
necting rods.  Machines  may  be  classified,  according  to  the  kind  of 
power  employed,  as  wind  mills,  hand  mills,  steam  mills  ;  or  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  process,  as  grist  mills,  saw  mills,  fulling 
mills  ;  or  according  to  the  material  operated  upon,  as  flour  mills, 
sugar  mills,  and  oil  mills.  On  this  subject  we  have  no  room  to 
dwell. 

§  2.  Water  Power,  is  generally  applied  by  means  of  wheels,  with 
floats  or  buckets,  in  striking  which,  the  water  turns  the  wheel. 


MACHINERY.  441 

Water  wheels,  turning  on  a  horizontal  axis,  are  distinguished  as 
overshot,  undershot,  or  breast  wheels.  The  overshot  wheel,  receives 
the  water  at,  or  near  its  top  ;  and  is  turned  by  the  pressure  of  the 
water,  descending  by  the  force  of  gravity.  In  practice,  it  is  capable 
of  raising  as  much  water  as  is  employed  in  turning  it,  to  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  height  of  the  wheel ;  and  the  velocity  of  the  circum- 
ference should  be  between  two  and  five  feet  per  second.  The  undershot 
wheel,  receives  the  water  near  its  lowest  part;  and  is  turned  by  the 
impulse,  or  momentum,  which  the  water  already  has  on  striking  it. 
It  will  raise  an  equal  quantity  of  water  to  only  one-third  of  the 
height  through  which  the  water  that  turns  it  would  have  to  fall,  to 
acquire  the  velocity  with  which  it  strikes  the  wheel.  The  breast 
wheel,  receives  the  water  at  some  intermediate  height;  and  the  float 
boards  move  nearly  in  contact  with  a  surrounding  enclosure  called 
an  apron,  so  that  the  water  can  descend  only  by  turning  the  wheel. 
It  is  intermediate  between  the  preceding  kinds,  in  its  power ;  and 
is  best  suited  for  moderate  falls,  not  sufficiently  high  for  an  overshot 
wheel. 

For  great  heights,  and  a  small  supply  of  water,  the  chain  wheel  is 
sometimes  used,  consisting  of  an  endless  chain,  passing  continually 
around  two  rag  wheels,  at  the  top  and  bottom  ;  and  hung  with  buckets, 
which,  receiving  the  water  near  the  top,  descend  on  one  side  of  the 
circuit  by  its  pressure.  The  horizontal  wheel,  is  occasionally  used, 
with  a  vertical  shaft,  and  oblique  floats  around  its  circumference,  at 
the  foot.  When  these  floats  are  placed  within  a  hollow  cylinder, 
receiving  the  water  from  above,  it  is  called  a  tub  tuheel.  In  several 
of  these  forms,  the  effect  may  be  much  diminished  by  the  resistance 
of  back  water,  remaining  at  the  foot  of  the  wheel.  Tide  mills,  are 
usually  undershot  wheels  ;  resting  on  boats,  moored  in  the  current ; 
and  turned  by  the  tide. 

§  3.  Wind  Power,  is  still  occasionally  used,  in  those  localities 
where  water  power  is  wanting  ;  although  so  uncertain  in  its  continu- 
ance, that  its  use  is  necessarily  limited.  It  is  ordinarily  obtained  by 
means  of  the  vertical  windmill,  turning  on  a  horizontal  axis,  and 
having  arms  with  oblique  sails,  revolving  in  a  vertical  plane.  In  this 
case,  the  sails  should  make  an  angle  of  only  about  20  degrees,  with 
the  weather,  or  plane  of  rotation  ;  that  is,  an  angle  of  about  70°  with 
the  axis  ;  and  the  axis  should  be  capable  of  turning  around  horizon- 
tally, as  the  wind  shifts,  in  order  that  it  may  act  in  whatever 
direction  the  wind  blows.  The  Horizontal  windmill,  turns  on  a 
vertical  axis,  and  has  its  sails  so  arranged  that  they  may  catch  the 
wind  and  draw,  during  one-half  of  the  revolution,  but  not  during  the 
other.  Windmills  are  used  for  grinding  grain ;  but  oftener  for 
pumping  water,  either  in  salt  works,  or  for  draining. 

Animal  power,  is  necessarily  used  more  frequently  than  any  other 
kind;  that  of  men,  oxen,  and  horses,  being  the  most  generally 
employed.  Where  mere  physical  force  is  required,  that  of  oxen,  or 
horses,  is  preferable,  from  its  being  cheaper  ;  but  where  strength 
must  be  combined  with  skill,  or  applied  on  a  small  scale,  that  of 
man  is  alone  available.  The  most  favourable  application  of  human 
strength,  is  in  drawing,  rather  than  pushing ;  and  it  is  greatest  when 
56 


442  ARCHITECHNICS. 

the  joints,  or  limbs,  are  nearly  straightened,  as  at  the  close  of  the 
stroke  in  pulling  at  an  oar.  An  ordinary  man  is  said  to  be  capable 
of  raising  6000  Ibs.  at  the  rate  of  one  foot  per  minute,  during  8 
hours  per  day.  The  measure  of  a  horse's  power,  according  to  Mr. 
Watt,  is,  that  he  can  raise  33,000  Ibs.  at  the  rate  of  one  foot  per 
minute,  during  8  hours  per  day. 

§  4.  The  application  of  Steam  Power,  depends  on  principles  of 
mechanics  and  calorics,  to  which  we  have  already  referred  ;  and  it 
now  remains  to  describe  the  steam  engine.  The  boiler,  for  generat- 
ing steam,  is  usually  made  of  sheet  iron,  in  a  cylindrical  form  ;  and 
with  its  gauges  and  safety  valve,  is  rather  a  necessary  appendage  to 
the  engine,  than  a  part  of  the  engine  itself.  The  steam  from  the 
boiler,  flows  through  the  steam  pipe,  when  the  supply  valve  or  throttle 
valve  is  opened,  into  one  end  of  the  cylinder;  where  it  acts  upon  the 
piston,  and  presses  it  to  the  opposite  end  of  the  cylinder  ;  from  which 
part  the  previous  steam,  or  air,  is  allowed  to  escape.  The  steam  being 
then  admitted  into  this  end  of  the  cylinder,  and  let  off  from  the  other, 
drives  back  the  piston,  and  thus  causes  it  to  move  alternately  forward, 
and  backward,  in  the  cylinder.  The  admission,  and  escape  of  the 
steam,  is  regulated  by  means  of  the  steam,  and  exhausting  valves  ; 
which  are  so  connected,  by  rods,  or  levers,  with  other  moving  parts, 
that  they  are  mechanically  opened,  and  shut,  at  the  proper  time. 
The  piston  rod,  connecting  the  piston  with  the  working  beam,  or 
with  the  crank  rod,  transmits  the  motion  to  the  axle,  in  order  to 
produce  circular  motion,  either  directly,  or  by  means  of  the  working 
beam. 

In  some  high  pressure  engines, — especially  for  locomotives, — the 
steam  is  let  off  into  the  air,  or  goes  to  create  a  draught  through  the 
fire  :  and  in  such  engines,  the  motion  of  the  piston  is  constantly 
resisted  by  the  atmospheric  pressure  ;  but  in  the  Watts,  or  condens- 
ing engine,  the  steam  escapes  into  a  condenser,  or  separate  cylinder, 
kept  cold  by  an  influx  of  cold  water,  through  the  condensing  valve ; 
by  means  of  which,  the  steam  is  almost  immediately  condensed,  and 
its  pressure  on  one  side  of  the  piston,  in  a  great  measure  removed. 
The  water  resulting  from  this  condensation,  is  exhausted  from  the 
cylinder,  by  the  air  pump  ;  and  thrown  into  what  is  called  the  hot 
well.  This  hot  water  is  carried  back  to  the  boiler,  by  means  of  the 
hot  toater  pump  ;  and  the  condenser  stands  in  what  is  called  the 
cold  well,  supplied  by  what  is  termed  the  cold  water  pump,  to  assist 
in  keeping  it  cool.  The  rotary  motion  of  the  axle,  is  equalized, 
where  this  is  desirable,  by  means  of  a  heavy  fly  wheel ;  the  mo- 
mentum of  which  keeps  up  the  motion  at  the  dead  points  of  the 
crank:  and  the  velocity  may  be  regulated  by  means  of  a  governor, 
consisting  of  heavy  balls  suspended  from  levers,  on  each  side  of  a 
vertical  axis  ;  and  which,  by  flying  off  farther  from  the  axle,  if  the 
velocity  be  increased,  act  on  other  levers,  which  at  once  diminish  the 
supply  of  steam. 


ARCHITECTURE.  443 

CHAPTER  III. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

ARCHITECTURE,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes  the  whole  art  of  build- 
ing ;  but  the  term  is  now  usually  restricted  to  what  was  formerly 
called  Civil  Architecture;  or  the  building  of  dwellings  and  other 
edifices  for  civil  purposes,  with  all  their  subordinate  arrangements. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  ap^oj,  chief;  and  textuv,  build- 
er ;  or  from  awttxtovm,  the  term  by  which  this  art  was  known 
among  the  Greeks.  The  building  of  ships,  is  sometimes  called 
Naval  Architecture  ;  and  that  of  fortifications,  Military  Architecture  : 
but  these  subjects  are  now  generally  regarded  as  distinct  branches, 
and  seldom  called  by  these  relative  names.  Architecture  is  occasion- 
ally spoken  of,  in  reference  to  its  ornamental  parts,  as  one  of  the 
Fine  Arts  :  but  though  it  involves  ornamental  forms,  and  principles 
of  taste,  it  is  still,  in  the  main,  an  art  of  construction,  ranking  even 
higher  in  utility,  than  in  beauty  and  sublimity.  The  practice  of  this 
art,  presupposes  a  knowledge  of  Geometry,  of  Mechanics,  and  of 
Hylurgy ;  and  requires  a  sound  judgment,  correct  taste,  and  practi- 
cal skill  and  experience,  for  its  successful  prosecution. 

As  Architecture  is  one  of  the  most  useful,  so  is  it  one  of  the  most 
ancient,  among  the  arts.  The  earliest  habitations  of  mankind  were 
probably  caverns,  tents,  rude  cabins,  and  bowers  of  trees.  From 
these,  may  have  originated  the  four  principal  styles  of  Architecture, 
which  have  prevailed  in  the  world;  the  Egyptian,  or  Hindoo;  the 
Chinese,  or  Tartar ;  the  Classic  ;  and  the  Gothic.  The  Egyptian 
and  Hindoo  styles,  appear  to  be  the  most  ancient ;  but  their  origin  is 
lost  in  remote  antiquity.  They  have  since  given  way  to  the  lighter 
style  of  the  Arabs,  and  Tartars  ;  introduced,  by  conquest,  into  Hin- 
doostan  and  China.  The  use  of  unburnt  bricks,  may  doubtless  be 
traced  back  to  the  building  of  Babel  and  Babylon ;  and  the  invention 
of  tents,  for  dwellings,  is  ascribed  in  the  Mosaic  Scriptures  to  Jabal, 
the  son  of  Lamech,  long  before  the  Deluge. 

The  Grecian  style  of  building,  appears  to  have  originated  with  the 
Doric  order;  the  oldest  specimen  of  which  was  the  temple  of  Juno 
at  Argos,  built  about  1400  B.  C.,  under  the  reign  of  Dorus.  The 
Ionic  order,  was  invented  by  the  Ionian  colonies  in  Asia  Minor, 
about  1000  B.  C.  :  and  the  Corinthian  order,  is  said  to  have  been 
first  employed  by  Scopas,  about  430  B.  C. ;  the  story  that  its  capital 
was  invented  by  Callimachus  the  sculptor,  being  doubtless  fabulous. 
After  Greece  was  subjugated  by  Rome,  the  Grecian  orders  were 
modified  by  the  Romans;  who  added  two  other  orders,  of  minor 
note  ;  the  Tuscan,  and  the  Composite.  This  style  has  been  some- 
what further  modified  by  the  modern  Italians  ;  but  its  best  specimens 
are  those  modelled  aftef  the  ancient  Greek.  The  Gothic  style,  origin- 
ated as  early  as  A.  D.  1093,  when  pointed  arches  were  introduced  in 
Winchester  cathedral,  in  England;  or  1137,  when  they  were  used 


444  ARCHITECHNICS. 

in  the  abbey  church  of  St.  Denis  in  France.  This  style  afterwards 
underwent  successive  modifications ;  and  it  received  its  name  from 
Inigo  Jones,  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren  ;  both  of  whom  gave  a  pre- 
ference to  the  Italian  style. 

We  proceed  to  offer  some  farther  details  on  this  subject,  under  the 
heads  of  Elements  of  Architecture ;  Oriental  Architecture ;  Classic 
Architecture  ;  and  Gothic  Architecture. 

§  J .  The  Elements  of  Architecture,  comprise  a  description  of  the 
various  parts  of  buildings,  with  their  construction  and  their  modifica- 
tions. The  foundations  of  a  building,  are  the  lowest  parts,  usually 
carried  below  the  earth's  surface,  to  support  the  principal  structure, 
or  superstructure,  resting  thereon.  They  should  extend  to  firm 
ground,  below  the  reach  of  frost ;  or,  when  the  ground  is  soft,  they 
should  be  commenced  by  driving  piles,  or  sharpened  timbers,  firmly 
down,  for  an  adequate  support.  The  walls  of  a  building,  are  the 
sides  which  form  the  enclosure ,  whether  of  stone,  brick,  wood,  or 
other  materials.  Fireplaces,  and  chimneys,  are  usually  built  in  con- 
nection with  the  walls ;  and  doors  are  provided  for  entrance,  and 
windows  for  admitting  light.  The  part  immediately  over  a  door  or 
window,  supporting  the  wall  above,  is  called  a  lintel ;  the  projections 
around  the  top  and  sides,  the  architrave  ;  and  the  part  at  the  foot  is 
called  the  sill.  Arches,  are  used  either  for  support,  or  enclosure,  as 
over  doors,  between  columns,  or  piers,  and  for  ceilings. 

The  roof,  is  the  superior  covering  of  a  building ;  and,  if  rounded, 
it  is  called  a  dome.  Roofs  are  eiiherflat,  that  is  level ;  or  pent,  that 
is  with  two  opposite  slopes ;  or  curb  roofs,  that  is  with  a  double  slope 
on  each  side ;  or  hip  roofs,  having  four  slopes,  extending  down  to 
the  four  walls.  The  frame  of  a  roof,  is  composed  of  trusses ;  each 
including  a  pair  of  rafters,  and  a  tie  beam.  A  small  dome,  is  called 
a  cupola.  Floors  are  surfaces  for  supporting  persons  and  other 
objects,  often  dividing  the  building  into  upper  and  lower  stories. 
Stairs,  for  connecting  different  stories,  are  either  straight  or  wind- 
ing; and  their  proportions  depend  on  the  length  of  the  human  step. 
Partitions,  are  used  for  separating  rooms  ;  and  galleries,  in  public 
buildings,  for  accommodating  a  greater  number  of  persons.  A  piazza, 
is  a  colonnaded  shelter,  along  the  whole  front  of  a  building :  but  a 
portico  shelters  only  the  door;  and  a  balcony  is  a  projecting  floor 
on  the  outside  of  upper  windows,  not  supported  from  beneath. 

The  front  of  a  building,  is  called  the  facade  ;  and  the  triangular 
part,  at  the  end  of  the  roof,  is  called  the  pediment.  An  order  of 
Architecture,  (Plate  X.),  usually  comprises  a  colonnade,  or  row  of 
columns,  with  their  support  and  entablature.  A  stylobate,  is  a  colon- 
naded platform,  with  steps,  extending  around  a  building  ;  and  a  pedes- 
tal, is  an  elevated  block,  or  mass,  supporting  one  or  more  columns. 
A  column,  is  a  round  pillar,  or  elongated  support ;  and  a  pilaster  is 
a  square  one.  A  column  usually  consists  of  a  base,  or  enlarged 
part,  at  the  foot ;  a  shaft,  or  central  part ;  and  a  capital,  or  orna- 
mented part,  at  the  top.  The  entablature,  is  the  continuous  part 
resting  on  the  columns.  It  consists  usually  of  an  architrave,  next 
above  the  capitals  ;  a  frieze  or  central  part,  separated  from  the  archi- 
trave by  mouldings ;  and  a  cornice,  composed  of  projecting  mould- 


ARCHITECTURE.  445 

ings  ;  forming  the  eaves.  Mouldings,  are  continuous  ornaments, 
projecting  or  receding ;  as  the  torus,  or  convex  moulding,  and  the 
scotia,  or  concave  moulding  around  the  base  of  columns  ;  the  echi- 
nus, or  convex  moulding  of  the  capital ;  and  the  cymatium,  and 
ogee,  which  are  convex  on  the  one  side,  and  concave  on  the  other. 
The  ovolo,  cavetto,  and  talon,  shown  also  in  Plate  X.,  are  chiefly 
confined  to  the  Roman  style  of  Architecture. 

§  2.  Oriental  Architecture,  includes  the  Egyptian,  Hindoo,  Chi- 
nese, and  Moorish,  or  Arabian  and  Turkish.  Egyptian  architecture, 
seems  to  have  been  modelled  after  the  cavern  or  mound  ;  and  it  con- 
sists of  catacombs,  temples,  pyramids,  pillars,  and  colossal  statues. 
It  is  characterized  by  sloping  walls,  with  simple  concave  entabla- 
tures ;  flat  roofs,  and  ceilings  ;  and  short  ornamented  columns  :  the 
capitals  being  sculptured  with  lotus  leaves,  human  heads,  or  other 
figures ;  the  entablature  sculptured  with  a  winged  globe  ;  and  the 
walls,  with  a  profusion  of  hieroglyphics.  Of  the  pyramids,  at 
Gizeh,  that  of  Cheops  is  the  largest  building  in  the  world  ;  being  500 
feet  high,  and  690  feet  square  at  the  base.  The  temples  of  ancient 
Thebes,  that  is,  at  Karnac  and  Luxor,  with  their  avenues  of  lions 
and  sphynxes,  are  among  the  most  sublime  monuments  of  human 
labor;  though  consecrated  to  a  debasing  idolatry.  Similar  to  these,  in 
its  effect,  is  the  ancient  Hindoo  Architecture  ;  as  illustrated  in  the 
caverns  of  Elephanta,  Ellora,  and  Salsetta  :  but  the  modern  buildings 
of  India,  are  of  a  lighter  oriental  style.  The  ancient  Persian  archi- 
tecture, as  shown  by  the  ruins  of  Persepolis,  closely  resembled  the 
Egyptian. 

The  Chinese  style,  modelled  after  the  tents  of  the  Tartar  con- 
querors, is  characterized  by  its  light  and  airy  verandahs,  or  piazzas, 
often  enclosed  by  lattice  work ;  its  slender  columns,  and  widely 
projecting  concave  roofs  ;  and  its  many  storied  pagodas,  or  idol 
temples,  often  octagonal,  and  covered  with  porcelain,  with  little  bells 
hung  at  the  angles;  as  in  the  porcelain  tower  at  Nankin.  The 
Moorish  architecture,  of  Arabian  origin,  is  also,  for  the  most  part, 
light  and  airy ;  with  numerous  minarets,  or  small  domes,  projecting 
above  the  roofs  ;  with  internal  courts,  shade  trees,  and  fountains  ; 
and  with  a  profusion  of  ornamental  tracery,  or  lattice  work,  resem- 
bling birds  and  flowers,  called  from  its  origin  arabesque,  and  bearing 
some  resemblance  to  the  Chinese. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Classic  Architecture,  we  comprehend  the 
Grecian  and  Roman  styles,  with  their  later  modifications.  The 
Grecian  style  comprises  three  orders ;  the  Doric,  Ionic,  and  Corin- 
thian. The  Doric  Order,  (Plate  X.),  is  characterized  by  its  strength 
and  simplicity :  being  the  oldest  order,  and  evidently  modelled  after 
the  primitive  log  cabin.  Its  columns,  resting  on  a  stylobate,  are 
usually  5  or  6  diameters  high  ;  and  are  peculiar  in  having  no  base : 
but  are  fluted,  like  those  of  the  Grecian  orders  generally.  The 
capital  comprises  an  echinus,  surmounted  by  an  abacus,  or  tablet. 
The  entablature  is  about  one-third  as  high  as  the  column  :  and  the 
architrave  is  plain :  but  the  frieze  is  composed  of  alternate  triglyphs, 
or  grooved  projections,  and  metopes,  or  intermediate  pannels,  some- 
times sculptured.  The  cornice  comprises  the  mutules,  or  sloping 

2P 


446  ARCHITECHNICS. 

blocks,  like  the  ends  of  rafters,  with  guttse  or  conical  drops  under- 
neath ;  above  which  is  the  corona,  or  larmier,  projecting  far  out  to 
form  the  eaves  ;  and  above  this  is  the  echinus,  or  crowning  mould- 
ing. The  best  model  of  this  order,  is  the  Parthenon,  or  temple  of 
Minerva,  in  the  Acropolis  or  citadel  of  Athens. 

The  Ionic  order,  (Plate  X.),  is  more  slender  than  the  Doric,  and 
is  recognized  by  its  simple  volutes,  or  parallel  scrolls,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  capital ;  their  front  ends  being  connected  by  what  is  called 
an  apron  ;  with  an  echinus,  but  no  leaves,  underneath.  The  Attic 
base,  as  well  as  the  peculiar  Ionic,  consists  of  two  toruses,  (tori), 
or  projecting  mouldings,  and  an  intermediate  scotia.  The  columns 
are  usually  7  or  8  diameters  high  ;  and  the  entablature  less  than  one- 
third  as  high  as  the  columns.  The  architrave  consists  of  either  one 
or  three  fascias,  or  distinct  and  slightly  projecting  surfaces  ;  but  the 
frieze  is  undivided,  though  often  sculptured.  The  cornice  has  a  row 
of  dentils,  or  small  tooth-like  blocks,  instead  of  mutules,  underneath 
the  corona ;  above  which,  the  crowning  moulding  is  usually  a  cyma- 
tium.  As  examples  of  this  order,  we  may  mention  the  Erectheum, 
in  the  Acropolis  at  Athens  ;  and  the  temple  of  Diana  at  Ephesus. 

The  Corinthian  order,  (Plate  X.),  still  more  delicate  than  the 
Ionic ;  from  which  it  is  distinguished  also  by  two  rows  of  leaves, 
sculptured  on  the  capital,  beneath  the  apron.  The  Corinthian  base 
has  two  scotias,  alternating  with  three  toruses  ;  and  the  capital  has 
not  only  four  volutes,  meeting  obliquely  at  the  angles,  but  smaller 
spirals,  called  caulicolse,  between  the  leaves  of  the  upper  row ;  the 
whole  surmounted  by  an  ornamental  abacus.  The  column  is  9  or  10 
diameters  high  ;  the  shafts,  as  in  the  preceding  orders,  being  generally 
fluted,  or  cut  in  grooves ;  and  the  entablature  is  rather  lower  than 
the  Ionic,  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  column.  The  architrave 
has  three  fascirs ;  the  frieze  is  either  plain,  or  sculptured  with 
figures  ;  and  the  cornice  has  dentils,  and  a  corona,  like  the  Ionic ; 
but  is  surmounted  by  dactyls,  a  favorite  Grecian  ornament,  resembling 
leaves,  united  in  clusters,  like  the  fingers.  The  purest  Corinthian 
model,  was  the  Choragic  Monument  of  Lysicrates,  in  the  Acropolis 
at  Athens ;  built  before  this  order  was  modified  by  the  Roman  con- 
quest. 

The  Romans  adopted  the  three  Grecian  orders ;  but  altered  them, 
we  think  generally  for  the  worse ;  by  the  introduction,  for  instance, 
of  circular  arcs,  instead  of  elliptical,  for  the  section  or  contour  of  the 
mouldings  ;  and  by  adding  a  profusion  of  sculptured  ornaments. 
The  Tuscan  order,  is  like  the  Roman  Doric,  deprived  of  its  triglyphs; 
and  the  Composite  order,  also  added  by  the  Romans,  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  combination  of  the  Roman  Ionic  and  Corinthian ;  though 
sometimes  less  ornamented  than  the  latter:  whereas,  it  would  seem 
to  belong  at  the  end  of  the  scale,  as  the  lightest  and  gayest  of  all 
the  orders.  The  Arch  of  Titus,  at  Rome,  was  of  the  Composite 
order ;  but  the  Pantheon  and  temple  of  Jupiter  Stator,  were  of  the 
Corinthian.  The  Coliseum,  at  Rome,  was  a  vast  amphitheatre, 
capable  of  holding  more  than  90,000  persons.  The  great  modern 
churches, — St.  Peter's  at  Rome,  and  St.  Paul's  in  London, — are 
essentially  in  the  Roman  style. 


PLATE    X.       ARCHITECTURE. 


Gr.  Scotia 


Ogee 


MOULDINGS. 


Astragal 


Annulet 


Modillion 


Rom.  Torus 


C 


Rom.  Scotia 


J 


Talon 


DORIC. 


GRECIAN   ORDERS. 


IONIC 

Engraved  by  R.  S.  Gilbert,  Phila. 


CORINTHIAN 


VIATECTURE.  447 

§  4.  The  term  Gothic  Architecture,  is  applied  to  that  style  which 
prevailed  throughout  Great  Britain,  France,  and  Germany,  in  the 
churches  and  castles  built  during  the  feudal  and  recent  ages.  It  is 
characterized  by  the  great  height,  and  long  vertical  lines  of  its 
edifices ;  its  lofty  towers  and  spires,  the  former  square,  the  latter 
pointed,  as  it  were  to  pierce  the  sky ;  its  buttresses,  or  projecting 
external  piers,  to  strengthen  the  walls,  with  pinnacles  surmounting 
them ;  its  pointed  arches,  over  doors  and  windows,  the  latter  often 
subdivided  by  mullions ;  its  clustered  columns,  formed  of  several 
small  ones  united ;  its  groined  ceilings,  formed  by  pointed  arches, 
often  springing  from  pillars  or  corbels,  and  meeting  in  the  groins  or 
ogyves  ;  and,  finally,  its  great  display  of  ornaments,  or  tracery  and 
entail,  on  the  ceilings,  and  around  windows,  and  the  galleries  of 
churches.  This  style,  therefore,  unites  the  qualities  of  strength, 
sublimity,  and  neatness  ;  producing,  we  think,  especially  in  large 
buildings,  a  pleasing  and  solemn  effect. 

In  the  early  Gothic  style,  from  1189  to  1272,  the  arches  were 
acute,  or  lancet.  In  the  pure  Gothic,  from  1272  to  1461,  the  arches 
were  equilateral ;  each  side  being  an  arc  of  60°  :  and  in  the  florid 
Gothic,  from  1461  to  1509,  the  ogee  arch  was  used  ;  the  upper  part 
being  convex  downward,  and  the  whole  depressed  or  flattened.  The 
cathedrals,  or  minsters,  that  is  the  central  churches  of  the  dioceses, 
had  generally  a  ground  plan  in  the  form  of  a  cross ;  the  nave,  or 
longest  branch,  being  turned  towards  the  west,  where  was  the  main 
portal,  or  entrance  ;  the  choir  facing  the  east,  with  its  large  oriel,  or 
bay  window ;  and  the  north  and  south  branches  being  called  the 
transepts.  The  choir  contained  the  chancel :  and  the  rood  loft,  so 
named  from  the  holy  rood,  or  holy  cross,  was  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  cathedral.  The  best  English  specimens  of  this  style,  are  the 
cathedrals  of  York,  Ely,  and  Lincoln ;  and  Westminster  Abbey. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VIATECTURE. 

WE  propose  the  term  Viatecture,  as  nearly  synonymous  with  Civil 
Engineering,  to  include  the  construction  of  roads  and  bridges,  rail- 
roads, and  canals,  and  water  works ;  and  the  improvement  of  rivers 
and  harbors.  The  basis  of  this  term,  in  the  Latin  word  via,  a  road, 
or  way  ;  as  the  construction  or  improvement  of  ways  of  communica- 
tion is  the  principal  object  of  Civil  Engineering.  The  word  En- 
gineer, or  its  primitive  word  engine,  is  derived  from  the  French 
engin,  signifying  any  complex  machine,  but  applied  originally  to 
machines  used  in  war;  the  managers  of  which  were  termed  En- 
gineers. Civil  Engineering  was  comprehended  by  Vitruvius,  and 
the  older  writers,  as  a  part  of  Architecture :  and  it  was  not  until 
about  the  year  1760,  that  the  term  Civil  Engineer  was  applied  to 
the  builders  of  roads,  bridges,  and  canals ;  to  distinguish  them  from 
Engineers,  primarily  so  called,  or  Military  Engineers.  The  term 


448  ARCHITECHNICS. 

Topographical  Engineer,  has  been  more  recently  applied  to  those 
persons  engaged  in  making  surveys  or  reconnaisances  for  viatectural, 
or  similar  purposes. 

In  1771,  Mr.  John  Smeaton,  the  constructor  of  the  Eddystone 
Light  House,  and  other  works,  procured  the  formation  of  a  Society 
of  Civil  Engineers  ;  since  which  time,  this  art  has  been  recognized  as 
a  distinct  profession.  The  term  Civil  Engineering  has  since  been 
more  widely  extended,  at  least  by  some  writers,  to  include  the  con- 
struction of  machinery  in  general,  and  the  arts  of  metallurgy  and 
mining.  For  this  reason,  and  for  greater  symmetry  in  the  nomen- 
clature, we  have  ventured  to  propose  the  term  Viatecture,  as  above 
defined,  to  include  a  more  limited  and  distinct  range  of  objects,  all  of 
which  properly  be  comprehended  as  arts  of  conveyance.  The  qua- 
lifications of  the  viatecf,  or  civil  engineer,  should  be  essentially  the 
same  as  those  of  the  architect;  though  somewhat  differently  directed. 
On  the  importance  of  this  art,  already  alluded  to,  in  introducing  this 
department,  as  one  of  the  means  by  which  improvement  is  extend- 
ing its  march  among  the  nations,  we  have  no  farther  room  to  ex- 
patiate. 

The  construction  of  Roads,  must  have  commenced  at  an  early 
period  of  history  ;  and  those  of  the  Romans  are  justly  celebrated ; 
some  of  them  being  of  masonry,  several  feet  deep.  Great  improve- 
ments have  been  made,  in  modern  France  and  England,  particularly 
by  McAdam  and  Telford,  in  the  construction  of  stone  roads,  at  once 
both  cheap  and  durable.  Of  Bridges,  the  earliest  remains  are  those 
of  the  Romans  ;  who  constructed  no  fewer  than  six,  across  the  Tiber, 
at  Rome.  The  first  cast  iron  bridge,  was  that  of  Colebrookdale,  over 
the  Severn,  erected  in  1777.  The  earliest  Canal  for  navigation  that 
we  can  mention,  was  in  Egypt,  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red  Sea,  begun 
by  Necho,  616  B.  C. ;  and  completed  by  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
280  B.  C.  Other 'canals  were  constructed  in  Egypt;  and  a  few  in 
Italy,  by  the  Romans,  chiefly  for  purposes  of  draining.  Locks,  were 
invented  in  Holland,  about  A.  D.  1371 ;  and  used  soon  after  in  Italy. 
The  first  great  canal  in  France,  was  that  of  Briare,  uniting  the  rivers 
Loire  and  Seine;  begun  in  1605,  but  completed  in  1642:  and  the 
first  of  magnitude  in  England,  was  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater's  canal, 
extending  from  his  coal  mines,  to  Manchester,  begun  in  1758,  and 
completed  in  1776;  Mr.  Brindley  being  the  Engineer.  The  Mid- 
dlesex canal,  in  Massachusetts,  the  first  of  note  in  the  United  States, 
was  begun  in  1789,  and  completed  in  1808  ;  under  the  supervision 
of  Col.  Baldwin. 

Railroads,  appear  to  have  been  used  in  the  stone  quarries  of  an- 
cient Egypt;  and,  at  a  more  recent  period,  in  the  mines  of  Germany. 
They  were  first  introduced  in  England,  at  the  coal  mines  near  New- 
castle, in  1630  or  33.  Iron  rails  were  not  used  until  1738;  nor  on 
any  extensive  work  until  1767,  when  they  were  employed  at  Cole- 
brookdale. The  first  railroad  in  the  United  States,  was  that  from 
the  stone  quarries,  in  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  to  Boston  harbor; 
completed  in  1827.  Locomotive  engines,  of  imperfect  construction, 
were  invented  and  patented,  as  early  as  1802,  by  Trevithick  and 
Vivian ;  but  it  was  not  till  1829,  when  the  great  trial  took  place  on 


VIATECTURE.  449 

the  Liverpool  and  Manchester  road,  that  their  importance  was  appre- 
ciated ;  and  they  were  found  to  be  adapted  for  rapid,  as  well  as  cheap 
transportation. 

The  subject  of  Viatecture,  is  naturally  divided  into  the  study  of 
Common  Roads  and  Bridges  ;  of  Rail  Roads  ;  of  Canals  and  Water- 
works ;  and  of  River  and  Harbor  Improvements.  Perhaps  Gas 
Lighting  belongs  most  closely  to  this  branch  of  the  arts ;  to  which, 
if  so,  it  may  be  regarded  as  an  appendix. 

§  1.  The  construction  of  Common  Roads,  as  well  as  of  other  via- 
tectural  works,  should  be  based  on  a  reconnaisance  of  the  route  or 
location;  requiring,  in  all  important  cases,  a  regular  survey,  with 
levellings.  The  arts  of  Surveying,  and  Topography,  belong,  we 
think,  more  closely  to  this  than  to  any  other  branch  of  the  arts ;  and 
although  they  depend  on  mathematical  principles,  they  are  rather 
applications  than  essential  parts  of  Mathematics.  Roads,  should,  of 
course,  be  as  straight  as  the  places  to  be  connected,  and  difficulties 
in  the  way,  will  allow.  The  rise  should  not  be  greater  than  1  foot 
in  14,  or  1-14 ;  unless  in  extreme  cases.  The  transverse,  or  cross 
section,  should  be  convex  ;  and  for  a  road  20  or  24  feet  wide,  at  least 
6  inches  higher  in  the  middle  than  on  the  sides.  Side  drains,  to 
carry  off  the  water,  and  occasional  cross  drains,  are  necessary,  to 
preserve  roads  in  good  order.  To  prevent  the  action  of  rain  and 
frost  on  earthen  roads,  is  the  object  of  stone  roads;  which  are 
covered  with  a  crust  of  finely  broken  stone,  called  metal,  from  8  to 
12  inches  deep,  ultimately  becoming  so  compact  as  to  resist  the,  im- 
pression of  carriage  wheels. 

Bridges,  are  variously  constructed,  of  wood,  stone,  or  iron :  and 
they  may  be  classed  either  as  elevation,  or  suspension  bridges ;  the 
latter  hanging  on  chains,  firmly  fixed  at  the  extremities.  Bridges 
should  always  rest  on  firmly  founded  piers.  The  simplest  piers, 
used  for  wooden  bridges,  are  formed  by  driving  piles,  or  sharpened 
posts,  in  rows,  crosswise  of  the  bridge ;  and  these  rows  framed 
together  with  cross  timbers,  are  sometimes  called  trestles.  Stone 
piers  are  sometimes  founded  by  means  of  a  coffer  dam,  or  strong 
enclosure ;  from  which  the  water  is  pumped  out,  leaving  the  bottom 
temporarily  dry.  Sometimes  they  are  built  in  a  close  caisson,  or 
water  tight  box,  made  to  sink  in  its  place,  as  it  is  filled  with  the 
masonry  :  and  sometimes  they  are  built  by  means  of  an  open  caisson, 
made  of  piles  and  pile  planks  driven  down,  and  filled  with  beton,  or 
a  mixture  of  small  stones  and  hydraulic  mortar.  The  ends  of  piers, 
called  starlings,  have  usually  a  rounded  or  pointed  form,  to  break 
the  ice,  and  divide  the  water  in  its  passage.  The  abutments,  or 
extreme  piers,  when  they  are  to  resist  the  pressure  of  an  arch  on  one 
side  only,  have  need  of  great  thickness  and  strength. 

§  2.  The  construction  of  Kail  Roads,  like  that  of  the  best  common 
roads,  requires  a  careful  preliminary  survey,  and  great  judgment  in 
the  location.  The  track,  or  line  of  parallel  rails,  must  have  no  angu- 
lar points,  but  change  its  direction  by  means  of  curves  ;  which,  unless 
in  extreme  cases,  should  have  a  radius  of  not  less  than  400  feet. 
Neither  should  the  slope,  or  inclination  of  the  road,  exceed  30  feet  in 
a  mile,  or  in  extreme  cases  50  feet ;  if  intended  for  locomotives  with 
57  2  P2 


450  ARCHITECHNICS. 

considerable  loads.  A  greater  rise  than  this,  is  sometimes  overcome 
by  inclined  planes;  with  stationary  engines,  or  other  additional 
power.  A  locomotive  engine,  with  4  tons  of  its  weight  resting  on 
the  driving  wheels,  will  draw  with  a  force  of  at  least  360  Ibs.  or 
l-25th  of  its  driving  weight,  without  slipping  on  the  rails:  and  this 
force  of  traction  will  draw  a  load,  on  level  rails,  at  least  200  times  as 
great,  that  is  of  200  times  360  Ibs. ;  or  at  least  32  tons. 

After  a  rail  road  is  graded,  the  excavations  generally  supplying 
earth  for  the  embankments,  the  latter  should  have  time  to  settle  be- 
fore the  rails  are  laid  down.  Rails  of  wrought  iron,  are  now  preferred 
to  those  which  are  cast ;  as  being  stronger  for  the  same  weight,  and 
less  liable  to  fracture.  The  train  rails,  formerly  used,  having  a 
flange  to  keep  the  wheel  from  running  off,  are  now  almost  entirely 
superseded  by  the  edge  rail,  with  is  rounded  on  the  top,  and  does 
not  collect  the  dust ;  the  flange  being  transferred  to  the  wheel.  The 
rails  sometimes  rest  on  wooden  string  pieces  and  cross  sleepers ;  but 
the  best  are  fastened  to  stone  sleepers,  by  means  of  iron  chains,  or 
fixtures.  To  enable  the  engines  to  pass  each  other,  turnouts  and 
crossings  are  constructed  ;  with  a  switch,  or  moveable  rail,  to  direct 
the  car  either  to  the  main  track  or  to  the  side  one. 

§  3.  The  construction  of  Canals,  and  Water  Works,  is  based,  like 
the  preceding  works,  on  a  careful  survey  and  location.  Canals  are 
used  either  for  irrigation,  or  watering ;  including  aqueducts,  for 
supplying  water  to  buildings  and  cities ;  or  for  desiccation,  as  for 
draining  marshy  land  ;  or  for  navigation,  which  last  are  the  more 
numerous  and  important  class.  Ship  Canals  are  usually  20  feet 
deep;  sloop  canals,  8  or  10  feet;  and  boat  canals,  from  3  to  6  feet 
deep ;  the  banks  having  usually  a  slope  of  about  2-3,  or  two  in 
height,  to  three  of  base.  A  canal  must  either  be  on  one  continuous 
level,  or  divided  into  several  levels :  and  if  one  of  these  be  higher 
than  those  on  either  side,  it  is  called  the  summit  level;  being  the  most 
difficult  to  supply  with  water.  This  supply  sometimes  requires  the 
construction  of  large  and  expensive  reservoirs,  and  feeders. 

The  passage  from  one  level  to  another,  is  effected  by  means  of 
locks,  formerly  called  chamber  locks  ;  with  gates  at  each  end.  By 
shutting  the  lower  gates,  and  gradually  filling  the  lock,  a  boat,  within 
it,  is  raised  to  the  higher  level ;  and  the  upper  gates  may  then  be 
opened,  for  it  to  pass  on  its  way.  The  locks  should,  if  possible,  be 
so  located,  and  the  canal  kept  of  such  a  height,  that  the  contiguous 
excavations  and  embankments  may  be  equalized,  as  nearly  as  cir- 
cumstances will  allow.  Canals  sometimes  pass  over  streams,  on 
aqueducts,  or  strong  bridges  ;  and  sometimes,  as  in  the  case  of  rail 
roads,  they  are  made  to  pass  through  mountains,  by  tunnels,  dug  for 
the  purpose.  Small  streams  pass  under  canals,  through  culverts ; 
and  superfluous  water  is  carried  off  from  canals  by  waste  wiers. 
The  supply  of  water  required,  will  depend  upon  its  loss,  by  leakage, 
lockage,  and  evaporation. 

§  4.  The  improvement  of  Rivers  and  Harbors,  depends  partly  on 

the  removal  of  obstructions,  and  partly  on  the  construction  of  hydrau- 

c  works ;  requiring  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the  theory  of  currents, 

waves,  and  tides.     The  navigation  of  rivers,  is  improved  by  removing 


NAVITECTURE.  451 

shoals,  rocks,  mud,  trees,  and  snags,  from  the  channel:  and  these  im- 
provements are  effected  by  various  means  ;  as  by  washing,  that  is, 
causing  a  sudden  flood  to  carry  away  the  obstructions ;  or  by  dred- 
ging, removing  the  earthy  matter  with  a  dredging  machine  ;  or  by 
blasting,  for  the  removal  of  rocks ;  or  by  cutting  and  dragging,  for 
the  removal  6"f  driftwood,  snags,  and  sawyers.  These  latter,  stand 
erect  in  the  water ;  but  the  snags  are  fixed  ;  while  the  sawyers  have 
a  vibratory  motion.  Where  the  current  is  deadened,  producing  a 
shoal,  the  remedy  is  a  wing  dam,  diminishing  the  width,  and  increas- 
ing the  velocity.  Where  the  current  is  too  strong,  producing  rapids, 
the  remedy  is  a  short  canal,  with  locks,  and  a  dam  if  necessary  at  its 
upper  end  ;  for  passing  around  the  rapids  or  falls. 

Harbors  are  improved,  by  removing  obstructions,  as  above  ex- 
plained ;  and  by  building  wharves,  docks,  and  marine  railways,  for 
lading  or  repairing  vessels  ;  with  light-houses,  and  beacons,  to  guide 
ships  in  entering ;  and  piers,  moles,  jetties,  or  breakwaters,  to 
shelter  the  harbor;  or  sea  walls,  and  revetments,  to  protect  the  shores 
from  abrasion.  Dry  docks,  are  so  constructed,  with  strong  gates 
bracing  outward,  that  the  water  may  be  exhausted,  after  the  ship  has 
entered  to  be  repaired.  Wet  docks,  are  made  to  be  kept  always  full, 
and  entered  by  ships  only  at  high  tide;  in  harbors  where,  without  this 
aid,  the  falling  tide  would  leave  them  aground.  Jetties,  are  walls 
designed  to  turn  the  current,  and  wear  the  channel  deepest  in  certain 
parts  of  the  harbor.  Breakwaters,  are  usually  formed  of  a  great 
mass  of  stone  thrown  into  the  sea,  till  it  forms  a  wall  rising  above 
the  surface,  to  shelter  an  important  and  exposed  position  from  the 
waves.  This  subject  is  an  extensive  one ;  but  we  have  no  room 
here  to  pursue  it. 


CHAPTER  V. 

NAVITECTURE. 

THE  branch  of  Navitecture,  or  Ship  Building,  relates  to  the  con- 
struction of  all  vessels  ;  whether  ships  or  steamboats.  We  here  ex- 
tend the  term  to  include  a  description  of  the  rigging  of  ships ;  to- 
gether with  the  construction  of  small  boats,  technically  called  boat 
building.  The  name  Navitecture,  is  derived  from  the  Greek  i>ai>j,  a 
ship,  and  fsxtw,  a  builder;  and  the  appellation  of  navitect,  would 
be  applicable  to  persons  engaged  in  this  branch  of  art.  The  word 
ship,  is  from  the  Saxon  scip,  or  the  German  schiff;  and  it  is  often 
used  in  a  general  sense,  as  synonymous  with  vessel ;  though  it  has 
also  a  specific  meaning.  Ship  building  is  an  art  of  great  antiquity 
and  importance;  requiring  a  knowledge  of  the  higher  principles  of 
Mechanics,  and  of  Hylurgy,  and  Architecture,  for  its  successful 
prosecution. 

The  first  vessels,  built  in  the  primitive  ages,  were  small  boats,  or 
rafts  ;  sometimes  covered  with  skins,  and  used  for  crossing  rivers, 
or  coasting  within  sight  of  the  shore.  The  invention  of  sails  has 


452  ARCHITECHNICS. 

been  attributed  to  Daedalus ;  but,  on  this  point,  nothing  certain  is 
known.  The  Phoenicians  improved  the  art  of  ship  building ;  and 
constructed  vessels  of  greater  size  and  strength.  Sailyards,  are  said 
to  have  been  invented  1240  B.  C.  ;  and  anchors  were  used  as  early 
as  700  B.  C. ;  previously  to  which,  vessels  in  harbor  were  either 
stranded,  or  secured  by  halsers.  The  Romans  dedicated  their  ships 
to  particular  divinities ;  and  built  some  few  vessels  of  enormous  size. 
The  invention  of  the  Compass,  already  alluded  to  under  magnetism, 
(p.  362),  and  especially  the  extension  of  voyages  to  the  Indies,  and 
to  America,  in  pursuit  of  wealth,  led  the  Spaniards  and  Portuguese  to 
a  bolder  style  of  ship  building,  which  was  adopted  and  farther  im- 
proved by  the  English.  The  ships  built  two  or  three  centuries  ago, 
were  very  high  at  the  ends,  and  liable  to  bend,  or  become  broken- 
backed.  The  theory  of  mechanics  was  first  thoroughly  applied  to 
ship  building,  by  Paul  Hoste,  in  a  work  published  at  Lyons,  in 
1696;  and  this  theory  has  been  farther  extended  by  Navier,  in 
France  ;  Atwood,  in  England  ;  and  Chapman,  in  Sweden. 

The  first  project  of  Steam  Navigation,  worthy  of  notice,  appears  to 
have  been  that  of  Jonathan  Hulls,  of  England ;  who,  in  1736,  proposed 
the  construction  of  a  steam  tow  boat,  with  paddles  at  the  stern.  In 
1781,  the  Marquis  Jeffroy,  or  Jouffroy,  is  said  to  have  built  a  steam 
boat  at  Lyons,  in  France.  In  1783,  Rumsey  of  Va.  conceived  the 
plan  of  a  steam  boat,  propelled  by  the  reaction  of  a  current  of  water, 
forced  through  the  boat,  in  a  cylinder  extending  its  whole  length: 
and  he  actually  built  a  boat  on  this  plan.  In  1787,  Mr.  Fitch  built  a 
steam  boat  at  Philadelphia,  moved  by  vertical  oars  at  the  sides,  and 
with  considerable  effect.  The  first  boat  actually  propelled  by  steam, 
in  England,  was  built  by  Symington,  in  1788,  with  paddles  at  the 
stern.  The  project  of  propelling  a  boat  by  means  of  paddle  wheels 
at  the  sides,  was  suggested  by  Oliver  Evans  of  Philadelphia  ;  and 
actually  executed  by  him  in  1804.  But  all  these  attempts  were  con- 
sidered, by  the  world  at  large,  as  failures :  and  it  was  reserved  for 
our  countryman  Fulton,  to  demonstrate  the  utility  of  steam  naviga- 
tion; by  constructing,  in  1807,  a  boat  which  made  regular  voyages, 
from  that  time  onward,  between  New  York  and  Albany.  This 
improvement  was  not  adopted  in  Great  Britain,  till  the  year  1812. 
The  first  voyage  across  the  Atlantic,  by  steam,  was  made  in  1819, 
by  our  countryman,  Capt.  Rogers  ;  and  the  present  system  of  trans- 
atlantic steam  navigation,  which  commenced  in  1838,  forms  a  new 
era  in  this  art,  if  not  in  the  history  of  the  world. 

We  shall  treat  briefly  of  Navitecture,  under  the  heads  of  Ship 
Building,  Ship  Rigging  ;  and  Steamboats. 

S  1.  The  process  of  Ship  Building,  requires  accurate  drawings; 
which  are  often  made  on  a  large  floor,  and  of  the  full  size  of  the  vessel. 
The  drawing  in  elevation,  is  called  the  sheer  plan  ;  and  gives  the 
height  and  appearance  of  the  ship  as  seen  from  one  side.  The  cross 
section,  showing  the  ship  as  seen  from  behind,  is  called  the  body 
plan  ;  and  a  drawing  of  the  ship,  as  seen  from  above,  is  called  the 
deck  plan,  or  half-breadth  plan.  These  drawings  presuppose  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  this  art;  as  of  the  displacement  of  water 
by  the  ship  ;  its  centres  of  gravity  and  buoyancy  ;  its  stability  or 


NAVITECTURE.  453 

resistance  to  overturning;  the  best  shape  for  sailing,  and  for  re- 
ceiving the  load ;  the  position  of  the  masts  and  sails  ;  and  other 
considerations. 

The  fore  part  of  a  vessel  is  called  the  bow,  or  stem  ;  and  the 
hinder  part,  the  stern.  The  lowest  part,  formed  of  projecting  timbers, 
is  the  keel;  which  runs  along  the  whole  length,  from  the  cutwater, 
in  front,  to  the  rudder,  by  which  the  ship  is  steered,  at  the  stern. 
The  rudder  is  turned,  in  small  vessels,  by  means  of  the  helm  or 
tiller  ;  but  in  large  vessels,  by  means  of  a  wheel  and  axle.  The 
floors  of  a  vessel,  are  called  decks  ;  and  a  higher  portion,  at  the  stern, 
is  called  the  quarter  deck.  An  opening  through  the  deck,  to  receive 
the  lading,  is  called  a  hatchway,  or  hatch ;  and  the  space  within  the 
vessel,  which  contains  the  cargo  or  load,  is  called  the  hold.  The 
body  of  the  vessel  is  called  the  hull ;  and  the  masts,  sails,  and  ropes, 
for  moving  and  managing  the  hull,  are  called  the  rigging. 

The  timbers  of  a  ship  being  shaped,  by  means  of  patterns,  from 
the  drawings  ;  the  framing  is  commenced  in  the  ship  yard,  usually 
near  the  water's  edge.  The  keel  is  first  laid,  on  the  stocks,  or 
supports  prepared  for  it ;  and  to  this,  the  stem  and  stern  posts  are 
framed  ;  being  held  in  their  place  by  shores  or  props.  The  ribs,  or 
floor  timbers,  forming  the  sides  of  the  ship,  are  next  set  up,  and 
framed  into  the  keel ;  and  the  angles  at  the  ends  of  the  ship,  on  each 
side  of  the  stem  and  stern  posts,  are  filled  up  by  timbers  called 
futtocks,  held  more  firmly  by  top  timbers,  crossing  them  at  the  top. 
The  keelson,  stemson,  and  sternson,  are  then  fitted  over  the  keel,  and 
end  posts  ;  as  it  were,  doubling  the  keel,  on  the  inside,  and  securing 
the  whole  together  more  firmly.  The  beams,  or  deck  timbers,  are 
then  laid  across  ;  and  the  joints  which  they  form  with  the  ribs,  are 
braced  by  knees  ;  one  branch  of  which  is  bolted  to  the  rib,  and  the 
other  to  the  beam.  The  frame  is  then  ready  for  planking,  calking, 
sheathing,  coppering,  and  launching;  all  of  which  is  done  before 
the  rigging  commences. 

§  2.  The  Pigging  of  Ships,  is,  we  think,  more  closely  connected 
with  Navitecture  than  with  Seamanship ;  though  it  must  necessarily 
be  understood  by  sailors.  A  mast,  is  a  timber,  or  series  of  timbers, 
erected  in  a  ship,  to  carry  the  sails.  When  there  are  fcvo  masts, 
rising  from  the  deck,  the  hinder  is  called  the  mainmast,  and  the 
other,  the  foremast.  When  there  are  three,  the  hinder  is  called  the 
mizenmast ;  the  next  the  mainmast;  and  the  other  the  foremast. 
When  shorter  masts  are  placed  above  these,  they  are  called  topmasts  ; 
as  the  fore  or  main-topmast ;  and  other  masts,  placed  above  these, 
are  called  topgallantmasts ;  distinctively  named  from  the  lowest 
masts  which  support  them.  Spars  extending  horizontally  across  the 
masts,  are  called  yards,  being  named  from  the  masts,  and  usually 
supporting  square  sails  ;  while  a  boom,  extending  back  from  the  foot 
of  a  mast,  and  a  gaff,  back  from  the  top,  support  a  trapezoidal  fore- 
and-aft  sail ;  as  the  mainsail  in  sloops  and  schooners.  The  bowsprit, 
projecting  over  the  stem,  and  the  jib-boom,  in  prolongation  of  it, 
receive  the  lower  end  of  the  jib  and  flying  jib;  which  are  triangular 
fore-and-aft-sails,  extending  down  from  the  top  of  the  foremast,  to 
keep  the  vessel's  head  to  the  wind.  Similar  to  these,  are  stay- 


454  ARCHITECHNICS. 

sails,  extending  from  the  top  of  any  mast,  to  the  foot  of  the  one  next 
before  it.  The  square  sails,  like  the  yards  which  support  them,  are 
named  from  the  contiguous  masts ;  and  studding  sails  are  sometimes 
added  on  each  side,  to  enlarge  them,  when  the  wind  is  light. 

The  masts  are  held  more  steady  by  the  shrouds  ;  which  are  strong 
ropes  extending  from  their  tops  down  to  the  sides  of  the  ship ; 
and  which,  with  cross  ropes  called  rattlings,  form  ladders  for  the 
sailors  to  ascend.  The  masts  are  prevented  from  falling  backward, 
by  stays,  or  ropes  extending  from  their  tops  downward  and  forward  ; 
and  their  back-stays  have  the  reverse  effect.  The  ropes  for  support- 
ing the  bowsprit  and  jib-boom,  are  called  bobstays,  martingales,  and 
guys.  Those  for  managing  the  sails,  are  halyards,  for  raising  them  ; 
sheets,  for  turning  them  to  the  wind ;  with  tacks,  braces,  lifts,  and 
clewlines ;  all  of  which  are  called  running  rigging,  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  standing  rigging,  which  remains  fixed. 

Vessels  are  differently  named,  according  to  the  manner  of  their 
rigging.  A  sloop,  has  but  one  mast ;  with  gib,  and  mainsail,  and 
sometimes  a  square  topsail.  A  schooner,  has  two  masts,  but  with 
fore-and-aft  sails,  except  the  topsails.  A  brig,  has  two  masts,  both 
carrying  square  sails ;  and  a  brigantine  has  two  masts,  but  the 
hinder,  or  mainmast,  is  rigged  like  that  of  a  schooner.  A  ship,  has 
three  masts,  all  square  rigged :  a  barque  has  three  masts,  but  the  mizen 
mast  not  square  rigged ;  and  a  three  masted  schooner,  has  three 
masts,  all  fore  and  aft  rigged.  A  ship  of  500  tons  burthen  should  be 
about  100  feet  long,  and  30  broad  ;  drawing  about  12  feet  of  water. 

§  3.  The  construction  of  Steamboats,  is  similar  to  that  of  sailing 
vessels,  except  in  the  arrangements  for  applying  the  moving  force. 
Steamboats  require  to  be  built  very  strong,  on  account  of  the  strain 
and  jarring  of  the  machinery ;  but  the  general  arrangement  of  the 
framing  is  the  same  as  that  which  we  have  already  described.  For 
river  navigation,  and  transportation  of  passengers,  the  deck  is  made 
much  wider  than  the  body  of  the  vessel,  by  an  extension  of  the  deck 
timbers  ;  an  arrangement  which,  for  ocean  navigation,  would  be  un- 
safe. The  proper  adjustment  of  the  engine  or  engines,  to  the  boat, 
as  regards  weight,  shape,  position,  and  power,  is  of  course  a  subject 
of  the  highest  importance.  A  steamboat  of  300  tons  burthen,  suited 
for  river  navigation,  should  be  about  120  feet  long,  and  30  feet  broad; 
with  about  6  feet  draught  of  water ;  and  should  have  an  engine  of 
about  55  horse  power,  weighing  about  32  tons ;  with  a  cylinder  of 
3  feet  diameter,  a  piston  of  4£  feet  stroke,  and  paddle  wheels  17  feet 
in  diameter,  and  5  feet  long.  The  fly  wheel,  is  entirely  superfluous 
in  steamboats,  if  they  have  two  cylinders,  with  pistons  acting  on 
cranks,  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  on  the  axle  of  the  paddle  wheels. 
For  sea  vessels,  the  engine  is  placed  in  the  hold  ;  and  the  paddles 
may  be  so  constructed  as  to  be  unshipped,  or  taken  in,  during  a  gale. 

The  causes  of  explosion  of  steam  boilers,  are  various  ;  but  chiefly, 
the  excessive  heating  of  the  boiler,  while  the  engine  is  stopped,  and 
the  sudden  flow  of  water  upon  the  heated  part,  producing  the  sudden 
generation  of  a  great  quantity  of  steam  ;  the  boiler  at  such  times, 
being  already  overcharged,  unless  the  steam  has  been  escaping  freely 
in  the  mean  while.  The  best  of  all  remedies,  would  be  the  thorough 


NAVIGATION.  455 

training  of  professed  steam  engineers,  in  the  whole  theory,  as  well 
as  the  practical  use,  of  steam  power :  and  next  to  this,  the  use  of 
boilers  without  return  flues,  or  chimneys,  passing  through  them ; 
with  additional  safety  valves  ;  and  fusible  plugs,  which  would  melt 
and  let  out  the  steam,  when  too  much  heated.  All  large  sea  vessels 
should  be  provided  with  life  boats,  so  built  as  to  be  incapable  of 
sinking,  even  when  filled  with  water. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

NAVIGATION. 

NAVIGATION  is  the  art  of  conducting  and  managing  vessels  ;  espe- 
cially while  at  sea,  or  sailing  from  port  to  port.  In  this  definition, 
we  include  Seamanship,  or  the  art  of  manoeuvring  a  vessel,  by  means 
of  the  sails,  anchors,  and  other  appendages  ;  considering  this  as  an 
essential  part  of  navigation,  in  its  wider  sense.  The  name  is  derived 
from  the  Latin  word  navigatio,  of  the  same  meaning ;  and  this 
from  the  Latin,  navis,  or  the  Greek  vavs,  a  ship.  Navigation  depends 
on  the  principles  of  Mathematics  and  Astronomy,  Physical  Geogra<- 
phy  and  Meteorology :  and  the  sailing  of  vessels  involves  a  peculiar 
class  of  problems  in  Mechanics.  In  connection  with  ship  building, 
this  art  has  been,  and  still  is,  one  of  the  mightiest  agents  of  com- 
merce and  civilization.  It  has  rendered  oceans,  which  would  other- 
wise have  been  impassable,  the  great  highway  of  nations ;  and  the 
source  of  vast  riches,  from  their  extensive  fisheries,  and  their  sub- 
marine productions.  The  subject  of  JEronautics,  or  the  navigation 
of  the  air,  by  means  of  balloons,  has  perhaps  more  relations  to  this 
branch  than  to  any  other;  though  it  is  a  subject  of  minor  import- 
ance. 

Among  the  ancient  nations,  the  PhoBnicians  were  the  most  skilled 
in  Navigation ;  and  they  are  said  to  have  directed  their  course  by 
the  stars,  as  early  as  1630  B.  C.  Their  voyages  were  mostly  con- 
fined to  the  Mediterranean,  and  the  neighboring  seas ;  though  some 
writers  believe  that  one  of  their  vessels  circumnavigated  Africa.  The 
construction  of  maps  was  the  greatest  step  attained  by  the  ancients, 
in  advancing  the  art  of  navigation.  This  art  was  revived,  in  modern 
times,  by  the  rich  commerce  of  Venice  and  Genoa  with  the  eastern 
coasts  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  invention  of  the  Mariner's  Com- 
pass, aided  Vasco  de  Gama  in  discovering  a  southern  passage  to 
India  ;  and  guided  Columbus  to  the  discovery  of  a  New  World;  thus 
enhancing  the  importance  of  Navigation,  and  stimulating  others  to 
its  improvement. 

The  log  line  was  introduced,  about  the  year  1570,  to  measure  the 
rate  of  a  ship's  sailing;  and  in  place  of  the  Astrolabe,  with  circular 
rings,  and  the  Arbalete,  or  cross  staff,  for  finding  the  altitudes  of 
celestial  bodies,  the  Back  staff,  invented  by  Davis,  about  1600,  and 
sometimes  called  Davis's  quadrant,  furnished  a  better  method ;  until 
the  introduction  of  Hadley's,  or  more  properly  Godfrey's  Quadrant, 


456  ARCHITECHNICS. 

invented  by  Godfrey,  of  Philadelphia,  in  1730.  Prince  Henry  of 
Portugal,  revived  the  use  of  plane  charts,  to  mark  and  indicate  a 
ship's  course :  but  the  mode  of  allowing  for  the  earth's  sphericity, 
or  the  convergence  of  the  meridians,  was  successively  improved  by 
Nunes  or  Nonius  of  Portugal,  in  1537 ;  by  Mercator  of  Belgium,  in 
1569  ;  and  by  Wright  of  England,  in  1599.  The  invention  of 
logarithms,  by  Napier,  in  1614,  and  of  Gunter's  scale,  in  1620, 
greatly  facilitated  nautical  calculations :  and  the  more  exact  measure- 
ments of  the  earth,  and  improved  astronomical  tables,  of  later  times, 
have  farther  benefitted  the  art  of  Navigation.  The  British  govern- 
ment, in  1763,  rewarded  Mayer  for  his  new  Lunar  Tables,  with  a  gift 
of  £3000;  and,  in  1765,  it  awarded  £10,000  to  Harrison,  for  his 
invention,  in  the  preceding  year,  of  a  Chronometer,  sufficiently 
accurate  to  serve  for  finding  the  longitude  at  sea. 

The  principal  topics  of  Navigation,  may  be  comprehended  under 
the  heads  of  Seamanship  ;  Dead  Reckoning;  and  Astronomical  Navi- 
gation, or  Nautical  Astronomy. 

§  1.  Seamanship,  is  the  art  of  sailing  a  ship  ;  chiefly  by  managing 
the  sails  and  rigging,  so  as  to  conduct  it  on  the  desired  course,  and 
preserve  it  from  danger.  The  rigging  of  vessels,  we  have  already 
described,  as  far  as  there  was  room,  in  the  preceding  branch.  A 
ship,  when  in  harbor,  is  either  attached  to  some  object  on  shore,  by 
a  strong  rope  called  a  halser  ;  or  is  secured  at  a  distance  from  shore, 
by  one  or  more  anchors,  let  down  upon  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and 
to  which  the  vessel  is  attached  by  strong  ropes,  or  chains,  called 
cables.  When  a  vessel  heaves  up  her  anchors,  or  casts  off  her 
fastenings,  and  hoists  sail,  to  change  her  position,  she  is  said  to  get 
under  weigh.  The  left  side  of  a  vessel  is  called  the  larboard,  and 
the  right,  the  starboard  side ;  and  the  side  turned  from  the  wind  is 
also  called  the  leeward.  A  stiff  vessel,  is  one  which  will  not  easily 
overturn ;  in  contradistinction  from  a  crank  one. 

A  ship  sailing  with  the  wind,  that  is,  in  the  direction  in  which  the 
wind  blows,  is  said  to  have  the  wind  aft,  or  to  sail  before  the  wind. 
When  it  blows  crosswise  of  the  ship,  she  is  said  to  have  the  wind 
abeam  ;  that  is,  against  the  beam  ends,  or  sides.  In  this  case,  the 
sails  are  placed  obliquely  to  the  wind,  which  thus  exerts  a  force  to 
move  the  vessel  at  right  angles  to  its  own  direction.  When  the 
wind  comes  from  a  point  still  more  ahead,  the  ship  is  said  to  be 
close  hauled  ;  and  by  having  the  sails  very  oblique,  most  vessels  can 
sail  towards  the  point  from  which  the  wind  blows,  within  4  or  6 
points,  that  is,  45°  or  673°.  In  this  case,  they  sail  slower,  and 
make  more  leeway  ;  drifting  sideways  with  the  wind,  and  falling  off 
from  the  course  on  which  they  strive  to  sail.  In  order  to  approach 
a  place  to  the  windiuard,  a  vessel  must  frequently  tack  ;  sailing  as 
directly  as  possible  towards  the  place,  but  inclining  alternately  to  the 
right  and  to  the  left  of  it,  at  each  tack  or  turn. 

Vessels  always  tack  by  turning  their  head  towards  the  wind,  and 
bracing  the  sails  obliquely,  to  aid  the  turning,  till  the  wind  comes 
sufficiently  on  the  other  quarter ;  when  the  sails  which  act  favorably 
are  said  to  draw.  To  gibe  a  fore-and-aft  sail,  is  to  turn  it  so  that  it 
may  receive  the  wind  on  the  opposite  side ;  and  the  same  object  is 


NAVIGATION.  457 

effected,  in  square  sails,  by  bracing  the  yards  obliquely  in  one  or 
the  other  direction.  When  a  ship  turns,  with  her  head  from  the 
wind,  so  as  to  receive  it  on  the  other  quarter,  she  is  said  to  veer.  The 
danger  arising  from  strong  winds,  is  diminished  by  shortening  sail ; 
either  taking  in  a  part  of  the  sails  ;  or  reefing,  that  is,  contracting 
them,  by  tieing  them  in  folds.  In  a  sudden  gust  of  wind,  fore-and- 
aft  rigged  vessels  should  bear  up,  or  head  towards  the  wind ;  but 
square  rigged  ones  should  receive  it  abeam.  In  a  storm,  vessels 
sometimes  lie  to,  or  head  towards  the  wind ;  and  sometimes  they 
scud,  or  drive,  heading  from  the  wind,  when  there  is  no  danger  from 
a  lee  shore. 

§  2.  Dead  Reckoning,  is  the  mode  of  estimating  the  course  and 
distance  which  a  ship  has  sailed,  by  means  of  the  compass  and  log, 
without  the  aid  of  celestial  observations.  The  course,  or  direction 
sailed,  as  well  as  the  bearing,  or  direction,  of  distant  objects,  is 
reckoned  from  the  north  or  south  point  of  the  horizon,  towards  the 
east  or  west;  on  land,  usually  in  degrees,  but  at  sea,  in  points,  each 
of  which  is  equal  to  Hi  degrees.  The  point  called  N.  N.  E.  (north- 
north  east),  for  example,  is  half  way  between  N.  E.  and  North  ;  and 
E.  N.  E.  is  half  way  between  N.  E.  and  East.  The  log,  consists 
of  a  flat,  quadrantal  piece  of  wood,  loaded  on  the  curved  side,  so  as 
to  make  it  float  edgewise  in  the  water,  and  attached  by  its  three 
corners  to  a  line,  which,  unwinding  from  a  reel,  when  the  log  is 
thrown  overboard,  measures  the  distance  which  the  ship  sails,  away 
from  the  log,  in  a  half  minute.  The  number  of  knots,  run  out  by 
the  log  line,  indicates  the  number  of  miles,  per  hour,  that  the  ship 
is  sailing.  The  log  is  cast  at  frequent  intervals ;  the  course  being 
continually  noted ;  and  from  these  data,  the  actual  course  an.d  dis- 
tance gained,  or  made  good,  each  day,  are  calculated  by  what  is 
called  Traverse  Sailing ;  an  application  of  plane  trigonometry. 

Distance  gained  by  a  ship,  northward  or  southward,  is  called  dif- 
ference of  latitude  ;  and  that  gained  eastward  or  westward,  is  called 
departure.  The  former,  compared  with  the  previous  latitude,  gives 
the  latitude  attained ;  but  the  departure,  being  expressed  in  nautical 
miles,  differs,  numerically,  from  the  difference  of  longitude ;  except 
at  the  equator;  owing  to  the  convergency  of  the  meridians.  When, 
near  the  equator,  this  difference  is  neglected,  in  finding  the  longitude, 
the  calculation  of  the  ship's  place  is  then  called  Plane  Sailing.  At 
a  distance  from  the  equator,  the  reduction  is  usually  made  by  means 
of  the  proportion,  cosine  of  the  latitude  :  radius  ::  departure  :  dif- 
ference of  longitude ;  which  last  is  thus  found,  by  the  method  called 
Middle  Latitude  Sailing.  In  high  latitudes,  the  surface  sailed  over 
may  be  considered  as  a  portion  of  a  cone,  having  its  vertex  beyond, the 
pole ;  and  the  method  of  finding  the  ship's  progress,  on  this  prin- 
ciple, is  called  Parallel  Sailing.  The  most  accurate  solution  of  this 
problem,  is  by  the  principle  of  Mercator's  Chart ;  in  which  the 
parts  of  the  earth  towards  the  poles  are  represented  as  enlarged,  to 
make  the  meridians  parallel ;  the  degrees  of  latitude  being  enlarged 
in  the  same  proportion ;  by  which  the  true  bearings  of  places  are 
accurately  preserved.  The  application  of  this  principle  to  problems 
in  Navigation,  is  hence  called  Mercator's  Sailing. 
58  2Q 


458  ARCHITECHNICS. 

§  3.  Astronomical  Navigation,  or  Nautical  Astronomy,  relates 
to  the  finding  of  a  ship's  position,  by  means  of  celestial  observations ; 
whether  of  the  sun,  moon,  planets,  or  fixed  stars.  It  consists  of  two 
principal  operations  ;  finding  the  latitude,  and  finding  the  longitude  : 
as  by  these  data  the  ship's  place  is  defined  on  the  earth's  surface. 
The  instruments  chiefly  used  in  taking  angles  for  these  purposes,  are 
the  reflecting  quadrant,  and  sextant,  and  the  repeating  circle ;  all 
of  which  have  a  moveable  arm,  with  an  attached,  or  revolving  mir- 
ror, which  is  turned  till  the  image  of  one  of  the  objects,  seen  by  a 
second  reflection  from  a  fixed  mirror,  appears  close  by  the  side  of 
the  other  object  seen  directly  ;  when  the  vernier,  on  the  arm,  gives 
the  angle  between  them,  read  off  on  the  graduated  limb. 

The  latitude,  is  most  commonly  found  by  observing  the  meridian 
altitude  of  the  sun's  lower  limb  ;  adding  thereto  the  sun's  apparent 
semidiameter,  for  the  altitude  of  his  centre ;  subtracting  from  this  the 
dip  of  the  horizon,  which,  at  sea,  appears  lower  than  its  true  place  ; 
and  subtracting  also  the  refraction,  produced  by  the  atmosphere. 
Knowing,  thus,  the  sun's  altitude,  and  finding  his  declination  by 
means  of  the  tables,  we  find,  by  addition  or  substraction,  the  altitude 
of  the  equator,  which  is  the  complement  of  the  latitude  sought,  or 
the  difference  between  it  and  90°.  In  the  same  manner  we  may 
find  the  latitude  by  means  of  the  moon,  or  a  star ;  but  in  the  case  of 
the  moon,  we  must  allow  for  the  parallax  in  altitude,  to  obtain  the 
direction  in  which  the  moon  would  appear  if  seen  from  the  earth's 
centre. 

The  longitude,  is  found  by  means  of  the  chronometer ;  which 
may  either  be  used  as  a  simple  timepiece,  for  noting  the  local  time 
of  any  celestial  phenomenon  ;  or,  if  well  regulated,  it  may  be  re- 
garded as  showing  the  time  at  Greenwich,  by  comparing  which  with 
the  local  time,  the  difference  of  longitude  is  found  ;  allowing  15°  to 
an  hour.  In  the  former  of  these  two  uses,  if  an  eclipse  of  one  of 
Jupiter's  satellites  happens  at  4  o'clock,  P.  M.,  by  the  ship's  local 
time,  when,  as  found  by  the  Nautical  Almanac,  it  happens  precisely 
at  noon,  at  Greenwich,  then  the  ship  must  be  60°  east  of  Green- 
wich, or  in  60°  of  E.  longitude.  This  difference  of  time  is  more 
commonly  found,  by  observing  the  angle  between  the  moon  and 
a  star,  and  noting  exactly  the  local  time ;  then  finding,  by  the  Lunar 
tables,  the  exact  time  at  Greenwich  when  the  moon  and  star  make 
the  same  angle  ;  correcting  it  in  both  cases  for  the  parallax.  In 
this  way,  the  chronometer  itself  may  be  verified  at  frequent  inter- 
vals, by  means  of  Lunar  Observations:  and  thus,  wherever  the 
ship  may  be,  the  actual  time  at  Greenwich  may  always  be  known ; 
and  thence  the  longitude  may  be  found,  whenever  the  local  time  can 
be  found,  by  celestial  observations. 


XIV.  DEPARTMENT: 

CHREO  TECHNICS. 


IN  the  department  of  Chreotechnics,  we  include  what  are  com- 
monly termed  the  Useful  Arts,  exclusive  of  those  comprehended  in 
the  preceding  department ;  or,  in  popular  language,  the  arts  of  Agri- 
culture, Manufactures,  and  Commerce.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Greek,  ^paoj,  necessity  or  utility,  and  n-zvy,  an  art ;  correspond- 
ing to  the  common  appellation  above  mentioned.  Strictly  speaking, 
these  arts  rank  with  the  preceding  in  utility ;  and  all  the  arts  are  use- 
ful in  a  greater  or  less  degree :  but  as  the  present  classification  re- 
quired the  adoption  of  some  distinctive  appellation  for  this  group  of 
arts,  we  have  selected  that  above  given,  as  the  best  which  has  come 
to  mind.  We  may  add,  that  the  arts  here  comprehended,  are  more 
miscellaneous  than  those  of  any  other  department ;  and  the  classifi- 
cation, in  this  instance,  may  seem  less  natural  than,  perhaps,  in  any 
other.  Still,  the  common  association  of  Agriculture,  M an u factures, 
and  Commerce, — in  connection  with  the  necessity  of  assigning  to 
them  some  definite  place  in  the  system, — will,  it  is  believed,  be 
found  a  sufficient  reason  for  the  arrangement  here  adopted ;  especially 
when  compared  with  that  of  the  other  departments  of  this  province, 
and  with  the  system  at  large. 

The  connection  between  the  arts  above  named,  results  rather  from 
the  aid  which  they  afford  each  other,  than  from  any  similarity  in 
their  processes  or  operations.  Agriculture,  supplies  some  of  the 
requisite  materials ;  though  many  of  them  are  obtained  from  the 
mines,  the  forests,  or  the  sea,  and  hence  have  been  treated  of,  col- 
lectively, under  the  branch  of  Hylurgy.  By  Manufactures,  these  ma- 
terials are  prepared  for  their  immediate  uses  or  objects ;  and,  by  means 
of  Commerce,  they  are  distributed  in  the  various  places  where  they 
are  wanted  for  consumption  or  exchange.  Thus,  these  arts  conspire 
to  promote  the  comfort,  and  thereby  to  advance  the  intellectual  state 
of  society.  Were  we  to  adopt  the  classification  of  the  arts  as  either 
mechanical  or  chemical,  those  above  named  would  be  widely  sepa- 
rated ;  and  some  of  them  would  be  entirely  omitted  in  the  province 
of  Technology. 

The  antiquity  of  Agriculture,  might  seem  to  demand  for  it  an 
earlier  place  in  the  present  province ;  and  would  have  obtained  it, 
had  there  been  sufficient  affinity  between  this  art  and  those  assigned 
to  the  preceding  department.  But  when  it  is  considered  that  Agri- 
culture, as  an  art,  could  have  made  but  little  progress  before  the  con- 
struction of  dwellings  for  shelter,  and  roads  for  communication,  this 

459 


460  CHREOTECHNICS. 

argument  will  sink  in  importance  ;  while  the  reasons  already  assign- 
ed for  the  present  arrangement,  will  retain  their  full  force.  The 
subject  of  Horticulture,  or  gardening,  is,  we  think,  so  extensive  and 
interesting,  as  to  merit  a  separate  place,  as  a  distinct  branch  of  the 
arts,  though  closely  allied  to  Agriculture,  or  the  labors  of  the  field. 
But  there  is  another  group  of  arts,  standing  next  to  these ;  and 
which,  though  very  essential  to  our  physical  comfort,  seldom  meets 
with  literary  notice ;  we  mean  the  arts  of  housekeeping  and  cookery. 
For  this  group,  usually  the  province  of  the  gentler  sex,  and  some- 
times comprehended  under  the  title  of  Domestic  Economy,  we  ven- 
ture to  propose  the  name  Domiculture,  as  significant  and  distinctive, 
and  symmetrical  with  the  names  of  the  preceding  branches. 

The  word  Manufacture,  derived  from  the  Latin,  manus,  the 
hand,  and  facio,  I  make,  literally  signifies  the  making  of  things  by 
hand  ;  but  it  is  commonly  applied  to  the  fabrication  of  any  small 
articles,  whether  immediately  by  the  hand,  or  by  the  aid  of  machi- 
nery ;  as  cloth,  cabinet  work,  porcelain,  and  various  machines,  in- 
struments, and  utensils.  The  minor  manufacturing  pursuits,  are 
often  called  trades ;  probably  from  the  Latin,  trado,  I  deliver ;  be- 
cause the  articles  made  are  often  delivered  singly  to  customers,  or 
purchasers.  As  the  distinction  between  trades  and  other  manufac- 
turing pursuits,  is  vague  and  unimportant,  and  as  the  subject  is  so 
extensive  as  to  merit  a  division,  we  propose  to  treat  of  manufactures 
under  the  two  heads  of  Vestiture,  and  Furniture  ;  the  former  com- 
prehending the  manufacture  of  cloth,  and  the  arts  subordinate  thereto; 
and  the  latter  comprehending  the  remaining  manufactures  of  move- 
able  articles,  which  collectively  form  an  important  group,  though 
separately  they  are  of  minor  importance.  The  subject  of  Commerce, 
may,  we  think,  be  properly  comprehended  as  one  single  branch  of 
Chreotechnics  ;  the  last  in  this  department. 

The  arts  above  referred  to,  aside  from  those  of  construction  and 
conveyance,  probably  furnish  occupation  to  nine-tenths  of  the  human 
race.  Their  pursuit  is  necessary,  to  a  certain  extent,  for  the  main- 
tenance of  society;  and  honorable,  in  all  cases,  where  it  promotes 
the  general  welfare.  It  has  stimulated  the  cultivation  of  the  sciences, 
and  thereby  opened  new  avenues  to  truth  and  utility,  discovery  and 
invention.  It  has  subsidized  the  powers  of  nature,  and  compelled 
the  winds  and  the  waters  to  come  forth  and  labor,  at  the  wheel  and 
the  forge,  the  loom  and  the  lathe,  that  man  may  find  time  to  tax  his 
ingenuity,  for  new  and  farther  improvements.  But  we  are  constrain- 
ed to  add  that  their  pursuit  may  become  too  engrossing ;  especially 
when  it  has  mere  wealth  for  its  object ;  and  that  unless  relieved  by 
intervals  of  rest,  study,  and  meditation,  it  tends  to  degrade  the  mind, 
and  absorb  the  better  thoughts  and  feelings  of  our  nature.  We  shall 
rejoice  in  the  increase  of  labor-saving  machinery,  if  it  allow  the 
laboring  classes  leisure  for  mental  culture,  and  the  charities  of  life  : 
but  if  it  have  the  effect  of  converting  men  themselves  into  mere 
money  making  machines,  it  is  a  result  rather  to  be  deprecated  than 
desired. 

The  improvements  which  have  been  made,  in  the  arts  now  under 
consideration,  refer,  for  the  most  part,  rather  to  their  extension  than 


AGRICULTURE.  461 

to  their  excellence.  The  fields  and  gardens  of  the  ancient  Romans 
were  nearly  as  well  cultivated  as  our  own  :  their  food  was  quite  as 
delicious  ;  their  dresses  were  as  durable,  and  as  gay,  if  not  so  fine  in 
texture ;  their  furniture  was  nearly  as  comfortable ;  and  what  they 
most  desired,  they  procured,  though  at  great  expense,  from  foreign 
parts.  But  instead  of  a  few  fertile  spots,  vast  regions,  which  were 
then  impermeable  forests,  are  now  brought  under  tillage  :  silk,  which 
in  Rome  was  a  luxury  for  princes,  is  now  worn  by  the  common 
classes  of  society  ;  cotton,  which  there  was  barely  known,  is  now, 
by  the  aid  of  machinery,  become  the  cheapest  of  fabrics ;  domestic 
comforts  are  multiplied ;  and  commerce,  aided  by  the  mariner's 
compass,  and  the  mighty  power  of  steam,  now  distributes  with  sur- 
prizing facility,  the  productions  of  every  clime,  over  all  the  civilized 
portions  of  the  globe. 

Wiih  these  introductory  remarks,  we  proceed  to  consider  the  indi- 
vidual branches  of  Chreotechnics,  in  the  order  already  pointed  out ; 
Agriculture  ;  Horticulture ;  Domiculture  ;  Vestiture  ;  Furniture  ;  and 
Commerce. 


CHAPTER  I. 

AGRICULTURE. 

AGRICULTURE  is  the  art  of  cultivating  the  ground  ;  including,  in  its 
ordinary  acceptation,  the  rearing  and  management  of  domestic  ani- 
mals. Its  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  ager,  a  field  ;  and  cultus, 
tillage  or  cultivation ;  and  the  term  Rural  Economy  has,  we  believe, 
nearly  the  same  meaning;  including,  perhaps,  something  of  Architec- 
ture and  Gardening.  It  has  been  termed  Farming,  from  the  word 
farm,  which  in  England  usually  signifies  a  portion  of  land  leased  or 
rented  ;  and  it  has  also  been  called  Husbandry,  though  this  word 
has  often  a  wider  signification,  as  synonymous  with  good  manage- 
ment of  one's  business,  and  provision  for  one's  family.  Agriculture, 
though  apparently  simple  in  its  operations,  still  derives  benefit  from 
various  sources  of  knowledge.  From  Machinery,  it  borrows  its  im- 
plements ;  from  Chemistry,  it  may  derive  a  knowledge  of  soils,  and 
the  means  of  fertilizing  them  ;  from  Botany,  a  knowledge  of  the 
plants  which  it  cultivates  or  eradicates ;  and  from  Zoology,  it  may 
learn  the  habits  and  peculiarities  of  the  animals  which  it  rears,  with 
the  means  of  improving  and  training  them  for  greater  utility  to  man- 
kind. 

As  Agriculture  is  one  of  the  arts  essential  to  the  existence  of 
society,  it  was  cultivated  in  the  earliest  ages  of  human  history. 
Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground ;  Abel  was  a  shepherd  ;  and  Noah 
planted  a  vineyard.  That  this  art  was  carried  to  great  perfection  in 
ancient  Egypt,  is  evinced  by  the  dense  population  which  that  remark- 
able land  must  have  sustained,  in  the  age  when  the  pyramids  were  in 
progress,  and  Thebes  was  in  its  glory.  The  poem  of  the  Works  and 
Days,  by  Hesiod,  is  a  description  of  early  Grecian  Agriculture ;  and 

2  Q2 


462  CHREOTECHNICS. 

the  Georgics  of  Virgil,  the  Natural  History  of  Pliny,  and  the  frag- 
ments of  Columella,  and  other  writers,  which  have  come  down  to  us, 
show  in  what  high  estimation  this  art  was  held  in  ancient  Rome ; 
where  generals  and  dictators  returned  to  the  plough,  after  the  tri- 
umphs of  the  battle  field. 

By  the  Roman  conquests,  their  knowledge  of  Agriculture  was 
disseminated,  not  only  throughout  southern  Europe,  but  through 
France,  England,  and  perhaps  a  part  of  Germany.  This  art  lan- 
guished, every  where,  during  the  Dark  Ages,  on  account  of  the  gene- 
ral insecurity  of  property,  and  the  transient  interest  felt  by  cultivators 
in  lands  which  were  not  their  own.  Agriculture  began  to  be  studied 
methodically,  in  the  principal  countries  of  Europe,  about  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century.  The  earliest  modern  work  on  this  subject, 
was  that  of  Crescenzio  of  Bologna,  entitled,  In  Commoditm  Rura- 
lium  ;  written  in  1300,  and  printed  in  1478.  The  earliest  English 
work  on  Agriculture,  worthy  of  note  here,  was  the  Book  of  Hus- 
bandry, by  Sir  Anthony  Fitzherbert,  printed  in  1523.  The  Scottish 
Agricultural  Society  was  formed  in  1723  ;  and  the  British  Board  of 
Agriculture  was  established  in  1793  ;  through  the  exertions  of  Mr. 
Marshall,  and  Sir  John  Sinclair.  Loudon's  Encyclopaedia  of  Agri- 
culture, is  doubtless  the  most  valuable  treatise  on  this  subject  which 
has  yet  appeared  in  Great  Britain. 

In  France,  there  were,  in  1761,  no  fewer  than  13  agricultural 
societies,  and  19  auxiliaries.  An  agricultural  survey  of  that  kingdom 
was  completed  in  1789,  by  Arthur  Young ;  and  more  recent  general 
views  have  been  given  by  Chaptal,  Dupin  and  others,  exhibiting 
decided  improvements.  A  national  garden  was  established,  for  the 
trial  of  experiments  in  Agriculture ;  but  whether  it  is  still  flourish- 
ing, we  are  not  informed.  The  state  of  this  art  in  Germany,  has 
been  described,  by  Hodgson,  and  others,  as  generally  and  rapid- 
ly advancing.  In  our  own  country,  owing  to  the  abundance  of 
uncultivated  land,  this  art  has  been  less  refined  upon,  than  in  the  old 
world  ;  except,  perhaps,  in  the  vicinity  of  our  cities  and  large  towns. 
The  subject  is  however  growing  in  interest;  and  the  writings  of  the 
late  Judge  Buel  and  others,  are  an  earnest  of  the  attention  which  it 
cannot  fail  to  excite,  as  our.  population  increases. 

We  may  distribute  the  branch  of  Agriculture  under  the  heads  of 
Agricultural  Implements;  Preparing  Lands  for  Tillage;  Fertilizing 
the  Soil ;  The  Cultivation  of  Vegetables  ;  and  The  Rearing  of  Ani- 
mals. 

§  1.  On  the  perfection  of  Agricultural  Implements,  including 
Machines,  depends  much  of  the  improvement  of  which  this  art  is 
susceptible.  "We  may  commence  their  enumeration  with  the  cart, 
waggon,  sled,  sleigh  and  wheelbarrow  ;  all  of  them  useful  for  various 
purposes  of  transportation.  The  Pennsylvania  waggon,  is  remark- 
able for  its  great  size,  its  long  body,  with  sloping  ends,  and  its 
covered  top,  of  canvas,  supported  on  bent  hoops  or  ribs ;  it  being 
drawn  by  four  or  six  horses,  and  used  for  carrying  heavy  loads  to  a 
considerable  distance.  Next  to  these  vehicles,  we  may  mention  the 
axe,  and  the  saw,  for  forest  work,  or  felling  and  cutting  up  trees  ; 
the  plough,  for  turning  up  the  ground;  the  harrow,  for  pulverizing 


AGRICULTURE.  463 

and  smoothing  it;  the  hoe,  and  spade,  for  planting  and  weeding; 
and  the  shovel,  for  removing  earth,  or  other  loose  substances.  The 
drill,  is  a  machine  for  planting  or  sowing  seed  ;  and  the  cultivator, 
is  a  somewhat  similar  machine,  for  harrowing,  and  removing  weeds : 
these  machines  being  worked,  sometimes  by  horse-power,  and  some- 
times by  hand. 

For  gathering  crops,  the  scythe,  and  rake,  are  used  in  hay  mak- 
ing; the  sickle,  and  cradle,  in  harvesting;  the  flail,  for  threshing, 
and  ihefan,  or  van,  for  winnowing  grain.  The  horse  rake,  has  been 
recently  introduced  in  our  own  country,  for  raking  hay ;  and  it  is 
deemed  a  very  valuable  implement.  Machines  have  also  been  in- 
vented for  mowing;  for  reaping,  and  threshing,  and  winnowing 
grain  ;  and  for  shelling  Indian  corn  :  but  excepting  for  the  two  latter 
purposes,  we  are  not  certain  that  they  have  yet  answered  the  end 
proposed,  the  saving  of  manual  labour  on  a  large  scale.  The  mowing 
and  reaping  machines,  are  propelled  by  horses ;  and  have  points  or 
fingers  projecting  for  ward  into  the  grass  or  grain,  by  which  it  is  held, 
until  cut  off  by  a  sliding  or  revolving  scythe  or  knife. 

§  2.  The  Preparing  of  land  for  Tillage,  consists  in  clearing  it 
of  trees,  where  they  are  found;  fencing  it,  in  proper  portions,  called 
lots ;  and  draining  it,  where  it  is  marshy ;  or  irrigating  it,  if  water 
for  the  purpose  is  accessible,  where  it  is  too  dry.  In  our  own  coun- 
try, the  clearing  of  land  is  generally  effected  by  felling  the  trees  with 
the  axe  ;  but  sometimes  the  larger  trees  are  left  standing,  and  merely 
girdled,  by  cutting  all  around  them,  through  the  bark,  so  deeply  as 
to  cause  their  death  and  decay.  In  the  newly  settled  portions  of  the 
country,  the  wood  is  of  so  little  value,  that  it  is  piled  in  heaps  and 
burned,  to  free  the  land  of  its  incumbrance.  Machines  have  been 
constructed  for  raising  and  removing  the  stumps  of  trees  ;  but  it  is 
considered  far  cheaper,  where  economy  alone  is  concerned,  to  leave 
them,  till  they  become  so  loose,  by  the  decay  of  the  roots,  as  to  be 
easily  removed.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  in  some  extensive  districts 
of  our  country,  scarcely  any  trees  have  been  left,  for  ornament  or 
shade. 

The  object  of  fencing  land,  is  either  to  prevent  the  access  of  the 
larger  animals,  or  to  keep  them  within  certain  limits.  Fences  are  of 
various  kinds ;  as  the  log  fences,  of  new  settlements ;  the  lighter 
rail  fences,  including  the  zigzag  or  Virginia  fence,  and  board  and 
lattice  fences  for  ornament ;  the  stone  walls  of  New  England  ;  the 
turf  and  ditch  fence,  used  where  stone  is  not  procurable ;  and  the 
hawthorn  hedge,  which  decks  the  fields  of  England  with  its  annual 
bloom.  Stone  walls  are  the  most  durable  fence  ;  while  they  absorb 
the  surface  stones,  which  would  impede  the  cultivation.  The  drain- 
ing of  marshy  or  wet  land,  is  effected,  by  blind  drains,  which  are 
filled  with  loose  stones ;  or  box  drains,  having  a  free  passage,  but 
covered  over,  with  a  permeable  covering ;  or  open  drains,  which  are 
mere  trenches  ploughed  or  dug  along  the  surface  of  the  ground.  On 
sloping  lands,  they  should  run  obliquely  along  the  side,  in  order  that 
their  descent  may  not  be  too  rapid. 

§  3.  The  different  modes  of  Fertilizing  the  Soil,  have  been  sug- 
gested, partly  by  chemical  analysis,  and  geological  observation,  and 


464  CHREOTECHNICS. 

partly  by  experiments ;  which  are  of  course  the  decisive  test  of  their 
relative  value.  The  soil,  is  the  uppermost  stratum  of  the  earth's 
surface ;  and  consists  chiefly  of  pulverulent  earthy  matter,  resulting 
from  the  decomposition  of  ancient  rocks ;  mingled  with  vegetable 
matter,  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  the  subsoil  beneath  it.  The 
chief  earthy  constituents  of  soils,  are  gravel,  and  sand,  of  variable 
fineness  ;  clay,  consisting  of  alumina  and  silex  ;  chalk,  or  carbonate 
of  lime ;  and  the  oxide  of  iron,  usually  communicating  a  red  color. 
Clay  absorbs  moisture,  and  thereby  becomes  soft ;  but  when  dry,  it 
is  too  hard  and  stiff  for  the  fibrous  roots  of  plants  to  penetrate.  Sand, 
gives  looseness  and  lightness  to  soil ;  but,  not  retaining  moisture,  it 
speedily  becomes  too  dry  for  vegetation.  Hence  the  best  soil  is 
chiefly  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand,  with  a  due  proportion  of  the 
other  earths,  and  a  large  supply  of  vegetable  and  animal  matter. 
Such  a  mixture  is  properly  called  loam. 

Soils  have  been  classified,  according  to  their  chief  ingredients,  as 
loamy,  clayey,  sandy,  gravelly,  chalky,  and  peaty,  or  mossy ;  the 
latter  consisting  chiefly  of  vegetable  matter,  or  mould,  which  is 
very  retentive  of  moisture.  Of  these  varieties,  loamy  soil,  is,  as  we 
have  already  explained,  the  best ;  but  the  others  may  be  ameliorated, 
by  adding  the  ingredients  in  which  they  are  deficient ;  as  adding 
sand  and  lime  to  a  clayey  soil,  or  clay  to  a  gravelly  one.  Clayey 
soils,  when  well  prepared  and  manured,  are  suitable  for  wheat,  oats, 
beans,  and  clover :  but  they  require  breaking  up,  or  fallowing,  more 
frequently  than  most  other  kinds.  Sandy,  or  light  and  dry  soils,  are 
suitable  chiefly  for  barley,  turnips,  and  the  drier  grasses ;  and  wet 
soils  are  best  appropriated  for  raising  succulent  grasses,  and  oats. 

Most  soils  are  improved  by  the  application  of  suitable  manure: 
but  the  kind  required,  varies  with  the  nature  of  the  soil.  Lime  is  a 
good  manure  for  clayey  soils;  and  gypsum,  for  sandy  ones  ;  perhaps 
because  it  attracts  moisture.  Marl,  on  account  of  its  containing 
potassa,  mixed  with  clay,  is  an  excellent  manure,  especially  for  sandy 
soils ;  and  wood  ashes,  which  also  contain  carbonate  of  potassa,  are 
of  similar  use.  But  vegetable  and  animal  manures,  especially  with 
proper  mixtures  of  the  preceding,  are  chiefly  to  be  depended  upon, 
in  rendering  soils  more  fertile.  The  composts,  thus  formed  with 
refuse  organic  matter,  should  not  be  exposed  to  heavy  rain,  while 
heating  and  fermenting ;  as  it  would  wash  away  their  soluble  salts, 
and  greatly  diminish  their  value.  Certain  plants  are  found  to  require 
a  peculiar  nourishment ;  wheat,  for  example  ;  which  will  not  grow 
to  a  full  kernel,  in  a  soil  wholly  destitute  of  lime.  Next  to  the 
application  of  manure,  and  equally  important,  for  some  crops,  is  the 
thorough  breaking  up  of  the  soil,  by  ploughing  or  otherwise  ;  by 
which  it  is  loosened,  exposed  to  the  air,  and  its  nutritious  ingredients 
brought  into  action.  All  plants  exhaust  the  soil ;  but  in  different 
degrees,  and  of  different  ingredients ;  and  hence  the  importance  of 
due  rotation  of  crops,  to  keep  the  land  in  good  heart. 

§  4.  The  Cultivation  of  Vegetables,  consists  in  sowing  or  plant- 
ing the  seed,  in  ground  properly  prepared ;  in  fostering  its  growth, 
by  stirring  the  soil  and  eradicating  noxious  plants,  or  weeds  ;  and 
finally,  in  gathering  and  preserving  the  products  of  this  labor.  The 


AGRICULTURE.  465 

plants  thus  cultivated  are  mostly  grains,  esculent  roots,  and  grasses, 
for  the  food  of  men  and  domestic  animals  ;  or  flax,  hemp,  cotton, 
and  other  plants,  useful  in  the  arts.  The  production  of  fruits  and 
garden  vegetables  is  reserved  for  the  succeeding  branch  of  Chreo- 
technics.  Grains,  including  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  oats,  are  culti- 
vated by  ploughing,  manuring,  and  harrowing  the  ground  ;  then 
sowing  the  seed  broadcast,  that  is,  scattered  over  the  whole  surface, 
and  slightly  covering  it  with  the  harrow  ;  after  which  no  farther  labor 
is  required  till  the  harvesting;  when  the  ripe  grain  is  cut  with  the 
sickle  or  cradle,  bound  in  bundles,  and  stored  till  perfectly  dry ;  then 
separated  from  the  straw  or  culm,  by  threshing  and  winnowing. 
Similar  to  this,  is  the  cultivation  of  rice,  in  the  wet  lands  of  our 
southern  states.  Maize  or  Indian  corn,  and  potatoes,  are  planted 
in  hills,  or  rows,  usually  three  or  four  feet  apart :  and  they  require 
repeated,  hoeings,  to  subdue  the  weeds  and  accumulate  the  earth 
around  the  roots.  The  top  stalks  of  maize,  should  not  be  cut  until 
the  kernels  are  formed  in  the  ears ;  otherwise  the  plants  would  be 
unfruitful.  The  field,  or  common  turnip,  may  be  raised  by  scatter- 
ing and  covering  the  seed,  in  ground  well  tilled,  without  farther  cul- 
tivation. 

The  grasses  most  cultivated  in  our  country,  are  clover,  herd's 
grass,  red  top,  and  furze  top,  succeeding  each  other  in  soils  which 
have  been  previously  tilled.  Herd's  grass,  or  timothy,  grows  well 
in  stiff  clayey  soils  :  orchard  grass  is  best  suited  for  dry  soils  ;  and 
foul  meadow  grass  answers  well  for  soils  which  are  wet.  Grass, 
after  being  mowed,  is  spread  to  dry,  and  thus  converted  into  hay, 
which  is  then  raked  together  and  secured  in  stacks  or  barns.  Flax 
and  hemp,  are  sown  broadcast ;  and  require  no  farther  tillage  ;  but, 
when  mature,  they  are  pulled  by  the  roots,  and  subjected  to  the  pro- 
cess of  .rotting,  to  remove  the  woody  parts  from  the  fibrous  coating, 
Cotton,  is  planted  in  rows,  and  weeded  at  intervals ;  and  the  pods 
are  picked,  from  time  to  time,  as  they  ripen.  Tobacco,  is  first  sown 
in  beds  ;  and  afterwards  transplanted,  in  rows,,  for  tillage :  and  the 
leaves  are  gathered  when  sufficiently  mature.  The  sugar  cane,  is 
cultivated  like  maize  ;  and  sugar  is  obtained  from  the  expressed  juice 
of  the  green  stalks. 

§  5.  The  Rearing  of  Domestic  Animals,  is  chiefly  confined,  in 
our  own  country,  to  horses,  cattle,  sheep,  and  swine  ;  which  are  col- 
lectively termed,  by  farmers,  live  stock.  There  are  various  breeds 
of  horses  ;  of  which  the  Arabian  is  the  fleetest ;  but  those  of  colder 
climates,  as  the  Dutch,  and  Scotch,  are  more  hardy,  and  better  for 
draught.  Horses  require  careful  treatment,  as  they  are  subject  to^ 
various  diseases ;  the  cure  of  which  belongs  to  Farriery,  or  the 
Veterinary  Art,  thus  connected  with  the  pursuits  of  the  farmer. 
Some  of  these  diseases  are  caused  by  the  animal  taking  cold,  after 
being  overheated ;  by  which  the  lungs  especially  are  injured  :  and 
the  disease  called  the  bots,  is  caused  by  the  horse  swallowing  the 
eggs  deposited  by  flies  upon  his  hair;  the  larvae  produced  from 
which,  gnaw  through  the  stomach.  The  blacksmith,  who  practises 
shoeing  horses,  often  acquires  a  knowledge  of  Farriery. 

There  are  also  various  breeds  of  cattle ;  as  the  Dutch,  or  short 
59 


466  CHREOTECHNICS. 

horned;  the  Lancashire,  or  long  horned;  the  Galloway,  or  no 
horned ;  and  the  Kyloe,  or  Highland  breed.  Those  are  preferred 
which  are  hardy,  which  yield  the  most  and  best  milk,  and  which 
fatten  well,  producing  the  best  beef.  Cattle  should  always  have 
access  to  a  good  shelter,  especially  in  winter.  Sheep,  may  be  classed 
as  long  wooled,  and  short  wooled  ;  including  numerous  breeds  ;  of 
which  the  Merino,  imported  from  Spain  into  England,  in  1787, 
having  fine  wool,  is  the  most  valued.  Sheep  also  do  best  when  pro- 
perly sheltered,  of  course  with  access  of  fresh  air :  and  they  are 
sheared,  for  their  fleeces,  in  the  spring,  when  the  weather  has  be- 
come settled  and  warm.  A  preference  should  be  given  to  those 
breeds  of  swine  which  have  the  best  form,  and  fatten  best;  and  they 
should  neither  be  suffered  to  run  at  large,  nor  yet  confined  too 
closely.  Of  the  raising  of  silkworms,  poultry,  and  other  animals, 
we  have  no  room  here  to  speak. 


CHAPTER  II. 

HORTICULTURE. 

HORTICULTURE,  or  Gardening,  is  the  art  of  preparing  and  cultivat- 
ing gardens  ;  including  pleasure  grounds,  and  ornamental  shrubbery. 
The  name  is  from  the  Latin,  hortus,  a  garden ;  and  cultus,  tillage, 
or  management ;  and  it  is  sometimes  divided  into  Horticulture  pro- 
per, or  the  cultivation  of  vegetables ;  and  Landscape  Gardening,  or 
the  laying  out  of  grounds.  Horticulture  has  so  close  relations  with 
Agriculture,  that  it  is  difficult  to  draw  the  line  of  division  between 
them ;  though  sufficiently  distinct  in  their  principal  features.  As  in- 
volving principles  of  taste,  and  elements  of  beauty,  Horticulture,  like 
Architecture,  might  be  grouped  with  the  Fine  Arts,  as  a  branch  of 
Callotechnics :  but  its  connection  with  the  Useful  Arts,  especially  in 
our  own  country,  we  regard  as  the  stronger  relation.  Whether  con- 
sidered in  reference  to  utility,  or  ornament,  it  is  an  art  which  de- 
serves much  attention,  and  exerts  a  salutary  influence  on  its  votaries. 

Horticulture  is  the  most  ancient  art  of  which  we  have  any  record : 
for  we  read  that  Adam  was  placed  in  the  garden  of  Eden,  to  dress  it 
and  to  keep  it.  We  read  also  of  the  hanging  gardens  of  ancient  Ba- 
bylon, supported  on  arches,  one  tier  above  another :  and  the  gardens 
of  Solomon,  are  glowingly  described  in  the  sacred  Canticles.  The 
Academy,  or  Academian  grove  at  Athens,  was  an  extensive  public 
garden,  frequented  by  orators,  poets,  and  philosophers.  The  Ro- 
mans, also,  in  their  days  of  prosperity  and  luxury,  paid  great  atten- 
tion to  gardening;  as  illustrated  in  the  descriptions  of  their  princely 
villas,  and  imperial  palaces.  Many  of  our  choicest  fruits,  shrubs, 
and  flowers,  derived  immediately  from  England,  were  transplanted 
thither  from  the  milder  climes  of  the  south,  and  were  also  the  favor- 
ites of  the  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans. 

Gardening  appears  to  have  been  much  cultivated  in  England,  by 
the  Romish  clergy ;  as  gardens  and  orchards  are  frequently  mention- 


HORTICULTURE.  467 

ed  in  the  charters  of  convents,  granted  in  the  twelfth  and  following 
centuries.  The  cultivation  of  vegetables  was  much  patronized  by 
Henry  VIII. ;  prior  to  whose  reign,  cabbages,  and  other  kitchen 
vegetables,  were  imported  in  large  quantities  from  Holland.  The 
early  work  of  Fitzherbert,  on  Husbandry,  already  alluded  to,  ex- 
tended, also  to  gardening;  and  it  was  succeeded,  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Elizabeth,  by  the  Gardener's  Labyrinth,  and  other  Horticul- 
tural works.  The  first  hot  houses,  and  ice  houses,  in  England,  are 
said  to  have  been  built  by  Charles  II. ;  who  introduced  the  French 
style  of  horticulture,  in  his  royal  gardens.  Evelyn's  Complete  Gar- 
dener, published  in  1693,  has  acquired  great  celebrity ;  and  become 
the  basis  of  more  modern  works.  In  our  own  country,  the  beauti- 
ful garden  laid  out  by  John  Bartram,  about  the  year  1720,  on  the 
banks  of  the  Schuylkill,  below  Philadelphia,  deserves  particular 
mention,  as  containing  a  large  proportion  of  all  the  forest  trees  of 
North  America. 

We  proceed  to  treat  briefly  of  Horticulture,  under  the  heads  of 
Landscape  Gardening ;  Kitchen  and  Table  Gardening ;  and  Botanical 
Gardening ;  the  latter  relating  to  shrubs,  flowers,  and  medicinal  plants. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Landscape  Gardening,  we  include  the 
laying  out  of  gardens  and  pleasure  grounds :  the  planting  of  shade 
trees ;  and  the  construction  of  fountains,  green  houses,  and  hot 
houses ;  with  the  erection  of  statues,  arbors,  grottoes,  and  other 
similar  ornamental  structures.  In  selecting  the  location  of  a  garden, 
a  southern  exposure  should  be  chosen,  inclining  to  the  east  rather 
than  to  the  west ;  of  fertile  soil,  and  neither  too  moist  nor  too  dry. 
It  should  be  properly  enclosed ;  and  the  walls  or  fences  concealed 
or  covered,  at  least  in  part,  by  shrubbery.  If  the  ground  be  suffi- 
ciently extensive  for  plantations  of  trees,  they  should  be  distributed 
in  groups,  rather  than  formal  rows  ;  and  in  the  higher  as  well  as  the 
lower  parts  of  the  garden.  The  walks,  should  be  gravelled,  or  other- 
wise prepared ;  and  they  should  be,  for  the  most  part  curved,  rather 
than  straight :  waving  or  variable  curves  being  more  beautiful  than 
the  circle  or  circular  arcs.  If  there  be  any  striking  ornaments,  as 
summer  houses,  arches,  or  fine  prospects,  the  walks  should  be  so 
arranged  as  to  make  them  prominent  in  the  view. 

All  gardens  require  to  be  well  provided  with  water.  In  small  es- 
tablishments this  may  be  supplied  from  the  farm  or  family  well:  but 
large  gardens  require  a  greater  supply,  which  may  be  rendered  orna- 
mental, as  well  as  useful,  by  the  construction  of  a  fountain.  Jetteaux, 
or  jets,  of  water  thrown  upward  into  the  air,  are  produced  by  pressure ; 
the  water  flowing  through  a  small  orifice,  from  some  higher  source : 
and  the  water  may  cither  fall  into  a  basin,  or  be  allowed  to  flow  away 
and  disperse  itself  in  the  ground.  All  large  gardens  are  provided 
with  green-houses,  with  roofs  chiefly  of  glass,  for  sheltering  the  less 
hardy  plants,  which  are  protected  from  frost,  if  necessary,  by  artificial 
heat ;  and  hot  houses,  similar  to  green  houses  in  their  construction, 
but  provided  with  furnaces,  or  heated  by  steam,  and  kept  always  at 
a  higher  temperature,  for  the  growth  of  the  most  delicate  plants, 
which  are  natives  of  a  tropical  clime.  The  smaller  plants  are  usually 
placed  in  pots,  and  arranged  on  shelves,  rising  one  above  another,  so 


468  CHREOTECHNICS. 

that  they  may  all  have  access  to  the  light.  Hot  walls,  are  sometimes 
constructed,  with  furnaces  and  extensive  flues,  for  forcing  the  growth 
of  wall  fruit,  by  artificial  heat.  Arbors,  covered  with  vines,  are 
highly  ornamental  in  gardens,  and  present  a  grateful  shade  in  hot 
weather.  Of  grottoes,  statues,  and  other  like  ornaments,  we  have 
no  farther  room  to  speak. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Kitchen  and  Table  Gardening,  we  com- 
prehend the  cultivation  of  vegetables,  and  of  fruit,  for  the  kitchen  and 
the  table.  This  division  of  Gardening,  is  doubtless  the  most  useful ; 
as  supplying  no  small  portion  of  our  vegetable  food.  The  ground 
allotted  for  raising  esculent  or  kitchen  vegetables,  should  have  a  deep, 
rich  soil,  well  manured,  and  thoroughly  tilled.  It  is  usually  laid  out 
in  small  compartments,  termed  beds,  with  narrow  paths,  or  walks, 
between ;  especially  for  those  smaller  vegetables  which  would  be 
injured  by  walking  among  them.  Garden  potatoes,  of  the  richer  and 
earlier  kinds,  are  cultivated  like  those  in  the  fields  :  and  tomatoes,  of 
which  the  fruit  alone  is  eaten,  are  raised  in  a  similar  manner.  Peas 
are  planted  in  rows ;  and  the  larger  kinds  require  bushing,  that  the 
vines  may  cling  to  the  dry  bushes  for  support.  Some  varieties  of 
beans,  require  the  support  of  long  poles,  like  the  hop  and  the  vine  : 
but  most  kinds  are  of  low  growth.  Cucumbers,  squashes,  and  melons, 
are  planted  in  hills,  which  should  be  filled  deeply  with  manure ;  but 
cabbage,  cauliflower,  and  broccoli,  beets,  carrots,  and  parsnips,  turnips 
and  onions,  are  planted  singly,  at  short  intervals,  in  beds  of  deep  soil. 
Of  salads  and  herbs,  as  the  radish,  lettuce,  celery,  asparagus,  sage, 
and  mint,  we  can  make  no  farther  mention. 

The  plantation  of  orchards,  for  the  larger  fruits,  as  apples,  pears, 
plums,  peaches,  cherries,  and  quinces,  belongs  alike  to  agriculture 
and  to  gardening.  The  young  trees  are  raised  from  the  seeds,  in 
nurseries,  and  then  transplanted  to  a  more  ample  space.  Fruit  trees, 
thrive  well  along  the  walls  of  gardens ;  where  they  also  serve  for 
shade.  In  training  fruit  trees,  the  processes  of  grafting,  and  inocu- 
lating, are  often  resorted  to,  in  order  to  improve  the  quality  of  the 
fruit ;  by  taking  shoots,  or  buds,  from  approved  trees,  and  inserting 
them  on  others,  where,  with  proper  precautions,  they  continue  to 
grow.  The  grape  vine,  is  an  appropriate  ornament  for  bowers  or 
walls ;  and  is  also  cultivated  in  green-houses,  called  graperies. 
Shrub  fruits,  as  the  currant,  gooseberry,  raspberry,  and  blackberry, 
are  appropriate  for  borders  :  while  the  strawberry  is  raised  in  beds  ; 
and,  like  various  other  plants,  requires  some  protection  from  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  winter. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Botanical  Gardening,  as  already  ex- 
plained, \\e  include  the  cultivation  of  flowers,  and  ornamental 
and  medicinal,  as  well  as  rare  and  exotic  plants.  A  private 
flower  garden,  should  form  an  ornamental  appendage  to  the  man- 
sion ;  and  be  visible  and  easily  accessible  therefrom  :  the  kitchen 
garden  and  orchards  lying  beyond  it,  towards  the  open  fields.  It 
should  be  well  supplied  with  evergreen  trees  and  shrubs,  which  give 
it  a  cheerful  appearance,  even  in  winter  ;  and  the  box  and  smaller 
evergreens  are  occasionally  used  as  edgings,  surrounding  the  flower 
beds  or  compartments.  Much  skill,  as  well  as  taste,  may  be  dis- 


DOMICULTURE.  469 

played  in  the  distribution  of  the  flowers,  with  reference  to  their 
seasons  of  flowering ;  so  that  as  some  of  them  decline,  others  may 
come  in  bloom,  and  thus  preserve  the  beauty  of  all  parts  of  the  gar- 
den, during  the  whole  season.  The  part  appropriated  to  roses,  is 
called  the  rosary ;  and  when  a  part  is  overflowed,  for  growing 
aquatic  plants,  it  is  called  the  aquarium. 

Among  the  more  prominent  flowers,  we  may  mention  the  rose, 
dahlia,  tulip,  pink,  and  lily ;  of  all  which  there  are  numerous  species 
and  varieties.  Of  climbing  flower  plants,  the  Champney  rose,  the 
honeysuckle,  the  jessamin  eor  jasmine,  and  the  bignonia  or  trum- 
pet flower,  are  among  the  most  beautiful :  and  of  flowering  shrubs, 
we  may  mention  the  lilac,  snowball,  althea,  and  laburnum.  We  must 
abstain  from  any  attempt  to  particularize  the  numerous  rare  and 
medicinal  plants,— many  of  which  require  artificial  warmth  and  shel- 
ter ; — as  our  limits  for  the  present  branch  are  already  transcended. 


CHAPTER  III. 

DOMICULTURE. 

WE  propose  the  name  Domiculture,  to  include  the  subjects  of 
Housekeeping  and  Cookery  ;  which  collectively  are  deemed  of  suffi- 
cient importance  to  rank  as  a  distinct  branch  of  the  Useful  Arts. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  domus,  a  house ;  and  cultus, 
culture  or  attendance.  It  is  nearly  synonymous  with  Domestic 
Economy ;  but  we  have  adopted  the  former  term  for  the  sake  of 
brevity,  and  a  more  symmetrical  nomenclature.  This  branch  is 
related,  it  will  be  seen,  to  Agriculture  and  Horticulture  on  the  one 
hand ;  and  to  the  arts  of  Vestiture  and  Furniture  on  the  other ;  from 
which  considerations  its  place  in  our  arrangement  is  clearly  defined. 
It  comes,  even  more  closely  than  the  preceding  branch,  within  the 
province  of  the  fair  sex  ;  and  hence,  on  the  score  of  gallantry, 
deserves  especial  notice  ;  though*  its  labors,  particularly  in  large 
establishments,  are  often  assigned  to  those  of  sterner  mould. 

We  have  mentioned  Cookery,  apart  from  Housekeeping,  because 
the  former,  though  often,  is  not  always  comprehended  under  the 
latter :  many  families,  particularly  in  European  cities,  procuring  their 
food,  already  prepared,  at  shops  where  cooking  is  made  a  regular 
business.  Housekeeping,  in  its  more  limited  sense,  relates  to  the 
general  management  of  a  house ;  the  selection  and  arrangement  of 
furniture,  and  the  constant  attention  required  by  the  wants  and  for 
the  comforts  of  a  family.  The  name  Cookery,  from  the  Latin, 
coquo,  I  cook,  though  ordinarily  restricted  to  the  mere  dressing  of 
food,  is  here  used  in  a  more  extended  sense,  to  include  all  prepara- 
tions of  food  and  drink ;  as  Baking,  Confectionary,  Brewing,  Vint- 
ing,  and  Distilling,  and  the  polite  art  of  Carving,  often  practised  at 
the  table.  Cookery  produces  important  changes  in  the  constitution 
of  food,  thereby  rendering  it  more  or  less  easily  digestible  ;  some  of 
which  changes,  Chemistry  has  not  yet  been  able  to  explain. 

2R 


470  CHREOTECHNICS. 

In  ancient  times,  the  labors  of  Housekeeping  extended  to  the 
spinning,  weaving,  and  fashioning  of  most  articles  of  clothing :  or 
rather  these  labors  were  performed  in  private  dwellings.  The  art  of 
Cookery,  was  somewhat  cultivated  by  the  Greeks ;  but  still  more  so 
by  the  Romans ;  whose  luxury  is  perhaps  in  no  case  more  conspicu- 
ous than  in  the  extravagance  of  their  entertainments.  Dishes  of 
singing  birds,  peacock's  brains,  goldfishes'  livers,  and  pearls  dissolved 
in  vinegar,  are  examples  of  their  insatiate  epicurism,  in  an  age  when 
Rome  was  sinking  to  decay.  Under  Tiberius,  there  were  teachers, 
and  schools  of  cookery  in  Rome ;  and  the  inventor  of  a  new  dish 
was  sometimes  munificently  rewarded.  Their  dishes,  like  the 
modern  Italian,  were  characterized  by  the  free  use  of  oil,  from  their 
native  olives  ;  while  the  French  cookery  is  distinguished  by  its  light 
soups,  and  meats  variously  disguised ;  and  the  English  dishes  are 
noted  for  substantiality,  .as  in  their  national  roast  beef  and  plum- 
pudding. 

Our  further  remarks  on  Domiculture  will  be  embraced  in  the  topics 
of  Housekeeping;  Cookery;  and  Butlery,  or  the  preparation  and 
selection  of  table  liquors. 

§  1.  The  study  of  Housekeeping,  naturally  commences  with  the 
selection  and  arrangement  of  furniture ;  and  the  engagement  of  ser- 
vants, where  servants  are  required.  Good  taste  requires  that  the 
furniture  of  the  same  suite  of  rooms,  or  at  least,  of  the  same  room, 
should  harmonize,  or  correspond  throughout.  Thus,  if  the  sofa  be 
of  mahogany,  the  chairs,  tables,  and  sideboards  should  be  of  the 
same  material ;  though  the  black  walnut  furniture  is  by  some  pre- 
ferred to  that  of  mahogany.  A  correspondence,  even  of  the  frames 
of  mirrors  and  pictures,  whether  gilt  or  otherwise,  presents  an  agree- 
able effect.  In  general,  there  should  be  one  predominant  color ; 
especially  of  the  carpets,  and  curtains,  or  hangings ;  with  which  the 
rest  of  the  furniture  should  harmonize.  A  plain  and  neat  style  of 
furniture  we  think  far  preferable  to  the  more  gaudy  and  ostentatious. 

Next  in  order,  comes  the  procuring  of  supplies  of  fuel,  provisions, 
and  other  stores ;  which  vary  in  different  places,  and  require  the  aid 
of  local  experience,  in  regard  to  the  selection  and  quantity.  The 
warming  of  rooms, — where  anthracite  is  used, — by  means  of  cellar 
stoves,  and  air  chambers  around  them,  with  flues  for  conducting  the 
warm  air  into  the  different  rooms,  is  a  method  which  we  think  is 
gradually  gaining  ground  in  public  favor ;  and  it  prevents  much  dust 
from  being  dispersed  from  the  fire  grates,  and  injuring  the  furniture. 
Rooms  with  white  walls,  are  more  easily  lighted  than  those  with 
dark:  and  the  effect  of  lights  placed  against  walls,  is  much  increased 
by  introducing  mirrors  behind  them.  The  labors  of  housecleaning, 
which  require  to  be  at  least  semiannually  repeated,  we  leave  to  be 
directed  by  the  housekeepers,  whose  province  it  is  to  superintend 
them.  The  same  remark  may  be  applied  to  laundry  work,  or  the 
washing  and  ironing  of  clothes  ;  and  to  various  other  household 
arrangements. 

§  2.  The  labors  of  Cookery,  comprise  the  preparation  of  animal 
food,  farinaceous  food,  confectionary,  and  beverages.  Of  the  rela- 
tive healthiness  of  different  kinds  of  food,  we  have  already  briefly 


DOMICULTURE.  471 

spoken,  in  treating  of  Hygienics,  (p.  420).  The  principal  meats, 
such  as  beef,  venison,  mutton,  and  fowls,  are  generally  preferred 
roasted  ;  the  process  consisting  in  exposing  them  before  the  fire,  on  a 
spit  which  is  constantly  turned.  Mutton  is  sometimes,  and  fish  are 
generally,  boiled  ;  by  keeping  them,  for  a  sufficient  time,  in  water  at 
a  boiling  temperature.  Meats  are  said  to  be  baked,  when  roasted  in 
a  close  oven ;  broiled,  when  cooked  upon  a  gridiron ;  fried,  when 
heated  with  lard  or  butter ;  and  stewed,  or  fricaseed,  when  boiled  to 
a  soft  state,  with  but  little  water.  At  entertainments,  where  several 
courses  are  served,  soup  is  generally  the  first  dish;  and  fish  is  intro- 
duced before  meat ;  the  dessert,  of  confectionary  and  fruits,  conclud- 
ing the  service. 

Farinaceous  food,  is  that  derived  from  plants  called  cerealia ;  as 
wheat,  rye,  and  corn  ;  or  from  esculent  roots,  as  the  potato,  beet,  and 
turnip,  which  contain  more  or  less  farina  or  starch.  Among  these, 
wheat  contains  the  greatest  proportion  of  gluten,  and  hence  makes 
the  lightest  bread.  Bread,  is  formed,  by  mixing  flour  with  water, 
and  with  leaven  or  yeast ;  which  latter  excites  the  panary  fermenta- 
tion ;  partly  converting  the  starch  into  sugar,  and  the  sugar  into  alco- 
hol and  carbonic  acid  :  and  this  latter,  being  retained,  in  gaseous 
bubbles,  by  the  gluten,  causes  the  dough,  or  unbaked  bread,  to  rise. 
It  is  then  baked,  at  a  regulated  temperature ;  during  which  process 
the  alcohol,  and  sometimes  the  carbonic  acid  escapes ;  in  the  Blatter 
case  causing  the  bread  to  fall,  or  become  heavy.  Cakes  are  made  in 
nearly  the  same  manner ;  but  pastry,  including  pies  and  puddings, 
does  not  require  yeast ;  the  flour,  when  used,  being  mixed  with 
butter.  Rice,  and  potatoes,  and  other  esculent  roots,  are  usually 
cooked  by  boiling ;  and  are  the  most  healthy  when  thoroughly 
cooked. 

The  term  confectionary,  from  the  Latin  conficio,  I  concoct,  or 
prepare,  is  properly  applied  to  both  sweetmeats,  and  pickles ;  the 
former  being  preserved  with  sugar,  and  the  latter  with  vinegar. 
Sweetmeats,  are  made  of  various  kind  of  fruit,  as  the  apple  and 
peach ;  and  require  a  large  quantity  of  sugar,  to  prevent  them  from 
fermenting  and  moulding.  They  are  sometimes  reduced,  by  means 
of  boiling  and  straining,  to  a  jelly ;  resembling  hydrous  gelatin,  or 
animal  jelly,  only  in  form.  Pickles,  are  made  from  various  vege- 
tables, as  the  cucumber,  and  mango,  simply  preserved  in  vinegar, 
with  the  occasional  addition  of  salt  and  spices.  Pickles  should  never 
be  made  in  brass  or  copper  vessels :  nor  should  either  pickles  or 
sweetmeats  be  kept  in  vessels  containing  copper  or  lead,  nor  in 
earthen  vessels  glazed  with  lead ;  as  the  acid  which  they  contain 
would  form,  with  these  metals,  salts  which  are  poisonous. 

Of  beverages,  water  is  the  natural  drink  of  man,  after  the  period 
of  infancy ;  and  if  it  be  pure,  none  can  be  more  healthy.  Milk, 
especially  when  diluted,  forms  also  a  healthy  drink,  and  quenches 
the  thirst  better  than  liquids  which  are  stimulant.  Chocolate,  is 
made  from  the  cacao  nut,  which  grows  of  the  shape  and  size  of  the 
almond;  and  a  drink  is  sometimes  matfe  of  the  shells  of  the  same 
nut.  This  latter  drink  is  purer  than  the  chocolate  ;  which  contains 
a  large  portion  of  oil  or  butter ;  and  they  are  both  less  stimulating 


472  CHREOTECHNICS. 

than  tea  or  coffee.  Tea  is  made  from  the  leaves  of  the  tea  plant  of 
China;  and  coffee  from  the  seeds  of  the  coffee  tree  of  Arabia.  They 
are  both  stimulants,  but  coffee  the  most  so  ;  and  when  taken  hot  and 
strong,  they  often,  in  process  of  time,  debilitate  the  digestive  organ. 

§  3.  The  term  Butlery,  applies  in  a  strict  sense  to  the  selection 
and  preservation  of  table  liquors :  but  we  shall  here  extend  it  to  in- 
clude also  brief  notices  of  their  sources  and  preparation.  By  table 
liquors,  we  mean  those  prepared  by  fermentation  or  distillation ;  all 
of  them  being  produced  from  vegetable  substances,  containing  sugar, 
or  starch,  which  is  converted  into  sugar  before  fermenting.  Of 
these  liquors,  the  simplest,  and  probably  the  least  injurious,  are  cider, 
made  from  the  juice  of  the  apple;  perry,  from  the  pear;  and  wine, 
from  must,  which  is  the  newly  expressed  juice  of  the  grape.  By 
the  alcoholic  fermentation,  the  sugar  previously  existing  in  the  juice, 
is  converted  into  alcohol  and  carbonic  acid ;  the  latter  escaping,  if  the 
vessel  be  open,  or  being  condensed,  if  the  vessel  be  tight  and  strong, 
but  effervescing  when  the  vessel  is  afterwards  opened,  as  in  the 
case  of  Champagne,  or  bottled  cider.  If  the  alcoholic  fermentation 
be  not  checked,  it  results  in  the  vinous  fermentation  ;  by  which  the 
alcohol  is  converted  into  vinegar. 

Me,  or  strong  beer,  and  porter,  are  also  fermented  liquors,  made 
from  malted  barley  ;  first  rendered  sweet  by  the  process  of  malting, 
or  causing  the  barley  to  germinate,  and  then  speedily  drying  it,  be- 
fore it  is  fermented.  Of  the  distilled  liquors,  whiskey  is  made  from 
rye  ;  rum,  from  molasses ;  brandy,  from  wine  ;  and  gin,  from  malt 
liquors,  flavored  with  juniper  berries.  The  lighter  wines,  as  Claret, 
Hock,  Burgundy,  and  Champagne,  contain  from  12  to  17  per  cent, 
of  alcohol :  the  stronger  wines,  as  Port,  Sherry,  Madeira,  and  Ma- 
laga, contain  from  20  to  25  per  cent. ;  and  distilled  liquors  or  ardent 
spirits  contain  about  50  per  cent,  of  the  strongest  alcohol.  The  red, 
or  dark  wines,  contain  more  tannin  and  extractive  matter  than  the 
white  or  pale  wines ;  and  hence  act  less  speedily  upon  the  animal 
system.  But  however  tempting  their  appearance,  the  fact  should  not 
be  disguised,  that  all  these  liquors  act  as  an  unnatural  stimulant ;  and 
although  serviceable  occasionally  as  medicines,  their  habitual  use  gra- 
dually vitiates  the  blood,  deranges  the  nervous  functions,  and  causes 
premature  exhaustion  and  decay. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

VESTITURE. 

UNDER  the  head  of  Vestiture,  we  include  all  those  arts  which  re- 
late immediately  to  the  manufacture  of  cloth,  and  preparation  of 
clothing.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  vestis,  a  garment,  or 
vestio,  I  clothe ;  in  reference  to  its  most  important  application ;  for 
covering  or  clothing  the  human  body.  Clothing  is  made  of  various 
materials  ;  and  the  selection  is  governed  partly  by  their  greater  or 
less  power  of  conducting  heat.  Linen,  being  the  best  conductor, 


VESTITURE.  473 

forms  the  coolest  clothing  in  summer ;  and  cotton,  in  this  respect, 
comes  next  to  linen :  while  wool,  silk,  and  fur,  being  the  worst  con- 
ductors of  heat,  are  the  best  retainers  of  animal  warmth  in  the  winter. 
The  operations  of  making  cloth,  are  chiefly  mechanical ;  but  those 
of  bleaching  and  dying  it,  are  strictly  chemical,  requiring  a  know- 
ledge of  the  properties  of  dye  stuffs,  and  the  theory  of  colors.  The 
tanning  of  leather,  is  also  a  chemical  process ;  but  the  manufacture 
of  garments,  including  shoes  and  boots,  consists  of  what  are  termed 
mechanical  operations.  The  importance  of  these  subjects  to  our 
physical  comfort,  and  their  increasing  extent,  are  our  reasons  for 
grouping  them  together,  as  a  branch  of  Chreotechnics,  distinct  from 
other  manufactures. 

The  arts  of  sewing,  spinning,  and  weaving,  appear  to  have  been 
invented  in  the  earliest  times  :  the  former  at  the  expulsion  from  Pa- 
radise ;  and  the  two  latter  probably  in  ancient  Egypt.  Flax,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  grown  originally  in  that  country,  or  in  Persia ;  and 
linen  cloth  was  used  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  for  the  sole  dress  of 
their  priests,  and  for  enveloping  the  dead  after  embalming.  From 
them  its  use  was  learned  by  the  Jews  and  Phoenicians ;  and  thence 
carried  into  Greece  and  Italy,  long  before  the  Christian  Era.  Cot- 
ton, is  a  native  product  of  India ;  and  there  it  was  first  manufactured 
into  cloth,  in  remote  ages.  Cotton  fabrics  were  scarcely  known  to 
the  Greeks  and  Romans ;  but  they  were  introduced  into  Spain  by  the 
Arabians,  about  A.  D.  912 ;  and  thence  the  manufacture  spread  over 
modern  Europe.  Cotton  was  first  manufactured  in  England,  about 
1641  :  but  the  quantity  was  small,  before  the  invention  of  spinning 
and  weaving  machinery ;  and  was  much  increased  by  the  invention 
of  the  saw  gin,  for  cleaning  cotton  of  its  seeds,  by  our  countryman, 
Mr.  Whitney,  in  1792. 

Wool,  was,  probably,  one  of  the  earliest  materials  used  for  cloth- 
ing ;  being  originally  worn  with  the  skin  of  the  animal,  rudely 
dressed.  It  was  much  worn  by  the  Romans ;  who  introduced  its 
manufacture  into  England.  Silk,  was  first  manufactured  in  China ; 
tradition  says,  by  the  empress,  Si-ling-shi,  about  2700  B.  C.  Silk 
fabrics  were  first  used  in  Rome,  only  a  short  time  before  the  Chris- 
tian Era.  The  culture  of  silk,  was  brought  from  China  to  Greece, 
it  is  said,  by  Persian  monks,  about  A.  D.  550 ;  and  the  manufacture 
extended  thence  to  Sicily,  in  the  12th  century;  and  thence  to  central 
Europe. 

The  most  ancient  mode  of  spinning,  was  by  means  of  a  distaff, 
and  spindle ;  one  or  both  of  them  held  and  turned  by  the  hand. 
This  mode  was  superseded,  in  later  times,  by  the  one  thread  spin- 
ning wheel,  still  used  in  spinning  linen.  The  next  step,  and  a  great 
one,  in  this  art,  was  the  invention  of  the  Spinning  Jenny,  by  Mr. 
Hargreaves,  in  1767  ;  with  which  machine,  several  threads  could  be 
spun  at  the  same  time.  The  next  invention,  that  of  the  Water 
Spinning  Frame,  in  which  the  thread  is  drawn  out  by  rollers, 
though  ascribed  by  some  to  Mr.  Wyatt,  was  first  made  known  by 
Arkwright,  who  took  a  patent  for  it  in  1769.  Mr.  Arkwright  after- 
wards connected  the  carding  with  the  spinning,  in  another  machine, 
patented  in  1795.  The  last  great  invention  in  spinning,  was  that  of 
60  2  R  2 


474  CHREOTECHNICS. 

the  Mule,  or  the  Mule  Jenny,  by  Mr.  Crompton,  in  1779  ;  combin- 
ing the  spinning  jenny  with  Arkwright's  improvements  ;  so  as  to 
make  finer  and  smoother  thread.  The  invention  of  the  first  Carding 
Machine,  is  attributed  to  Mr.  Paul,  in  1748. 

The  most  ancient  looms,  such  as  are  still  used  for  weaving,  by  the 
natives  of  India,  had  the  thread  descending  vertically  from  the  beam 
on  which  it  was  wound :  and  the  weaving  commenced  at  the  lower 
end,  progressing  upwards.  The  horizontal  loom,  with  heddles.  to 
separate  the  alternate  threads,  or  warp,  before  inserting  the  woof,  or 
filling,  by  means  of  the  shuttle,  was  of  later  origin.  The  first  suc- 
cessful invention  of  the  Power  loom,  moving  solely  by  machinery, 
was  by  Rev.  Dr.  Cartwright,  in  1785 :  but  this  invention  was  re- 
peatedly modified  by  others  ;  and  was  a  long  time  in  coming  into 
use.  We  have  no  room  here  to  explain  how  great  an  influence  these 
improvements  in  spinning  and  weaving  have  exerted,  upon  the  pro- 
ductive industry,  not  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States  only, 
but  of  the  whole  civilized  world. 

Our  further  remarks  on  Vestiture,  will  be  distributed  under  the 
heads  of  Linen,  Cotton,  Woolen,  and  Silk  Manufactures ;  conclud- 
ing with  some  remarks  on  Felting  and  Tanning. 

§  1.  The  Linen  Manufacture,  derives  its  name  from  linum,  the 
botanical  name  of  flax.  The  flax,  after  being  pulled  and  rotted,  as 
mentioned  under  agriculture,  is  dressed  by  breaking,  or  passing  it 
between  alternate  bars,  which  break  the  woody  stem ;  then  swin- 
gling, or  beating  it,  to  remove  the  woody  fragments ;  and  lastly 
heckling,  or  combing  it,  to  remove  the  coarser  fibres,  and  split  the 
remaining  bark  more  finely.  It  has  hitherto  been  spun  only  on 
the  one  thread  wheel :  as  it  requires  the  peculiar  management  of  the 
hand,  in  drawing  it.  After  the  weaving,  which  is  usually  performed 
by  hand,  it  is  bleached,  either  by  dipping  it  in  ley,  and  exposing  it  to 
the  sun  ;  or  by  the  action  of  chlorine. 

Among  the  linen  fabrics,  are  sail  cloth,  which  is  coarse  and  plain ; 
sheeting  and  shirting,  which  are  finer ;  cambric,  which  is  plainly 
woven,  but  still  finer,  so  named  from  Cambray  in  Flanders  ;  and 
lawn,  which  is  a  sheer  cambric,  thin  and  transparent.  Linen  diaper, 
is  woven  with  figures ;  one  thread  crossing  two  or  more  at  a  time ; 
and  lace,  is  a  network,  formerly  woven  on  a  cushion  or  pillow  ;  the 
thread  being  wound  on  bobbins  of  bone,  and  netted  around  pins, 
stuck  in  the  cushion,  whence  it  is  called  bone  lace.  This,  when 
embroidered  with  the  needle,  is  called  point  lace  ;  while  bobbin-net 
is  made  with  machinery,  and  usually  of  cotton.  The  coarser  sail 
cloth,  is  made  from  hemp ;  much  in  the  same  manner  as  cloth  is 
made  from  flax  ;  and  both  materials  are  wrought  into  ropes  and 
cordage,  on  the  same  principles  which  are  employed  in  spinning 
thread. 

§  2.  The  Cotton  Manufacture,  is  now  chiefly  carried  on  by  the 
agency  of  machinery ;  to  which  we  have  already  referred.  Raw 
cotton,  is  derived  from  the  seed  pods  of  the  cotton  plant,  or  gossy- 
pium.  The  two  principal  varieties,  cultivated  in  our  Southern 
States,  are  the  black  seed,  or  long  staple,  with  long  fibres,  which  are 
drawn  out  from  the  seeds  by  means  of  the  roller  gin ;  and  the  green 


VESTITURE.  475 

seed,  short  staple,  or  upland  cotton,  which  was  of  little  value  before 
the  invention  of  the  saw  gin ;  but  is  now  the  most  abundant  product. 
The  nankeen  cotton,  so  named  from  its  natural  nankeen  color,  is  a 
short  staple,  used  only  for  coarse  and  domestic  manufactures. 

In  Arkwright's  machinery,  the  cotton,  after  being  picked  or  batted 
into  a  light,  uniform  mass,  and  then  twice  carded,  once  in  the  breaker, 
and  once  in  the  finisher,  comes  from  the  latter  in  continuous  rolls, 
called  card  ends  ;  which  next  pass  through  the  drawing  frame, 
between  two  pairs  of  rollers,  the  second  turning  more  rapidly  than 
the  first,  by  which  the  ends  are  drawn  out  in  length.  Several  of 
them  are  then  united  to  form  a  sliver,  or  untwisted  rope,  of  many 
strands  ;  which,  passing  through  the  roving  frame,  or  double  speeder, 
is  again  drawn  and  slightly  twisted ;  forming  a  loose,  imperfect 
thread,  called  roving.  This  is  transferred  to  the  spinning  frame, 
where  it  is  again  drawn  and  twisted,  to  form  a  perfect  thread.  In 
Crompton's  Mule,  or  mule  jenny,  the  thread  is  farther  stretched, 
after  leaving  the  rollers,  by  the  spindles  being  moved  backward,  while 
twisting,  and  thus  producing  a  more  even  thread.  Of  the  power 
loom,  now  used  for  weaving,  we  can  only  say  that  it  performs  all 
the  requisite  motions,  with  such  steadiness  and  uniformity,  as  to 
make  better  cloth  than  can  possibly  be  woven  by  hand. 

Cotton  cloth  is  usually  bleached  by  the  moist  application  of  chlo- 
rine, evolved  from  chloride  of  lime,  called  bleaching  powder.  Calico 
printing,  is  performed  by  passing  the  cloth  over  engraved  copper 
cylinders,  the  incised  figures  or  hollowed  parts  of  which,  contain  the 
pastelike  coloring  matter  ;  while,  from  the  raised  and  polished 
parts,  the  color  is  scraped  away,  as  the  cylinder  turns.  For  adjective 
colors,  which  will  not  adhere  without  a  mordant  or  basis,  the  cloth 
is  first  printed  with  the  mordant,  and  then  dipped  in  the  dye ;  which 
is  afterwards  washed  out  from  the  other  parts.  Madder,  and  logwood, 
give  a  black  dye  with  salts  of  iron,  but  a  red  dye  with  a  mordant  of 
acetate  of  alumina.  Of  cotton  fabrics,  muslins  are  named  from  Mosul ; 
and  calicoes,  from  Calicut;  places  formerly  celebrated  for  their 
manufacture.  In  England,  white,  or  unprinted  cotton  cloth  is  called 
calico :  but  we  give  this  name  to  printed  cotton,  having  not  more 
than  two  colors  ;  and  cotton  cloth  with,  more  than  two  colors,  we 
call  chintz.  The  name  muslin,  we  apply  only  to  the  finest  cotton 
cloths  ;  and  gauze,  differs  from  it,  only  in  being  still  finer,  and 
loosely  woven,  making  it  open,  or  transparent. 

§  3.  The  Woolen  Manufacture,  has  also  been  greatly  promoted 
by  the  modern  improvements  in  spinning  and  weaving  machinery. 
Wool,  is  selected  according  to  its  softness,  fineness,  color,  and 
regularity  of  curling ;  which  curling  enables  it  to  yield  in  length, 
and  hence,  like  cotton,  to  be  spun  mechanically.  The  short,  fine, 
and  curly  wool,  is  used  for  broadcloths,  flannels,  and  other  fabrics 
which  require  fulling  to  thicken  them  :  and  the  long,  straight  wool, 
or  worsted,  is  used  for  camlets,  bombazines,  and  similar  fabrics. 
The  wool,  by  carding,  is  formed  into  small  cylindrical  rolls  ;  which 
are  stretched  and  spun,  first  in  a  stubbing,  or  roving  machine,  and 
afterwards  in  a  mule  jenny,  as  in  the  case  of  cotton.  The  weaving, 
is  mostly  done  by  machinery ;  and  the  fulling,  for  broadcloths  and 


476  CHREOTECHNICS 

flannels,  entangles,  and  mats  the  fibres,  on  the  same  principle  by 
which  hats  are  made  of  fur,  in  the  process  of  felting.  The  cloth  is 
then  dyed,  if  required ;  after  which  it  receives  a  nap,  by  being 
scratched  with  the  teasel  plant,  to  lay  its  fibres  parallel;  and  it  is 
then  sheared  to  produce  an  even  surface. 

Of  carpet  weaving,  and  other  varieties,  we  have  no  room  here  to 
speak.  Woolens  are  dyed  by  first  scouring  them  with  an  alkali  or 
ley;  then  immersing  them  in  a  bath  of  the  coloring  matter:  and 
afterwards  spreading  them  to  dry.  If  the  coloring  matter  be  of  vege- 
table origin,  it  is  generally  an  adjective  color,  requiring  a  mordant, 
as  in  calico  printing.  To  this  remark,  indigo  is  a  prominent  excep- 
tion ;  though  it  is  applied  in  combination  with  sulphuric  acid.  The 
same  colors  which  are  used  for  cottons,  as  madder,  and  logwood, 
quercitron,  and  indigo,  are  generally  applicable  to  woolens  also. 
The  mineral  colors,  as  orpiment  yellow,  and  chrome  red,  are  gene- 
rally substantive  colors,  adhering  to  the  cloth  without  a  mordant. 

§  4.  Of  the  Silk  Manufacture,  we  must  speak  very  briefly.  The 
cocoons,  spun  by  the  silk  worm,  in  which  to  shelter  itself  during  its 
transformation,  are  steeped  in  water,  warm  enough  to  loosen  the 
threads,  but  not  so  warm  as  to  injure  them  :  and  each  cocoon,  by 
unwinding,  gives  a  strand,  of  which  many  are  reeled  and  twisted 
together,  to  form  one  thread.  These  latter  operations  are  now 
performed  by  machinery.  Of  silk  fabrics,  besides  plain  silk  cloth, 
crape  is  plain,  but  loosely  woven,  and  hence  open  and  transparent ; 
satin,  is  woven  with  one  thread  crossing  two  or  more  at  a  time  ; 
damask,  is  thicker,  and  woven  with  figures  ;  brocade,  the  same, 
only  still  thicker,  and  often  inwoven  with  thread  of  gold,  or  silver : 
gauze,  probably  named  from  Gaza,  is  a  light,  transparent  fabric, 
often  cross-woven,  or  with  the  contiguous  threads  intertwisting;  and 
velvet,  is  formed  by  superfluous  threads  drawn  in  between  the  warp 
and  woof,  in  weaving,  but  left  projecting  in  loops,  which  are  after- 
wards sheared  off,  producing  the  pile,  or  close  downy  surface,  formed 
by  the  ends  of  the  fibres. 

Of  Dress  Making,  or  the  arts  of  the  Tailor,  Mantuamaker,  and 
Milliner,  though  worthy  of  notice,  we  have  no  room  here  to  treat. 
Modern  hats,  are  made  by  the  process  of  Felting ;  in  which  the 
fibres  of  fur  or  wool,  being  rough  or  barbed  in  one  direction,  become 
entangled,  by  working  or  agitating  them,  when  hot  and  moist,  so  as 
to  form  a  matted  mass,  which  is  then  shaped  upon  a  block.  Leather, 
is  made  by  the  process  of  Tanning :  the  skin  being  first  cleansed  of 
hair  and  flesh,  by  the  action  of  lime  and  the  beaming  knife ;  then 
immersed  in  a  vat  of  oak  or  hemlock  bark,  ground  fine,  and  diffused 
in  water.  The  tannin,  or  tannic  acid  of  the  bark,  unites  with  the 
gelatin  of  the  skin :  and  the  leather,  thus  formed,  is  afterwards  cur- 
ried, by  oiling,  coloring,  and  smoothing  or  softening  it.  Boots  and 
shoes  are  shaped  on  a  block  of  wood  called  a  last ;  the  upper  leather 
being  first  applied,  and  the  sole  leather  fastened  to  it,  by  pegging  or 
sewing. 


FURNITURE.  477 

CHAPTER  V. 

FURNITURE. 

IN  the  branch  of  Furniture,  we  include  the  manufacture  of  the 
various  utensils,  and  moveable  articles,  required  for  housekeeping  or 
personal  convenience  ;  and  which  are  not  included  in  any  of  the  pre- 
ceding branches.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  French  fournir,  to 
furnish  or  provide ;  and  hence  it  admits  of  the  extended  sense  in 
which  the  term  is  here  used,  in  the  absence  of  any  other  more  appro- 
priate term.  Thus,  we  include  under  it,  the  manufacture  of  glass 
and  gems  ;  of  porcelain  and  pottery  ;  of  hardware  and  jewelry  ;  of 
lamps  and  mirrors,  timepieces,  and  musical  instruments  ;  of  cabinet 
work  and  carriages;  of  saddlery  and  travelling  equipments;  and  of 
various  other  minor  articles,  which  hardly  admit  of  rigid  classification. 
These  manufactures,  though  separately  they  might  be  overlooked, 
are,  we  think,  collectively,  of  sufficient  importance  to  be  ranked  as  a 
distinct  branch  of  the  arts  included  in  the  present  department. 

The  invention  of  furniture,  of  various  kinds,  must  of  course  have 
been  very  ancient ;  and  nearly  coeval  with  that  of  the  ruder  forms  of 
Architecture.  Seats,  tables,  beds,  and  implements  for  cooking,  would 
be  required  as  soon  as  men  began  to  improve  their  physical  condition. 
Earthen  ware,  was  made  by  the  ancient  Egyptians  ;  and  the  potter's 
wheel  is  said  to  have  been  invented  as  early  as  1270  B.  C.  Porce- 
lain, was  invented  in  China,  and  first  introduced  into  Europe  by  the 
Portuguese,  in  modern  times ;  and  the  art  of  making  it  was  reinvented 
by  Botticher  of  Germany,  about  A.  D.  1706.  Glass,  according  to 
Pliny,  was  first  made  accidentally  in  Syria,  by  heating  an  alkali  on 
the  sand.  It  was  ornamented  by  cutting,  as  early  as  A.  D.  60 ;  and 
first  used  for  windows,  near  the  close  of  the  third  century.  Glass 
windows  were  first  introduced  in  England,  about  1100;  and  plate 
glass  was  first  cast  in  France,  by  Thevenart,  in  1688. 

Lamps,  were  an  early  invention ;  and  street  lamps  were  used  in 
Antioch,  A.  D.  380.  The  clepsydra,  or  water  clock,  was  invented  in 
Egypt ;  and  introduced  into  Rome  by  Scipio  Nasica,  about  200  B.  C. 
The  invention  of  clocks  with  wheels,  is  attributed  to  Gerbert,  (who 
was  afterwards  Pope  Sylvester  II.)  about  the  year  996.  Hook  in- 
vented spiral  watch  springs,  about  1660  ;  and  Harrison's  chronometer 
was  completed  in  1764.  The  hydraulic  organ,  is  said  to  have  been 
invented  by  Ctesibius  of  Alexandria ;  and  it  was  first  used  in  Roman 
churches  by  Pope  Vitellian,  who  died  in  669.  The  water  probably 
served  to  compress  the  wind,  forced  into  the  wind  chest  at  intervals, 
by  a  simple  bellows,  but  expelled  in  a  constant  current,  to  produce 
the  sounds.  The  modern  organ,  was  invented  about  the  year  1300, 
by  the  Germans.  The  harp,  and  trumpet,  were  inventions  of  early 
times  ;  but  the  violin  appeared  about  the  time  of  the  crusades.  The 
piano-forte,  or  piano,  a  great  improvement  on  the  old  virginal,  and  harp- 
sichord, was  invented  by  Schroeder  of  Saxony,  about  the  year  1717. 

We  shall  here  distribute  the  arts  of  Furniture  under  the  heads  of 


478  CHREOTECHNICS. 

Vitrefactures  ;  Metallifactures  ;  Horology,  and  Musical  instruments ; 
and  Cabinet  and  Carriage  work ;  with  interspersed  notices  of  minor 
articles. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Vitrefactures,  we  include  glass,  pottery, 
and  porcelain ;  though  strictly  speaking,  the  latter  are  vitrified  only 
on  the  surface,  by  glazing.  Glass,  is  composed  of  sand,  that  is,  silex 
or  silicic  acid,  melted  with  an  alkali,  usually  potassa  or  soda,  in  the 
furnace  of  a  glass  house.  Bottle  glass,  is  made  of  common  sand 
and  potash  ;  and  is  colored  green  by  the  oxide  of  iron  in  the  materials. 
When  melted,  a  portion  of  it  will  adhere  to  the  end  of  a  long  iron 
tube  dipped  in  it,  and  on  blowing  into  the  tube,  it  swells  out  like  a 
soap  bubble,  and  thus  receives  its  shape.  Crown  glass,  used  for 
windows,  is  made  of  purer  sand  and  alkali ;  with  a  little  oxide  of 
manganese  to  render  it  quite  colorless  :  and  it  is  shaped  by  rapid 
whirling  on  the  end  of  a  tube.  Plate  glass,  is  of  similar  composi- 
tion ;  and  is  cast  in  plates,  on  large  tables.  Flint  glass,  contains 
not  only  pure  sand  and  alkali,  but  a  large  portion  of  the  oxide  of 
lead ;  which  renders  it  more  brilliant,  and  softer  to  cut,  or  rather  to 
grind  ;  as  for  table  glass.  The  cutting  of  gems,  by  the  Lapidary,  is 
chiefly  effected  by  rubbing  them  with  fine,  hard,  powders. 

Pottery,  or  common  earthen  ware,  is  made  like  brick ;  except  that 
the  tempered  clay  is  shaped  by  throwing,  that  is,  placing  it  on  a 
wheel  turning  rapidly  on  a  vertical  axis,  and  moulding  it  with  the 
hands,  or  tools,  into  a  rounded  form.  It  is  burnt  in  saggars,  or 
larger  vessels,  previously  burnt,  and  which  serve  to  protect  it  while 
burning.  It  is  often  glazed,  by  throwing  salt  into  the  kiln ;  the  soda 
of  which  converts  its  surface  into  a  kind  of  glass  :  and,  like  glass,  it 
may  be  colored  by  metallic  oxides.  Stone  ware,  of  a  gray  color,  is 
made  of  clay  containing  less  or  no  iron  ;  and  it  is  thoroughly  burned. 
White  ware,  including  Wedgewood  and  Queen's  ware,  is  made  of 
the  finest  white  clay ;  and  in  the  former,  a  portion  of  flint  is  added, 
by  which  it  is  partially  vitrified  throughout.  China  ware,  and 
porcelain,  are  made  of  feldspar,  finely  pulverized,  and  mixed  with 
kaolin,  which  is  feldspar  deprived  of  its  potassa  by  decomposition. 
The  feldspar  melts  while  burning,  and  enveloping  the  particles  of 
kaolin,  gives  the  ware  its  translucency,  It  is  burnt  in  saggars,  like 
pottery,  forming  what  is  called  biscuit ;  which  is  coated  with  paste 
of  feldspar,  and  then  burnt  anew,  to  glaze  it. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Metallifactures,  we  include  the  manufac- 
ture of  hardware,  brassware  and  jewelry :  reserving,  however,  that 
of  watches,  for  the  following  section.  By  hardware,  is  usually 
meant  that  made  of  iron  or  steel ;  as  kettles,  and  similar  vessels,  of 
cast  iron :  but  knives,  forks,  scissors,  and  the  like,  made  of  steel, 
are  collectively  termed  cutlery.  The  former  class,  are  made  of  cast 
iron,  by  the  process  of  melting  and  founding:  but  the  latter  are 
shaped  from  bars  of  steel,  by  forging  or  hammering,  either  on  a  plain 
anvil,  or  on  a  block  so  shaped  as  to  form  a  pattern.  They  are  then 
hardened,  by  plunging  them,  when  red  hot,  into  cool  water  or  oil ; 
and  afterwards  tempered,  by  heating  them  anew  to  about  500°  Fah., 
by  which  they  are  rendered  less  brittle.  Lastly,  they  are  polished, 


FURNITURE.  479 

on  wheels  coated  with  finely  powdered  emery ;  and  then  properly 
set  or  mounted. 

Lamps,  are  often  made  of  brass  or  bronze;  as  the  astral  lamps; 
which  are  covered  with  a  spreading  glass  shade,  and  have  the  oil 
contained  in  a  hollow  ring,  with  tubes  leading  to  the  cylinder  and 
wick,  so  that  there  is  no  large  reservoir  to  obstruct  the  light  on  the 
table.  They  are  usually  rfrgand  lamps,  having  cylindrical  wicks, 
witli  a  supply  of  air  rising  through  the  centre :  and  the  draught  is 
farther  promoted  by  a  glass  chimney  around  the  flame.  The  brass, 
or  bronze,  is  cast,  in  parts  which  may  be  soldered  together ;  and  the 
gilding  may  be  performed  by  coating  the  polished  metal  with  an 
amalgam  of  gold,  which  is  then  heated  to  drive  off  the  mercury. 
Gilding  on  wood,  as  for  the  frames  of  mirrors,  is  performed  by 
applying  gold  leaf  to  a  smooth  surface  covered  with  whiting,  and 
size,  or  glue ;  and  afterwards  burnishing  it,  with  smooth  iron  or 
steel.  Gold  and  silver  plate,  as  spoons,"  cups,  and  the  like,  are 
chiefly  made  by  hammering;  as  also  the  minor  articles  of  jewelry, 
of  which  we  have  no  farther  room  to  speak. 

§  3.  Of  Horology,  and  musical  instruments,  our  notice  must  be 
very  brief.  The  motion  of  clocks,  is  produced  by  means  of  weights; 
and  that  of  watches  and  chronometers,  by  means  of  the  main  spring; 
the  pendulum  in  the  former,  and  the  hair  spring  in  the  latter,  serving 
merely  to  regulate  and  retard  the  motion,  by  distributing  it  through  a 
longer  time.  In  common  clocks,  the  pendulum,  in  connection  with 
the  scapement,  acts  upon  the  scape  wheel,  which  rotates  once  in  a 
minute ;  and,  by  means  of  wheels  and  pinions,  this  wheel  governs 
the  motion  of  the  hands.  In  ivatches,  the  hair  spring  acts  on  the 
balance  wheel,  which  performs  the  same  office  as  the  scapement  in 
clocks.  In  the  remaining  parts  of  the  machinery,  clocks  and  watches 
are  very  much  alike  ;  except  in  regard  to  the  striking  part  of  clocks, 
a  description  of  which  would  transcend  our  present  limits.  Chrono- 
meters, differ  from  watches,  chiefly  in  being  larger,  with  contrivances 
for  keeping  time  more  accurately. 

Musical  instruments,  are  usually  classed  as  either  stringed,  or 
wind  instruments ;  and  the  latter  are  blown  either  by  the  mouth,  or 
by  machinery.  The  violin,  or  fiddle ;  the  viol,  or  tenor ;  the  vio- 
loncello, or  bass ;  and  the  violono,  or  double  bass,  are  all  played 
with  a  bow ;  and  are  made  of  thin  plates  of  wood,  moulded  by  pres- 
sure. Similar  to  these,  are  the  lute,  and  guitar,  which  are  played 
with  the  fingers.  The  lyre,  and  harp,  are  also  played  with  the 
fingers ;  but  the  lyre  has  a  body,  and  the  harp  only  a  frame ;  with 
strings  of  animal  membrane.  The  piano,  has  wires  for  strings ; 
with  keys,  acting  on  levers,  and  so  arranged  that  the  fingers  striking 
the  keys,  cause  the  wires  to  be  struck  and  sounded.  Of  mouth  and 
fingered  instruments,  the  flute,  clarionet,  and  bassoon,  are  made  of 
wood,  turned  in  a  lathe  ;  but  the  trumpet,  bugle,  and  horn,  are  made 
of  brass  or  silver.  The  organ,  the  grandest  of  musical  instruments, 
is  an  assemblage  of  pipes,  opened  or  closed  by  the  action  of  the 
keys,  and  receiving  air  from  the  wind  chest,  so  as  to  sound  when 
opened.  Pulsatile  instruments,  are  formed  like  the  drum,  and  tarn- 


480  CHREOTECHNICS. 

bourine,  of  tightly  strained  discs  of  animal  membrane;  or,  like  bells, 
and  cymbals,  of  sonorous  metal. 

§  4.  Cabinet,  and  carriage  work,  are  similar  in  their  operations, 
and  hence  are  here  associated.  A  cabinet,  in  its  original  sense,  is  a 
large  bureau,  or  chest  of  drawers  :  and  cabinet  work  includes  the 
making  of  wardrobes,  sideboards,  sofas,  tables,  chairs,  and  other 
similar  articles.  It  consists  chiefly  of  joinery  ;  and  the  frames,  made 
of  common  wood,  are  often  veneered,  or  overlaid  with  thin  leaves  of 
mahogany,  or  other  rare  wood,  fastened  with  glue,  and  then  polished 
and  varnished.  Cabinet  work  is  sometimes  associated  with  uphol- 
stery, or  the  preparation  of  bedding,  curtains,  carpeting  and  similar 
articles ;  the  materials  of  which  belong  to  the  branch  of  Vestiture. 
These  arts  acquire  increased  importance  from  the  principles  of  taste 
on  which  their  successful  practice  depends. 

Among  the  different  forms  of  Carriages,  the  coach  is  entirely 
covered,  and  has  two  or  more  seats,  for  two  or  more  persons  each, 
facing  the  centre.  The  barouche,  has  a  folding,  or  chaise  top ;  but 
with  two  similar  seats.  The  chariot,  and  post  coach,  have  only  one 
seat,  for  two  or  more  persons,  inside ;  but,  like  the  preceding,  are 
drawn  by  two  or  more  horses.  The  phxton,  resembles  a  chaise 
body  set  on  four  wheels  :  the  dearborn,  or  carryall,  has  two  seats, 
with  flat  top,  and  curtains ;  and  the  York  waggon  has  a  single  seat, 
without  a  top  ;  but  they  all  have  four  wheels.  The  curricle,  is  a 
two  horse  chaise:  the  gig  differs  from  the  common  chaise,  in  having 
no  top  ;  and  the  tilbury,  or  buggy,  is  a  lighter  kind  of  gig.  The 
sulky,  has  also  two  wheels,  but  contains  a  seat  for  only  one  person. 
The  cutter  is  a  lighter  kind  of  sleigh,  for  winter  use ;  moving  on 
runners. — Of  the  manufacture  of  saddles,  harnesses,  trunks  and  like 
articles,  made  chiefly  of  leather,  we  can  here  take  no  farther  notice. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COMMERCE. 

IN  the  branch  of  Commerce,  we  include  the  exchange  of  commo- 
dities, of  every  kind;  with  the  principles  and  considerations  by 
which  such  exchange  is  regulated.  The  name  is  derived  from  the 
Latin,  commercium,  having  the  same  signification ;  and  it  is  synony- 
mous with  trade,  or  traffic  ;  comprehending  the  whole  profession  of 
the  merchant.  It  has  close  relations  with  Political  Economy,  par- 
ticularly on  account  of  its  connection  with  banks  and  currency,  as 
supplying  the  medium  of  exchange:  but  we  consider  it  as  still  more 
closely  related  to  the  productive  arts,  of  which  we  are  here  treating. 
This  art  requires  an  extensive  knowledge  of  both  artificial,  and 
natural  products,  in  order  to  be  able  to  judge  of  their  quality,  and  to 
estimate  their  value.  Indeed,  there  is  no  profession  in  which  we 
think  extensive  and  varied  knowledge  can  be  more  useful  than  to  the 
merchant,  who  deals  in  all  kinds  of  commodities,  and  with  all  classes 
of  men.  This  profession  has  done  much  to  foster  the  arts ;  and  by 


COMMERCE.  481 

bringing  the  nations  acquainted  with  each  other,  it  has  greatly 
promoted  the  advancement  of  knowledge,  and  the  civilization  of  our 
race. 

Commerce  must  have  originated  as  soon  as  men  had  a  superfluity 
of  any  commodities,  and  voluntarily  exchanged  them  for  others. 
Thus,  we  read  of  the  Ishmaelites  carrying  spices,  balm,  and  myrrh, 
from  Gilead  to  Egypt,  as  early  as  1729  B.  C. ;  and  the  transporta- 
tion of  goods  by  caravans,  was  doubtless  still  more  ancient ;  the 
merchant  accompanying  his  goods,  to  protect  them.  The  Phoeni- 
cians, having  great  facilities  for  navigation,  and  much  skill  in  that 
art,  became  the  first  great  commercial  nation  ;  and  so  continued,  till 
the  conquest  of  Tyre,  by  Alexander,  332  B.  C.  The  use  of  gold 
and  silver,  as  a  circulating  medium,  was  of  great  antiquity  :  but  these 
metals  were  first  coined  into  money,  by  Phidon,  king  of  Argos,  about 
870  B.  C.  Greece  was  never  a  commercial  nation  ;  but  Rome 
acquired  an  extensive  commerce,  by  rendering  the  conquered  nations 
tributary  to  its  wants;  till  the  removal  of  the  empire  to  Constantinople 
made  that  city  the  great  emporium  of  the  civilized  world. 

In  the  dark  ages,  Commerce  declined;  owing  partly  to  the  defi- 
ciency of  productions,  and  partly  to  the  insecurity  of  property. 
This  latter  circumstance  gave  rise  to  the  famous  Hanseatic  League, 
of  cities  confederated  for  mutual  protection.  This  league,  in  the 
year  1200,  comprised  no  fewer  than  72  cities,  in  Germany,  Denmark, 
England,  Holland,  France,  Spain,  Portugal,  and  Italy  :  and  it  contri- 
buted much  to  the  revival  of  trade.  At  that  period,  Venice  and  Genoa 
were  the  chief  trading  states  ;  and  they  carried  on  the  overland  com- 
merce with  the  Indies,  until  the  discovery  of  the  southern  passage  to 
those  regions,  in  1498.  This  event  gave  that  trade  chiefly  to  the 
Portuguese  :  but  it  was  wrested  from  them  by  the  Spanish,  French, 
and  English  ;  and  secured  chiefly  to  the  latter  by  their  conquests  in 
Hindoostan.  The  commerce  of  England  has  grown  with  her  manu- 
factures and  naval  triumphs  ;  chiefly  since  the  days  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth. That  of  the  United  States  has  also  increased  with  great  rapi- 
dity ;  and  now  extends  to  every  habitable  and  accessible  region  of 
the  globe. 

We  shall  offer  some  farther  remarks  on  this  branch,  under  the 
heads  of  Principles  of  Commerce ;  Sources  of  Commerce ;  Cam- 
bistry, including  weights  and  measures  ;  and  Book-keeping. 

§  1 .  The  Principles  of  Commerce,  are  the  data  which  should 
govern  the  merchant,  in  the  management  of  his  business.  His  first 
great  object,  after  making  business  arrangements,  would  seem  to  be, 
to  discover  what  line  of  trade,  or  what  class  of  articles,  would  afford 
him  the  greatest  profit ;  having  reference  to  the  comparative  safety, 
as  well  as  the  nominal  proceeds  of  his  investments.  His  next  step 
would  be  to  ascertain  where  the  articles  sought  can  be  procured  the 
cheapest,  and  where  they  will  bring  the  highest  price.  Or,  having  a 
certain  article  in  his  possession,  the  problem  may  be  to  find  where  it 
can  be  disposed  of  to  the  greatest  advantage,  receiving  any  saleable 
articles  in  exchange.  The  article  transported,  is  generally  worth 
more  in  the  place  where  it  is  sold,  than  the  merchant  receives  in  re- 
turn ; — as  few  purchases  are  made  except  for  the  sake  of  gain  ; — and 
61  2S 


482  CHREOTECHNICS. 

yet  the  merchant  receives  that  which  is  worth  more  to  him  than  the 
goods  sold ;  thereby  showing  how  Commerce  may  be  regarded  as 
one  of  the  productive  arts. 

An  important  topic,  for  the  merchant,  is  the  use  and  abuse  ot 
credit.  By  selling  goods  on  credit,  he  may  make  greater  sales,  and 
at  higher  prices :  but,  without  security  from  some  trustworthy  per- 
son, that  payment  shall  be  made,  he  may  in  the  end  lose  all  his 
profits,  and  his  goods  likewise.  The  asking,  and  giving  of  security, 
is  a  delicate  matter :  but  we  hold  that  no  person  should  ever  become 
bondsman  for  another,  to  such  an  extent  as  would  ruin  or  severely 
distress  him,  if  the  principal  debtor  should  fail ;  neither  should  the 
merchant  ever  risk  his  goods,  without  security,  to  such  an  extent  as 
would  ruin  or  greatly  distress  him,  if  payment  should  never  be  made. 
With  these  restrictions,  the  credit  system  may,  we  think,  to  a  certain 
extent,  be  beneficial  to  all  the  parties  concerned.  But  we  would  in- 
sist, that  no  one  risk  should  be  run,  nor  combination  of  risks,  either 
in  the  way  of  credit  or  speculation,  so  great  as  would  cause  ruin  or 
failure  of  obligations,  should  the  risk  be  unsuccessful.  Against  ship- 
wreck and  fire,  security  may  be  obtained  by  means  of  insurance  : 
and  where  the  risk  involves  a  large  proportion  of  our  capital,  this 
security  should  never  be  neglected. 

§  2.  The  Sources  of  Commerce,  are  to  be  found  in  the  numerous 
articles  of  natural  or  artificial  production,  which  have  an  exchange- 
able value  among  mankind.  Many  of  these  articles,  require  parti- 
cular care  and  skill  for  their  preservation ;  as  well  as  a  knowledge 
of  their  quality  and  relative  value  :  but  these  are  subjects  which 
transcend  our  present  limits.  We  have  barely  room  to  enumerate  a 
few  of  the  most  important  articles  of  commerce ;  naming  the  coun- 
tries where  they  are  mostly  obtained,  and  those  where  they  are  in 
greatest  demand.  Cotton,  is  raised  chiefly  in  the  southern  United 
States,  and  in  India  and  Egypt.  It  is  carried  chiefly  to  Great  Bri- 
tain, France,  and  the  northern  United  States,  where  it  is  manufac- 
tured into  thread  and  cloth  ;  partly  for  home  consumption,  and  partly 
for  exportation  to  all  other  parts  of  the  world.  Wool,  is  exten- 
sively grown  and  manufactured  in  Great  Britain,  Germany,  and  the 
northern  United  States :  silk,  is  chiefly  produced  in  China,  southern 
Asia,  and  southern  Europe ;  and  linen,  is  chiefly  produced  in  central 
Europe,  Russia,  Holland,  and  Ireland. 

Of  breadstuff's,  wheat,  is  carried  from  our  Western  States  to  the 
Atlantic  cities  ;  and  flour  is  exported  to  Europe  and  South  America. 
Great  Britain  receives  flour,  from  Russia,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States ;  and  rice,  from  the  latter  country,  and  the  East  Indies.  Beef, 
and  pork  are  exported  from  our  central  and  western  States  to  the 
West  Indies  and  South  America.  Sugar,  is  exported  to  Europe 
chiefly  from  the  West  and  East  Indies  ;  and  refined  sugar  is  exported 
to  various  parts,  from  the  United  States.  France  and  Germany 
supply  themselves,  to  a  great  extent,  with  sugar  from  the  beet ;  and 
those  countries,  together  with  Portugal  and  Italy,  furnish  the  chief 
supplies  of  wine,  to  the  rest  of  the  world.  Tea,  is  produced  almost 
solely  in  China ;  but  coffee  is  raised  in  the  West  Indies,  Brazil, 
Arabia,  and  the  East  India  Islands.  These  commodities,  and 


COMMERCE.  483 

the  spices  of  the  East  and  West  Indies,  are  distributed  among  all  the 
civilized  nations.  The  greatest  produce  of  tobacco,  is  from  Virginia, 
and  the  other  Southern  States  of  our  Union. 

Of  manufactures,  besides  cloths,  already  referred  to ;  iron,  is 
chiefly  made  in  Great  Britain,  Sweden,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States ;  and  in  Great  Britain  it  is  most  extensively  wrought  into 
hardware  and  cutlery.  Copper,  is  chiefly  produced  in  Sweden, 
Germany,  and  Great  Britain ;  tin,  comes  from  Cornwall  in  Great 
Britain,  and  Banca  in  the  East  Indies,  as  also  from  Germany ;  and 
lead,  is  produced  in  England,  and  Germany ;  but  abounds  in  the 
western  United  States.  Gold,  and  silver,  are  obtained  from  South 
America,  Mexico,  and  Russia:  silver  also  from  Germany;  and  gold 
from  the  coasts  of  Africa  and  the  East  Indies,  and  from  the  southern 
United  States.  Salt,  is  mined  in  Poland,  and  manufactured  in  the 
West  Indies  ;  as  also,  both  from  sea  water,  and  salt  springs,  in  our 
own  country.  Coal,  is  mined  most  abundantly,  in  Great  Britain, 
and  the  states  of  Pennsylvania,  and  Virginia. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Cambistry,  we  include  the  subjects  of  ex- 
change, coins,  and-currency,  to  which  the  term  is  strictly  applicable  ; 
and  the  kindred  subjects  of  commercial  weights  and  measures. 
Money,  like  other  commodities,  has  its  fluctuations  of  value,  depend- 
ing on  its  relative  abundance  or  scarcity.  A  silver  dollar,  at  the 
present  day,  is  worth  far  less  than  it  was  one  or  two  centuries  ago ; 
that  is,  it  will  purchase  a  smaller  amount  of  commodities,  except 
such  as  have  also  become  cheaper,  owing  to  new  supplies,  or  new 
inventions.  The  currency  of  Great  Britain,  is  reckoned  in  pounds 
sterling,  (marked  £,  ;)  which  are  subdivided  into  shillings,  pence, 
and  farthings.  A  pound  sterling  is  at  present  worth  about  $4*87 ; 
but  a  person  would  be  obliged  to  pay  about  $5-00  in  New  York  for 
a  drauft,  or  bill  of  exchange,  on  London,  which  would  entitle  him 
to  receive  one  pound  sterling  from  the  London  banker  on  whom  it 
was  drawn ;  the  difference,  or  rate  of  exchange,  varying  with  cir- 
cumstances. 

The  English  sovereign,  is  a  gold  coin  worth  just  one  pound,  or 
$4-87  :  the  guinea  is  worth  $5-11 ;  the  crown,  a  silver  coin,  is  worth 
about  $1-10;  and  the  shilling,  about  22  cents.  The  Russian  or 
German  ducat,  is  worth  $2-30;  the  gold  ducat  of  Venice  $1-45; 
and  the  silver  ducat  of  Venice  or  Naples,  about  78  cents.  The 
French  crown,  (ecu,)  is  worth  $1-07;  the  Austrian,  96  cents;  and 
the  Sardinian,  87  cents.  The  French  Jive  fran c  piece,  is  worth  93 
cents  ;  and  the  old  Louis  d'or,  or  gold  Louis,  $4-58.  The  German 
florin,  of  gold,  is  worth  $2-02  ;  that  of  silver,  30  cents ;  and  the 
Dutch  florin,  40  cents.  The  Italian  zecchin,  is  worth  about  $2-30 ; 
and  the  Venetian  pistole,  $3-88.  The  old  Spanish  doubloon,  of 
8  crowns,  is  worth  $15-57;  that  of  4  crowns,  $7-78  ;  and  that  of 
2  crowns,  $3-88.  The  Spanish  real  of  2,  or  peseta,  is  worth  20  cents ; 
and  the  piastre,  $1-00.  The  Turkish  piastre,  of  40  paras,  is  worth 
37  cents;  the  zecchin,  $1-35;  and  the  rouble,  9  cents;  but  the 
Russian  rouble,  is  worth  85  cents.  The  gold  rupee,  of  Hindoostan 
and  Persia,  is  worth,  $7-10;  the  silver  rupee,  about  45  cents  ;  and 
the  Madras  gold  pagoda,  $1-84. 


484  CHREOTECHNICS. 

Cloth  is  measured  by  its  length,  that  is,  by  linear  measure  ;  its 
breadth  being  easily  known.  Expressing  linear  measures  in  feet  and 
decimals,  the  English  yard  is  equal  to  3-000;  the  English  ell,  3-75; 
the  French  ell,  3-861  ;  the  Amsterdam  ell,  2-223  ;  the  Venice  ell, 
2-089  ;  and  the  Vienna  ell,  2-557  feet.  Grain  is  measured,  in  Eng- 
land and  the  United  States,  by  the  bushel ;  which  contains  2218^ 
cubic  inches;  and  is  sub-divided  into  eight  gallons,  or  4  pecks.  The 
gallon,  thus  determined,  is  also  used  for  measuring  liquids ;  and  is 
subdivided  into  4  quarts,  8  pints,  or  32  gills.  Commodities  not 
easily  measured,  are  sold  by  weight ;  the  pound  being  the  standard 
unit.  The  pound  Troy  contains  5760  grains,  divided  into  12  ounces; 
and  is  used  by  druggists  and  jewellers  ;  but  the  pound  Avoirdupois, 
more  generally  used,  contains  7000  grains,  divided  into  16  ounces; 
the  grain  being  our  smallest  unit  of  measure. 

§  4.  Book-keeping,  is  the  art  of  keeping  accounts  ;  so  as  to  show 
the  purchases  and  sales,  debts  and  dues,  and  the  state  of  the  cash, 
stock,  and  other  pecuniary  affairs,  of  the  person  or  party  concerned. 
The  simplest  mode  of  Book-keeping,  is  that  by  single  entry  ;  in  which 
we  devote  a  page  of  the  Account  Book  to  each  individual  with  whom 
we  have  an  account ;  placing  his  name  at  the  top,  and  charging  him 
in  one  column,  headed  Debtor,  (Dr.)  with  all  articles  delivered  to  him  ; 
while  in  the  other  column  headed  Creditor,  (Cr.)  we  give  him  credit 
for  all  money  or  other  articles  received  from  him.  The  accounts 
may  be  at  first  roughly  entered  in  the  Waste  Book,  miscellaneously 
as  they  occur  ;  and  afterwards  neatly  copied  into  the  Account  Book ; 
this  latter  process  being  called  posting  the  accounts. 

The  method  of  Book-keeping  by  double  entry,  sometimes  called 
the  Italian  method,  consists  essentially  in  making  two  entries  of  every 
transaction,  in  different  books,  and  in  different  forms  ;  so  that  the 
one  may  check  the  other,  to  aid  in  detecting  errors.  Thus,  the  Ac- 
count Book,  may  show  our  account  with  different  individuals,  as  in 
the  preceding  method  ;  while  the  Ledger,  shows  our  dealings  in  dif- 
erent  articles,  considered  separately ;  each  article  being  made  debtor 
to  him  from  whom  it  was  received,  and  creditor  against  him  to  whom 
it  was  sold.  The  Cash  Book,  may  in  like  manner  show  all  our  re- 
ceipts and  payments  of  money:  and  the  Journal,  or  Day  Book,  may 
be  made  debtor,  in  one  column,  to  all  receipts  whatever;  and  creditor, 
in  another  column,  to  all  deliveries,  or  payments  made  each  day. 
From  all  these  books,  the  balance  sheet  may  be  formed ;  exhibiting 
the  amount  of  our  transactions,  and  the  state  of  our  affairs.  Various 
other  books,  and  forms,  are  used  in  Book-keeping ;  which  we  have 
no  room  here  to  notice. 


XV.  DEPARTMENT: 

MACHETECHNICS. 


IN  the  department  of  Machetechnics,  we  include  the  Arts  of  War ; 
or  the  management  of  belligerent  operations,  both  by  land  and  by 
sea.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  ^xn->  a  battle,  or  engage- 
ment ;  and  T1*;^,  an  art :  this  being  the  most  appropriate  term  that 
we  can  propose ;  having  regard  to  brevity,  euphony,  and  symmetry 
of  the  nomenclature.  War  is  often  termed  a  science ;  and,  indeed, 
it  involves  many  scientific  principles,  some  of  which  are  peculiar  to 
itself.  But  it  is  also  termed  an  art :  and  as  its  essence  consists  in 
action,  we  regard  it  as  still  more  closely  connected  with  the  arts, 
than  with  the  sciences  ;  and  have  located  it  accordingly.  It  depends 
especially  on  Mathematics,  Mechanics,  Chemistry,  and  the  Arts  of 
Construction  ;  requiring  also,  in  the  field,  a  practical  knowledge  of 
the  Geography  or  Topography  of  the  region  which  is  the  seat  of  war- 
like operations.  A  military,  or  naval  officer,  therefore,  should  have  an 
extensive  and  liberal  education ;  and  should  possess  an  active,  inven- 
tive mind,  with  a  strong  physical  constitution. 

The  Art  of  War,  has  occupied  so  prominent  a  place,  in  the  records 
of  the  past,  that  a  general  acquaintance  with  its  operations  may  be 
deemed  essential  to  the  understanding  of  History ;  whether  we  re- 
gard the  facts  alone,  or  their  causes  and  consequences.  The  fate  of 
nations,  and  the  civilization  of  the  world,  have  more  than  once  hung 
upon  the  result  of  a  siege,  or  a  battle  ;  in  which,  the  fall  of  a  com- 
mander, or  even  of  the  horse  which  bore  him,  might  turn  the  scale 
of  victory.  Such  contingencies  should  remind  us  that  the  battle  is 
not  always  for  the  strong ;  though  they  afford  no  argument  against 
the  advantage  of  strength  devoted  to  a  good  cause.  But,  if  such  be 
the  influence  of  an  able  commander,  so  far  as  human  agency  is  con- 
cerned ;  the  art  and  science,  aside  from  the  energy  and  courage,  by 
which  that  influence  is  maintained,  are  surely  worthy  of  being  studied, 
by  the  statesman  and  philosopher. 

Much  has  been  written  on  the  use,  and  the  abuse  of  the  Arts  of 
War.  We  think  that  they  have  done  much  good,  as  well  as  harm, 
in  the  world  ;  the  evil  passions  of  men  having  been  made  subservient 
by  their  means,  to  higher  and  divine  purposes.  Thus,  the  Arabian 
conquests  in  Spain,  brought  the  oriental  arts  and  sciences  into  Eu- 
rope ;  and  the  British  empire  in  India,  however  wrongfully  obtained, 
will,  we  trust,  be  the  means  of  rescuing  that  wide  region  from  the 
most  abject  thraldom  of  superstition  and  vice.  Often,  too,  have  de- 
fensive wars  been  the  safeguards  of  nations  ;  protecting  their  liberty, 
or  even  their  existence,  from  barbarous  or  ambitious  foes.  Such 

2  s  2  485 


486  MACHETECHNICS. 

wars  preserved  Europe  from  the  grasp  of  the  Saracens  ;  and  secured 
to  our  own  fair  country  the  blessings  of  civil  and  religious  freedom. 
For  such  sacred  purposes,  and  such  only,  do  we  think  that  these  arts 
should  be  practically  studied ;  till  the  time  shall  come,  when  the 
sword  may  safely  be  beaten  into  the  ploughshare,  and  the  spear  into 
the  pruning  hook,  in  token  of  final,  universal  peace. 

Although  war  is  one  of  the  greatest  evils  that  can  befall  a  nation, 
whether  through  its  own  fault,  or  the  fault  of  another,  still  it  is  one 
for  which  we  ought  to  be  prepared  ;  even  as  we  would  prepare  to 
defend  ourselves  against  personal  violence,  in  a  land  where  no  laws 
could  protect  us.  Nations,  as  well  as  individuals,  may  do  wrong : 
but  where  is  the  authority  to  arrest  them,  or  the  court  to  give  sen- 
tence ?  They  may  enter  innocent  lands,  with  fire  and  sword,  ravag- 
ing and  plundering;  but  who  will  shield  the  injured  party,  if  it  make 
no  effort  in  its  own  defence  ?  The  hand  of  Omnipotence,  will  it  be 
said  ?  No :  the  Deity  works  by  means  ;  and  requires  us  to  use  the 
necessary  means  for  self-preservation.  Would  the  advocate  of  un- 
conditional peace  consent  to  abolish  all  law  in  the  land,  and  let  the 
robber  and  murderer  go  free  ?  Or  would  he  offer  no  resistance  to  a 
personal  attack ;  especially  if  there  were  no  laws  to  redress  him  ? 
Such,  however,  must  be  his  conduct,  in  order  to  be  consistent  with 
his  principles. 

Doubtless  it  is  our  duty  to  avoid  war,  as  far  as  lies  within  our 
power,  by  giving  no  cause  for  just  complaint,  on  the  part  of  other 
nations.  The  great  apostle  of  our  Saviour  says,  "  If  it  be  possible, 
as  much  as  lieth  in  you,  live  peaceably  with  all  men."  But  this 
doctrine  is  evidently  different  from  that  of  unconditional  submission; 
inasmuch  as  it  implies  that  there  may  be  cases  where  we  cannot  thus 
live  peaceably,  except  by  bowing  our  necks  to  oppression.  How 
far  we  ought  to  suffer  wrong,  before  taking  arms  in  offensive  war, — 
how  great  should  be  the  provocation  to  justify  the  first  step, — it  is 
not  for  us  to  decide :  but  to  defend  ourselves,  when  assaulted,  is 
manifestly  a  necessary  right,  however  painful  may  be  its  exercise. 
While,  therefore,  we  rejoice  that  the  more  just  and  humane  policy 
of  nations  is  removing  many  of  the  causes  of  war,  we  still  think  it  a 
duty  to  be  always  prepared  to  resist  aggression,  as  the  surest  way  to 
prevent  its  being  attempted.  The  project  of  a  Congress  of  nations, 
to  settle  international  difficulties,  is  a  noble  one ;  and  it  would  be 
worthy  of  our  own  Congress  to  propose  the  subject  to  the  leading 
foreign  states.  But  we  have  doubts  of  its  practicability  ;  and  espe- 
cially of  the  potency  of  such  a  Congress,  however  wisely  constituted, 
to  secure  universal  peace ;  and  hence  we  would  still  adopt  the  pre- 
cept of  our  immortal  Washington  ;  "  In  peace,  prepare  for  war." 

War  has  been  defined,  "  the  act  of  compelling  an  opponent  to 
submit  to  one's  will :"  but  it  might  with  equal  propriety  be  styled 
the  means  of  self-redress,  and  self-defence.  Armies,  fortifications, 
and  fleets,  are  the  great  instruments  of  warfare :  battles  are  the  occa- 
sions, and  blood  the  price  of  victory.  Armies  require  provisions  and 
weapons,  organization  and  instruction,  and  brave  men  and  skilful 
commanders,  to  give  them  a  full  chance  of  success  :  and  should  they 
be  too  feeble  to  cope  with  the  enemy,  or  unsuccessful  in  the  onset, 


HOPLISTICS.  487 

they  require  fortifications  to  strengthen  them,  and,  at  the  expense  of 
being  kept  stationary,  to  enable  them  to  withstand  the  foe.  Fleets 
require  all  these  accessories ;  their  own  good  ships  besides  :  and,  still 
more  than  armies,  they  are  dependent  upon  wind  and  weather ;  which 
sometimes  prove  their  most  dangerous  antagonists.  In  estimating 
the  probable  results  of  warlike  operations,  great  allowance  must  be 
made  for  the  various  casualties  to  which  they  are  exposed.  This 
difference  has  been  happily  expressed  by  an  able  writer  on  this  sub- 
ject, who  calls  it  the  "friction  of  war;"  a  deduction  analogous  to 
that  which  must  be  made  from  mechanical  forces,  in  allowing  for  the 
friction  of  machinery. 

The  Arts  of  War  are  mostly  of  very  ancient  origin  ;  as  shown  by 
the  Jewish  Scriptures,  and  Egyptian  Monuments ;  which  contain 
numerous  records  and  representations  of  battles  and  sieges.  The 
weapons  of  the  early  ages,  were  of  the  most  simple  kind  ;  to  which 
their  rude  tactics  and  fortifications  corresponded :  but  in  the  days  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans,  these  arts  had  made  considerable  progress ; 
and,  accordingly,  they  invented  weapons  more  complicated  and  pow- 
erful, which  occupied  the  place  of  our  modern  artillery,  in  naval  as 
well  as  in  agral  warfare.  The  greatest  change  that  the  arts  of  war 
have  ever  undergone,  is  that  resulting  from  the  invention  and 
general  introduction  of  fire  arms  ;  by  whose  unseen  force  the  bravest 
general,  or  the  strongest  soldier,  is  alike  exposed  with  the  feeble  and 
the  pusillanimous.  This  invention  has  enabled  intellectual  skill  and 
science  to  resist  more  effectually  the  impetus  of  mere  physical 
force  ;  though  such  force  is  still  essential  to  the  labors  and  fatigues 
of  war.  The  changes  hence  introduced  in  the  different  branches  of 
the  military  art,  will  be  farther  explained  in  the  following  chapters. 

We  proceed  to  give  some  general  ideas  of  Machetechnics,  under 
the  branches  of  Hoplistics  ;  Fortification ;  Geotactics ;  Strategy,  or 
Grand  Tactics  ;  and  Navitactics,  or  Naval  Warfare. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HOPLISTICS. 

WE  propose  the  name  Hoplistics  for  that  branch  of  the  Arts  of 
War,  which  relates  to  the  arms,  ammunition,  equipage,  and  provi- 
sions, required  for  military  operations.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek, 
ortju^w,  I  arm,  equip,  or  provide ;  and  this  from  o^xa,  arms  or  wea- 
pons.* In  this  branch,  we  would  include  the  duties  of  the  Ordnance 
Corps,  in  our  own  service  ;  or  the  construction  and  repairs  of  arms, 
and  the  preparation  of  ammunition ;  in  armories  and  arsenals,  as  well 
as  in  the  field.  Here  also  we  would  describe  the  duties  of  the  Quar- 
ter Master's  Department,  in  procuring,  preserving,  and  distributing 
equipage  and  ammunition ;  and  those  of  the  Commissariat,  or  Pur- 
chasing and  Subsistence  Departments,  in  furnishing  clothing  and 

*  Ampere  adopts  the  term  Hoplismatics,  (Hoplismatique)  ;  which  he  makes  to 
include  both  Hoplistics,  as  above  defined,  and  Tactics,  in  all  its  divisions. 


488  MACHETECHNICS. 

provisions ;  including  forage,  or  grass,  hay,  and  provender,  for 
horses.  The  arrangements  of  the  Medical  Department,  so  far  as 
relates  to  fixtures  and  supplies,  may  also  be  referred  to  this  branch : 
and  the  importance  of  these  subjects,  collectively,  will  doubtless 
merit  for  them  a  distinct  place,  among  the  branches  of  Machetechnics. 

The  first  weapons  used  by  mankind,  for  offence  or  defence,  were 
probably  the  simple  club,  and  the  stone  ;  which  latter  soon  acquired 
new  force,  by  being  hurled  from  the  sling.  Next  to  these,  in  anti- 
quity, appear  to  have  been  the  sword,  of  which  the  first  mention  is 
found  in  the  paternal  prediction  to  Esau,  (Gen.  xxvii.  40);  the  bow 
and  arrows,  first  alluded  to  in  Jacob's  prediction  concerning  Joseph, 
(Gen.  xlix.  23-4) ;  the  spear,  first  referred  to  in  the  Lord's  direction 
to  Joshua,  (Josh.  viii.  18) ;  and  the  dart  or  javelin,  used  for  hurling 
at  the  foe ;  of  which  the  earliest  mention  is  found  in  the  record  of 
Absalom's  death,  (2  Sam.  xviii.  14) ;  though  it  was  used  at  a  much 
earlier  period.  Battle  axes,  and  scythes,  were  also  used  offensively 
by  the  Persians ;  the  latter  being  sometimes  attached  to  the  axles 
of  their  chariots,  projecting  on  each  side.  In  place  of  artillery,  the 
Greeks  and  Romans  used  the  catapult,  resembling  a  large  crossbow, 
for  throwing  arrows  ;  and  the  balista,  or  onager,  consisting  of  one 
or  more  levers,  impelled  by  twisted  ropes,  for  hurling  stones  ;  spme- 
times  in  battles,  but  chiefly  in  sieges.  The  scorpion,  used  by  the 
Romans,  for  throwing  poisoned  arrows,  appears  to  have  resembled 
the  catapult,  in  its  construction. 

Defensive  arms  were  generally  used,  in  ancient  times,  for  the  im- 
mediate protection  of  the  body.  Of  these,  the  shield  was  the  most 
extensively  used ;  though  of  varied  form  and  construction.  The 
Grecian  shield  was  generally  circular ;  but  the  Roman  buckler  was 
cylindrical,  or  nearly  rectangular.  The  principal  parts  of  a  suit  of 
armor,  were  the  helmet,  or  headpiece,  sometimes  made  of  leather, 
but  oftener  of  iron  or  brass ;  with  or  without  a  visor,  to  cover  the 
face,  excepting  the  eyes :  and  the  breastplate,  for  protecting  the 
breast ;  which,  if  it  covered  the  back  also,  was  called  a  hauberk,  or 
habergeon,  the  same  as  the  modern  cuirass:  or,  in  place  of  these 
last,  a  brigandine,  or  coat  of  mail,  was  sometimes  worn,  extending 
downward  over  the  whole  body.  Besides  these  most  essential  parts, 
there  were  occasionally  worn  vambraces,  for  protecting  the  arms  ; 
gantlets,  for  the  hands  ;  cuisses,  (cnishes),  or  lasses,  for  the  thighs; 
greaves,  for  the  legs  ;  and  shoes,  of  tin  or  iron,  were  sometimes  worn 
upon  the  feet.  Armor  was  sometimes  made  of  small  plates,  overlap- 
ping like  scales,  and  constituting  plate  mail ;  but  sometimes  it  was 
formed  of  small  rings,  linked  together,  and  hence  called  chain  mail. 
The  armor  of  the  middle  ages  continued  nearly  the  same  as  that  of 
the  ancients  :  the  lance  being  the  favorite  weapon  of  the  knights  ; 
and  the  pike  that  of  the  common  soldiers  ;  until  after  the  introduction 
of  fire  arms. 

The  invention  of  gunpowder,  has  been  attributed  by  some  writers 
to  the  Chinese,  and  by  others,  to  Roger  Bacon,  about  the  year  1280 : 
but  the  discovery  of  its  use  in  gunnery,  though  assigned  by  some 
authorities  to  Anelzen,  (Anebren,  or  Antliz),  belongs,  we  think,  to 
Bart  hold  Sclnvartz  of  Mayence,  in  1320 ;  and  is  said  to  have  been 


HOPLISTICS.  489 

occasioned  by  the  accidental  explosion  of  the  materials,  throwing  the 
pestle  out  of  a  common  mortar.  Fire  arms,  appear  to  have  been 
first  used  by  the  Venetians,  in  1330 ;  and  by  the  English  at  the  battle 
of  Cressy,  (Cre$y),  in  1346.  The  first  pieces,  properly  called  cul- 
verins,  or  bombards,  were  so  light  as  to  be  carried  by  hand  ;  and 
most  of  them  were  made  of  bars  of  iron,  or  even  staves  of  wood, 
bound  together  like  casks,  with  iron  hoops.  The  projectiles  were 
of  stone  or  lead,  until  the  year  1400  ;  when  cast  iron  balls  were  first 
used  ;  and  cannon  began  to  be  constructed  of  enormous  size :  some 
of  them  being  upwards  of  20  feet  long ;  and  others  of  more  than  2 
feet  calibre.  It  was  at  length  found  that  cannon  of  moderate  dimen- 
sions were  more  serviceable  ;  such  as  are  now  used. 

The  primitive  culverin,  by  slightly  reducing  its  dimensions,  became 
the  arquebus,  or  harquebuss  ;  a  hand  gun,  which  was  fired  by  a 
match,  while  resting  on  a  staff  thrust  into  the  ground  for  support. 
The  contrivance  of  a  lock,  to  fire  it,  appears  to  have  been  made 
about  the  year  1520,  when  it  took  the  name  of  matchlock  ;  and  this 
weapon,  being  farther  diminished,  about  1630,  became  the  modern 
musket.  The  plug,  or  wooden  handled  bayonet,  was  added  about 
the  year  1647  ;  but  the  socket  bayonet,  which  admits  of  firing  while 
it  is  fixed,  was  not  invented  until  1700,  atBayonne  ;  soon  after  which, 
the  pike  was  entirely  superseded.  The  pistol,  was  invented  at  Pis- 
toiia  in  Italy,  about  the  year  1 570  ;  and  the  carabine,  by  constructing 
it  with  a  spiral  grooved  bore,  became  essentially  the  modern  rifle, 
about  the  year  1720.  The  invention  of  bombs,  or  shells,  is  attributed 
to  Prince  Pandulf  Malatesta,  about  the  year  1450  :  but  large  pieces, 
called  mortars,  were  used  somewhat  earlier,  for  throwing  stones,  or 
heated  balls.  Bombs  were  first  used  in  France,  by  Malthus,  in  1634. 
The  coehorn,  a  small  mortar,  was  invented  about  1670,  by  Coehorn, 
a  Dutch  engineer :  the  howitzer,  appears  to  have  been  invented  in 
Germany,  about  the  year  1690;  and  the  carronade,  a  short  gun,  of 
large  calibre,  was  first  made  at  Carron,  in  Scotland,  in  1774. 

Our  farther  remarks  on  Hoplistics,  will  be  distributed  under  the 
heads  of  Ordnance  ;  Ammunition  ;  and  Equipments. 

§  1.  The  name  Ordnance,  is  applied  to  every  kind  of  cannon,  or 
heavy  fire  arms,  whether  for  land  or  sea  service :  but  the  duties  of 
the  ordnance  department,  at  least  in  our  own  service,  extend  to  the 
inspection  and  preservation  of  small  arms,  and  weapons  of  every 
kind  ;  as  well  as  to  the  preparation  of  ammunition,  treated  of  in  the 
following  section.  The  term  artillery,  is  also  applied  to  heavy  guns; 
but  generally  in  reference  to  the  land  service,  and  including  also  the 
troops  by  which  the  guns  are  manned.  The  principal  parts  of  any 
cannon,  or  piece  of  ordnance,  are  the  knob  and  neck  of  the  cascable, 
at  the  rear  end ;  the  breech  or  base,  and  base  ring,  behind  the  vent ; 
the  first  reinforce,  extending  from  the  vent,  about  one-third  of  the 
length,  to  the  first  reinforce  ring ;  the  second  reinforce,  or  middle 
part,  extending  forward  to  the  second  reinforce  ring ;  the  dolphins, 
or  handles ;  the  trunnions  or  pivots,  on  which  the  piece  rests,  with 
their  rimbases,  strengthening  and  connecting  them  with  the  piece , 
and,  lastly,  the  chase,  or  forward  part,  including  the  astragal  or  ring, 
and  the  tulip,  or  swell,  the  front  surface  of  which  is  called  the  face, 
62 


490  MACHETECHNICS. 

surrounding  the  muzzle  or  mouth.  The  interior  cavity  is  called  the 
bore  ;  the  diameter  of  which  is  the  calibre  of  the  piece. 

A  light  brass  six-pounder,  carrying  iron  balls  of  six  pounds  in 
weight,  has  a  calibre  of  3|  inches;  and  is  usually  made  about  17 
calibres,  or  5  feet  long ;  weighing  about  6  cwt.  Mountain  pieces,  of 
small  calibre,  are  sometimes  made  shorter  in  proportion  ;  and  batter- 
ing pieces,  for  sieges,  are  often  made  longer ;  the  weight,  in  this 
case,  being  no  serious  objection,  and  the  force  of  the  powder  being 
rendered  more  fully  available.  The  limits  of  length,  for  guns,  are 
from  11  to  26  calibres.  A  brass  twenty-four-pounder,  has  a  calibre 
of  5|  inches,  and  is  about  8  feet  long  ;  weighing  about  42  cwt.  A 
twenty-four  pound  carronade,  would  be  about  4£  feet  long ;  and 
weigh  only  13  cwt.  A  brass  howitzer,  of  5f  inch  calibre,  is  nearly 
3  feet  long,  and  weighs  nearly  8  cwt. ;  this  kind  of  cannon  being  used 
for  firing  shells  horizontally  ;  shells  which  explode  like  bombs.  A 
brass  mortar,  of  10  inch  calibre,  is  about  33  inches  long,  and  weighs 
about  10  cwt. :  but  mortars  of  the  same  calibre,  for  sea  service,  are 
made  far  heavier. 

The  best  iron  cannon,  are  cast  entirely  solid,  with  the  muzzle 
upward,  in  a  vertical  mould  formed  in  the  ground :  the  melted  metal, 
from  the  different  furnaces,  flowing  down  a  lateral  passage,  and 
entering  at  the  bottom  of  the  mould  ;  by  which  arrangement  the  slag 
rises  more  completely,  and  the  metal  is  more  pure.  The  interior  is 
then  bored  out,  from  the  solid  mass,  by  means  of  powerful  machinery. 
The  carriage,  for  field  guns,  consists  of  two  flasks,  framed  to  the 
axle  tree,  and  connected  by  transoms,  the  breast  transom  at  the  front 
end  ;  the  pointing  transom  at  the  base  of  the  gun :  and  the  trail 
transom  at  the  rear  end  or  trail  of  the  carriage,  which,  during  the 
firing,  rests  upon  the  ground.*  When  travelling,  the  trail  is  raised 
and  rests  upon  the  limber,  which  resembles  the  forward  wheels, 
axle,  and  tongue  of  a  common  waggon  :  the  gun  then  pointing  to  the 
rear.  Garrison,  and  sea  coast  carriages,  also  consist  of  two  flasks, 
supporting  the  gun  between  them,  resting  upon  its  trunnions  :  but, 
instead  of  wheels,  they  have  small  trucks,  to  allow  of  their  recoil; 
and  they  are  placed  on  a  traversing  platform,  to  admit  of  their  being 
pointed  to  the  right  or  left.  Mortars,  are  supported  on  -a  heavy  bed, 
or  platform,  moveable  only  by  handspikes,  or  mechanical  powers. 
Of  small  arms,  and  their  construction,  it  will  be  unnecessary  here  to 
speak. 

§  2.  The  term  Ammunition,  properly  signifies  the  various  mate- 
rials which  are  used  in  loading  fire  arms  :  but,  in  a  wider  sense,  it 
may  comprehend  various  other  combustibles,  used  in  warfare  ;  the 
preparation  of  all  which  constitutes  the  art  of  Military  Pyrotechny. 
Gunpowder,  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  nitre,  sulphur,  and  charcoal; 
which  owes  its  efficiency  to  the  sulphurous  acid,  carbonic  acid,  and 
other  gases,  which  it  generates  in  exploding.  That  which  is  used 
for  war,  generally  contains  six  parts  by  weight  of  nitre,  to  one  of 
sulphur,  and  one  of  charcoal.  The  purified  and  pulverized  materials, 

*  In  the  more  recent  gun  carriages,  the  flasks,  called  cheeks  are  shortened  ;  and  a 
piece  of  squared  wood,  called  the  stock,  is  inserted  between  them,  the  curved  extre- 
mity of  which  forms  the  trail. 


HOPLISTICS.  491 

are  first  mixed  intimately,  in  a  dry  state ;  then  moistened,  and  ground 
in  the  powdermill ;  then  granulated,  or  shaped  into  grains,  by  being 
passed  through  a  parchment  sieve  ;  next  dried,  by  exposure  to  mode- 
rately heated  air ;  and  finally  glazed,  by  the  rubbing  together  of  the 
grains,  in  a  revolving  barrel  or  cylinder.  Many  precautions,  and  the 
greatest  care,  are  necessary,  in  this  manufacture,  to  avoid  dangerous 
explosions. 

The  name  shot,  is  applied  only  to  solid  balls,  used  in  fire  arms. 
Round  shot,  are  single  balls ;  and  when  attached  to  a  bag,  containing 
a  charge  of  powder,  to  facilitate  the  loading,  they  are  called  car- 
tridges. Case  or  canister  shot,  are  small  balls  enclosed  in  tin  cases, 
but  scattering  when  the  cases  burst :  and  grape  shot,  are  similar 
balls,  placed  around  an  iron  stem,  and  fastened  there  by  a  coat  of 
canvass  and  twine,  resembling  a  bunch  of  grapes.  Shells,  are  hollow 
balls,  filled  with  powder,  and  sometimes  containing  small  missiles ; 
being  intended  to  burst,  as  they  strike,  and  scatter  their  fragments  or 
contents.  The  smaller  shells  are  fired  from  howitzers,  which  are 
mounted  like  guns  :  but  the  larger  shells,  or  bombs,  are  thrown  in 
an  elevated  direction,  from  mortars.  Shells  are  exploded,  by  means 
of  a  fuse,  driven  into  a  hole  on  one  side,  which  must  be  outermost, 
in  loading.  The  fuse  is  ignited,  by  the  firing  of  the  piece ;  and 
burns  gradually,  for  a  time  depending  upon  its  own  length,  before  it 
explodes  the  shell.  A  grenade,  is  a  small  shell,  to  be  thrown  by 
hand ;  and  a  petard,  is  an  iron  cone,  charged  with  powder,  and  de- 
signed to  break  open  a  gate,  by  being  driven  into  it,  and  then  exploded. 
These  articles  are  transported  in  caissons,  or  waggons  of  peculiar 
construction  designed  for  this  service. 

Port  fires,  are  long  tubes,  made  of  paper,  and  compactly  filled 
with  a  mixture  of  nitre,  sulphur,  mealed  powder,  (powder  finely 
ground,)  and  antimony,  or  steel  filings ;  their  chief  use  being  to  fire 
cannons  ;  as  they  will  burn  even  in  moist  places,  or  in  the  rain. 
Slow  match,  for  retaining  fire,  consists  of  hemp  or  cotton  rope, 
soaked  in  a  strong  ley,  which  contains  a  small  portion  of  nitre. 
Quick  match,  for  setting  off  fire  works,  is  make  of  cotton  thread, 
first  saturated  with  nitre,  and  then  dipped  in  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and 
mealed  powder,  of  the  consistence  of  cream  ;  out  of  which  it  is 
reeled,  and  afterwards  dried.  Fuses,  for  firing  shells,  are  wooden 
tubes,  filled  with  a  composition  of  4  parts  of  nitre  to  one  each  of 
sulphur  and  mealed  powder ;  and  so  rammed,  or  driven,  that  one 
inch  of  it  may  burn  in  five  seconds.  Hock  fire,  is  a  mixture  of 
powder,  nitre,  sulphur,  and  sometimes  rosin  and  iron  filings,  used  in 
shells,  carcases,  and  incendiary  balls,  to  set  fire  to  buildings  or  ships. 
Light  balls,  are  intended  for  illumination  ;  and  when  armed  with 
loaded  pistol  barrels,  grenades,  and  the  like,  to  prevent  the  enemy 
from  extinguishing  them,  they  are  called  fire  balls.  Smoke  balls, 
are  used  for  filling  mines  with  smoke ;  and  thundering  barrels, 
filled  with  explosive  materials,  are  employed  in  defending  forts 
against  an  escalade. 

§  3.  Under  the  head  of  Equipments,  using  the  term  in  a  general 
sense,  we  include  the  various  other  portable  articles,  besides  arms 
and  ammunition,  required  for  warlike  operations  on  land ;  such  as 


492  MACHETECHNICS. 

camp  equipage,  baggage  waggons,  and  horses,  clothing,  provisions, 
and  forage. 

To  the  Quarter  Master  General,  and  his  assistants,  belong  the 
erection  or  procurement,  and  assignment,  of  store  houses,  for  sup- 
plies ;  quarters,  for  the  officers  ;  and  barracks,  for  the  men  ;  the 
purchase  of  fuel,  forage,  horses,  and  teams  ;  the  transportation  of 
troops  ;  and  the  transportation,  and  distribution  of  the  arms,  ammu- 
nition, and  other  articles  required  for  military  service.  Each  indi- 
vidual is  charged  with  the  articles  delivered  to  him  ;  and  held  re- 
sponsible therefor ;  until  they  are  returned  or  finally  accounted  for. 
The  Quarter  Master's  department  thus  becomes  the  responsible  me- 
dium, by  which  supplies  are  transported  for  the  Ordnance,  Subsist- 
ence, Purchasing,  and  Medical  departments,  to  the  places  where  they 
are  required  for  use.  The  Quarter  Master  on  duty  in  the  field,  is 
also  charged  with  laying  out  the  space  for  encampments,  and  assign- 
ing quarters  to  the  several  troops  ;  though  the  works  of  defence 
around  the  encampment  are  planned  and  executed  by  an  Engineer. 
Both  of  these  officers  should  therefore  understand  the  principles  of 
Castrametation,  or  the  laying  out  of  camps ;  both  in  regard  to  con- 
venience and  safety.  The  general  parade  ground,  just  in  front  of 
the  color  line,  usually  extends  across  an  encampment  nearly  centrally : 
and  in  rear  of  it,  the  tents  are  arranged  in  rows,  running  back  per- 
pendicularly, %with  intermediate  spaces  or  streets  for  company  parade 
grounds ;  the  officers'  tents  being  in  the  rear. 

To  the  Commissary  General  of  Purchases,  belongs  the  purchase 
of  tents  and  other  camp  equipage,  and  of  clothing  for  the  troops  ; 
except  in  special  cases,  otherwise  provided  for :  and  to  the  Commis- 
sary General  of  Subsistence,  belongs  the  procuring  of  provisions, 
for  the  use  of  the  troops.  These  supplies  are  often  procured  by 
contract ;  or  else  by  miscellaneous  purchase,  wherever  they  can  be 
obtained.  Provisions  are  usually  dealt  out  to  troops  in  rations,  or 
daily  allowances;  which  are  fixed  by  regulation,  based  on  the  results 
of  experience.  A  ration,  in  our  army,  at  present  consists  of  12  ounces 
of  pork  or  bacon,  or  20  ounces  of  fresh  or  salt  beef;  18  ounces  of 
bread  or  flour,  or  12  ounces  of  hard  bread,  or  20  ounces  of  corn- 
meal ;  and  at  the  rate  of  8  quarts  of  peas  or  beans,  (or  10  pounds 
of  rice  in  lieu  thereof,)  with  4  quarts  of  vinegar,  6  pounds  of  coffee, 
12  pounds  of  sugar,  2  quarts  of  salt,  4  pounds  of  soap,  and  l£  pounds 
of  candles  for  every  hundred  rations.  The  duties  of  the  Medical 
Department,  are  entrusted  to  a  Surgeon  General,  aided  by  Surgeons 
and  Assistants;  who  have  charge  of  the  medical  stores,  including 
hospitals  and  hospital  tents ;  and  who  attend  the  sick  and  the  wounded. 
The  Pay  Department,  is  under  the  supervision  of  a  Paymaster  Ge- 
neral;  from  whom  the  several  Paymasters  receive  their  funds,  and 
to  whom  they  render  their  accounts. 


FORTIFICATION.  493 


CHAPTER  II. 

FORTIFICATION. 

FORTIFICATION,  is  that  branch  of  Machetechnics  which  relates  to 
the  construction,  armament,  attack  and  defence  of  forts,  and  other 
works  ;  designed  for  strengthening  an  army,  or  serving  as  points  of 
support.  The  name  is  from  the  Latin,  fortis,  strong;  and/«a'o,  I 
make ;  and  in  an  extended  sense  of  the  term,  it  may  be  regarded  as 
synonymous  with  Military  Engineering.  The  duties  of  the  Corps 
of  Engineers  have  been  extended  not  only  to  the  construction  and 
warfare  of  forts,  properly  so  called  ;  but  to  the  construction  of  roads 
and  bridges,  for  military  purposes  ;  and  the  making  of  surveys  and 
reconnaisances,  preparatory  to  military  operations,  (p.  447).  These 
latter  duties  are  now  entrusted,  in  our  own  service,  chiefly  to  the 
Topographical  Engineers :  and  indeed  both  of  these  corps  require  to 
be  well  acquainted  with  the  arts  of  construction  and  conveyance, 
treated  of  in  a  preceding  department.  A  fort,  is  a  strong  enclosure, 
serving  to  protect  a  body  of  men  within  it,  who  are  called  its  garri- 
son from  an  enemy  without.  It  may  be  useful  as  a  place  of  refuge, 
for  a  feeble  or  defeated  army  ;  but  is  oftener  required  to  enable  a  few 
troops  to  defend  an  important  position,  which  would  otherwise  re- 
quire a  much  larger  number. 

The  most  ancient  mode  of  fortification,  seems  to  have  consisted  in 
building  a  wall,  around  the  city  or  place  to  be  defended  ;  either  with 
or  without  a  ditch,  or  moat,  on  the  exterior.  This  method  was 
practised  by  the  Canaanites,  at  least  1500  B.  C.  The  principal 
ancient  improvement  on  this  construction,  was  the  addition  of  torvers, 
at  small  intervals,  along  the  wall,  and  slightly  projecting  therefrom  ; 
both  to  strengthen  the  wall,  and  to  enable  the  besieged  to  see  and 
defend  the  exterior  foot  of  it;  or,  in  military  language,  the  towers 
were  said  to  flank  the  walls.  Such  fortresses,  were  attacked,  by 
undermining  the  walls  ;  or  by  building  mounds,  as  high  as  the  walls, 
and  gradually  carried  forward  to  meet  them  ;  or  by  moveable  towers, 
advancing  on  wheels,  and  overlooking  the  place  ;  or  by  using  the 
battering  ram,  to  demolish  the  wall,  and  make  a  breach.  This 
instrument  consisted  of  a  great  mass  of  iron,  often  shaped  like  a 
ram's  head  ;  attached  to  a  heavy  horizontal  beam,  and  either  sus- 
pended by  cords,  so  as  to  swing  forward  with  great  force,  or  else 
mounted  on  wheels,  and  running  on  an  inclined  platform  or  railway. 
Instruments  were  also  used  for  throwing  missiles  ;  (p.  448) ;  and  the 
Roman  soldiers  often  raised  their  bucklers  over  their  heads,  overlap- 
ping like  shingles,  and  forming  what  they  called  a  tortoise,  for  mu- 
tual protection  when  advancing  to  the  assault. 

In  the  middle  ages,  the  baronial  castles  were  fortified,  by  building 
them  with  thick  and  lofty  walls ;  or  with  an  outer  enclosing  wall ; 
with  flanking  towers,  and  a  moat,  or  ditch,  on  the  exterior.  The 
gate  was  protected  by  the  drawbridge,  which  could  be  suddenly 
raised  or  removed  by  those  within,  to  prevent  the  crossing  of  the 

2T 


494  MACHETECHNICS. 

ditch ;  and  by  the  portcullis,  which  was  a  heavy  grating,  made  to 
slide  in  vertical  grooves,  or  turn  on  hinges  at  the  top,  serving,  when 
closed,  as  a  second  gate.  The  tops  of  the  walls  were  constructed 
with  battlements,  or  indentations ;  to  enable  those  above  to  throw 
down  stones,  and  other  missiles,  upon  the  assailants  at  the  foot ;  and, 
in  Italy,  machicoulis,  or  projecting  scaffolds,  were  constructed,  with 
holes  through  the  flooring,  for  the  same  purpose.  In  the  interior  of 
the  castle  was  the  donjon,  or  keep ;  which  was  made  very  strong, 
and  served  as  a  citadel,  or  last  resort  for  the  besieged,  in  case  they 
were  driven  from  the  outer  walls. 

The  modern  system  of  fortification,  commenced  with  the  enlarge- 
ment of  the  flanking  towers,  until  they  occupied  extensive  spaces, 
and  took  the  name  of  bastions.  This  change  is  attributed  by  some 
writers  to  Ziska,  the  Hussite,  at  Mount  Tabor,  in  Bohemia,  in  1419  ; 
and  by  others,  to  Achmet  Pacha,  at  Otranto,  in  1480 :  but  it  seems 
more  probable,  that  the  first  regular  bastions  were  constructed  by 
San-Micheli,  at  Verona,  in  Italy,  in  1525.  The  covert-way,  outside 
of  the  ditch,  was  invented  by  Tartaglia,  of  Italy,  in  1554.  Places 
of  arms,  at  the  angles  of  the  ditch,  on  the  exterior,  were  first  con- 
structed by  Cataneo,  about  1574 ;  and  enlarged,  to  form  the  demi- 
lune, about  1585.  Gunpowder  was  first  tried  in  mines,  at  the  castle 
of  Sarezanella,  in  1487 :  but  its  first  successful  application  was  at 
the  castle  De  I'GEuf,  (Naples),  in  1503,  by  Navarre,  a  Spanish  engi- 
neer. Errard  Bar-le-Duc  wrote  the  first  French  work  on  Fortifica- 
tion, in  1594.  His  system  was  improved  by  Pagan ;  and  still  farther 
by  Vauban,  who  corrected  the  proportions  of  all  its  parts.  Vauban 
invented  ricochet  firing,  first  practised  at  Maestrict,  in  1673,  or  at 
Philipsburg,  in  1688;  and  which  made  an  essential  change  in  the 
modes  of  attack  and  defence.  The  later  improvements  of  Carnot, 
Cormontaigne,  and  others,  we  have  no  room  here  to  describe. 

We  proceed  to  give  some  farther  ideas  of  Fortification,  under  the 
heads  of  Field  Fortification ;  Permanent  Fortification ;  and  the  At- 
tack and  Defence  of  Places. 

§  1.  Field  Fortifications,  are  works  thrown  up  for  the  immediate 
use  of  an  army  during  a  campaign;  and  which,  after  having  served 
their  purpose,  are  abandoned  to  decay.  The  name  of  intrenchments, 
is  often  applied  to  them,  from  their  being  usually  constructed  by  dig- 
ging a  trench,  or  ditch,  and  throwing  up  the  earth  on  the  inner  side, 
to  form  a  parapet,  or  breastwork.  (Plate  XL,  Fig.  1).  The  sides 
of  the  ditch  and  parapet  are  made  sloping,  in  order  that  they  may  not 
crumble  down  so  easily.  The  interior  slope  of  the  ditch,  is  called 
the  scarp;  and  the  exterior,  the  counterscarp.  The  parapet  is  made 
3  feet  thick,  for  defence  against  musketry ;  and  at  least  8  feet  thick, 
to  resist  cannon ;  and  it  has  three  slopes  ;  the  superior,  inclining 
gently  outwards ;  the  exterior,  which  is  made  steeper,  and  separated 
from  the  ditch  by  a  narrow  step,  or  berme  ;  and  the  interior  slope,  or 
breast-height,  behind  which  the  men  stand,  and  over  which  they  fire 
upon  the  assailants.  The  crest  of  the  breast-height,  is  technically 
called  the  covering  line :  and  when  the  parapet  is  high,  the  men  who 
fire  over  it,  stand  upon  a  banquette,  or  step  of  earth,  which  termi- 
nates the  parapet  on  the  interior.  The  interior  space,  immediately 


FORTIFICATION.  495 

behind  the  parapet,  is  called  the  terre-pleine ;  which  is  sometimes 
lowered,  by  excavation :  and  if  there  be  a  large  central  space,  it  is 
called  the  parade  ground. 

A  redan,  (PL  XL,  Fig.  2),  is  a  triangular  work,  two  sides  of 
which,  called  faces,  are  fortified  ;  while  the  third  side,  or  gorge, 
towards  the  rear,  is  often  left  open.  A  small  redan,  is  sometimes 
called  a  fleche,  or  arrow.  A  bastion,  (Fig.  3),  has  a  salient  angle, 
and  two  faces,  in  front;  connected  with  two  shorter  lines,  called 
flanks,  which  are  less  divergent,  and  extend  to  the  gorge  ;  this  latter 
being  either  open,  or  palisaded,  or  completely  intrenched.  A  small 
bastion  is  also  called  a  lunette.  A  bonnet,  mitre,  or  swallow  tail, 
(Fig.  4),  has  two  salient  angles  in  front,  as  if  it  were  two  redans 
united,  side  by  side,  with  a  common  gorge.  These  different  works 
are  sometimes  associated,  to  form  a  fortified  line,  or  lines  ;  whether 
separate,  but  defending  each  other  by  their  fires ;  or  connected,  by 
intermediate  trenches,  from  gorge  to  gorge.  Any  one  of  these 
works,  completely  enclosed,  is  called  a  redoubt;  and  a  work  which 
is  large  enough  to  admit  of  flanking  arrangements,  so  that  one  side 
may  enfilade,  or  fire  along  the  ditch  of  another  side,  to  defend  it,  is 
called  a  field  fort.  When  the  work  is  designed  for  receiving  can- 
non, it  is  often  called  a  battery;  the  cannons  firing  through  cross- 
cuts in  the  parapet,  called  embrasures;  the  high  parts  between 
which,  called  merlons,  serve  to  protect  the  men. 

Field  works  may  be  farther  protected,  by  palisades,  or  rows  of 
stakes,  presenting  their  sharp  points  outward,  along  the  scarp,  or  in 
the  ditch ;  as  also  by  wolf-pits,  or  holes  dug  close  to  each  other 
alo-ng  the  exterior ;  or  by  abattis,  which  are  fallen  trees,  placed  with 
their  top  ends  outward,  to  impede  the  enemy,  while  he  is  exposed  to 
the  fire  of  the  work ;  or  by  chevaux-de-frise,  (wooden  horses), 
which  are  timbers,  armed  with  stakes,  projecting  in  various  direc- 
tions, for  the  same  purpose.  Marshes,  ponds,  deep  streams,  preci- 
pices, and  other  natural  obstacles,  are  often  resorted  to,  in  aid  of  the 
defence ;  the  great  object  of  which,  is  to  prevent  the  access  of  the 
enemy.  A  work  on  low  ground,  is  said  to  be  commanded,  when  it 
is  overlooked  by  any  other  work  or  ground,  so  as  to  be  exposed  to  a 
fire  therefrom.  From  such  heights,  the  position,  if  it  is  an  import- 
ant one,  should  be  defiladed ;  by  making  the  exposed  side  the  high- 
est, so  that  it  may  shelter  the  other  side. 

§  2.  Permanent  Fortifications,  or  fortresses,  are  stronger  forts, 
usually  built  in  masonry,  around  cities,  or  on  the  frontiers  of  coun- 
tries, and  designed  for  permanent  use.  The  immediate  object  of  a 
fort,  is  to  separate  the  defenders,  or  garrison  within  it,  from  the 
enemy  without;  whose  superior  numbers  are  thus  kept  in  check. 
This  is  effected  by  means  of  a  high  wall ;  on  the  outside  of  which 
is  usually  a  deep  ditch ;  both  of  them  extending  quite  around  the 
fort ;  of  which  they  form  a  principal  part.  The  ditch  varies,  in  dif- 
ferent works,  from  12  to  20  feet  in  depth,  and  from  30  to  100  feet 
in  width  ;  but  it  should  always  be  too  wide  to  admit  of  crossing  it 
by  ladders  or  portable  bridges.  The  wall  within  the  ditch,  is  called 
the  scarp  :  and  is  usually  made  about  30  feet  high  ;  so  that  it  cannot 
be  easily  scaled,  if  vigilantly  guarded.  As  the  scarp  is  built  up  from 


496  MACHETECHNICS. 

the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  and  screened  by  the  outworks,  it  is  com- 
pletely protected  from  the  distant  fire  of  the  enemy.  The  exterior 
wall  of  the  ditch,  supporting  the  earth  on  the  outside,  is  called  the 
counterscarp. 

Instead  of  having  a  simple  circular  or  polygonal  contour,  the  scarp 
is  broken  inward  on  -each  side,  (PL  XI.  Fig.  5),  producing  a  series 
of  bastions,  (aMc.  &c.),  connected  with  each  other  by  curtains, 
(cd.  &c),  so  as  to  form  a  complete  enclosure.  Each  curtain,  with  a 
half  bastion  on  each  side  of  it,  forms  a  bastioned  front ;  (JIB]  ;  the 
parts  of  which  have  important  relations  to  each  other.  The  faces, 
(M,  and  Be,)  and  the  curtain,  (cd)  are  chiefly  intended  for  firing 
upon  the  enemy  at  a  distance :  but  the  flanks,  (be,  and  de,)  are 
especially  intended  for  the  defence  of  the  ditch,  in  case  that  the 
enemy  should  enter  it ;  as  each  flank  may  enfilade  the  opposite  half 
of  the  ditch,  on  that  front,  with  a  fire  of  grape  or  cannister  shot. 
Thus,  each  part  of  the  work  is  protected  by  some  other  part,  which 
is  not  likely  to  be  exposed  to  an  attack  at  the  same  time  :  but,  for 
this  object,  it  is  necessary  that  the  distance  of  any  one  flank  from  the 
salient  angle  which  it  is  to  defend,  should  not  be  greater  than  the 
effective  range  of  small  shot,  fired  from  the  flank  carronades. 

The  interior  area  of  the  fort  is  called  the  parade  ;  between  which 
and  the  ditch,  is  the  rampart,  of  which  the  scarp  forms  the  exterior 
face.*  The  rampart  is  elevated,  in  order  to  overlook  the  outworks  ; 
and  to  protect  the  men,  or  even  the  buildings,  in  the  interior,  from 
the  enemy's  fire.  The  top  of  the  rampart  consists  of  two  parts  ; 
the  terrepleine,  or  interior  part,  (dotted  in  Fig.  5),  on  which  the 
guns  are  mounted  ;  and  the  parapet,  which  is  the  exterior  and 
highest  part,  to  shelter  the  guns  and  men  on  the  terrepleine. 
The  parapet  has  a  superior  and  exterior  slope,  as  in  field  works  ;  but 
the  breast  height  is  frequently  a  wall  of  masonry.  Instead  of  making 
the  whole  rampart  of  solid  earth,  it  is  customary,  in  fortresses,  to 
construct  vaults  or  rooms  in  it,  to  protect  the  men  during  a  siege. 
Piers  are  built,  running  back  from  the  scarp  wall  to  the  interior  of 
the  rampart,  which  in  this  case  becomes  the  parade  wall ;  and  these 
piers  support  arches,  which  are  covered  with  earth ;  so  that  the  guns 
stand  above  them  ;  leaving  spacious  rooms,  called  casemates,  under- 
neath. Some  of  these  casemates  are  used  for  guns  ;  which  then  fire 
through  embrasures,  or  openings,  in  the  scarp  wall :  some  are  used 
for  magazines  or  store  rooms;  and  others,  fitted  with  windows  in  the 
scarp  and  parade  walls,  with  fireplaces  and  other  fixtures,  are  used 
as  quarters  for  the  officers,  and  barracks  for  the  men. 

Of  the  outworks,  which  serve  to  retard  the  enemy's  approach,  the 
principal  is  the  demilune,  or  ravelin,  (Fig.  5.  D) ;  the  faces  of 
which  have  an  advanced  and  cross  fire  upon  the  environs,  without 
being  so  high  as  to  mask  the  fires  of  the  main  work.  The  ditch  of 
the  demilune,  (O),  is  connected  with  the  main  ditch  ;  but  not  quite 
so  deep.  Outside  of  the  demilune,  is  the  covert  way,  (J77),  along 
which  guns  are  mounted,  and  men  stationed,  to  fire  upon  the  enemy; 
without  intercepting  the  fire  of  the  mainwork.  From  the  breast 

*  This  is  more  fully  represented  in  Fig.  6 ;  which  represents  a  section  of  the 
fort  along  the  line  YDZ,  of  Fig.  5 ;  as  shown  by  the  correspondence  of  the  letters. 


PL  ATK    XI.        FORTIFICATION. 


Ensraved  hy  R.  S.  Gilbert.  Pliila. 


FORTIFICATION.  497 

height  of  the  covert  way,  the  glacis  (G)  slopes  off  to  the  natural 
ground  on  the  exterior.  The  salient,  and  reentering  parts  of  the 
covert  way,  are  enlarged,  to  form  places  of  arms,  (R,  and  S),  which 
are  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  covert  way  by  traverses,  (t,  t) ;  to 
ward  off  the  fire  of  the  enemy,  and  enable  these  portions  to  be  de- 
fended separately.  A  small  work  called  the  tenaille,  (T),  is  some- 
times placed  in  the  main-ditch,  in  front  of  the  curtain,  to  shelter  this 
part  from  the  enemy.  The  postern,  or  main  entrance  to  the  fort, 
leads  through  the  middle  of  the  curtain :  and  there  is  a  passage 
through  the  tenaille,  to  the  demilune,  protected  by  a  double  capon- 
nier,  or  kind  of  glacis,  (C),  on  each  side  of  it,  sloping  off  into  the 
ditch. 

§  3.  On  the  Mack  and  Defence  of  Places,  or  the  operations 
during  a  siege,  by  both  the  parties  concerned,  we  must  here  be  ex- 
tremely brief.  The  besiegers  begin  by  investing  or  surrounding  the 
fort,  with  a  very  superior  force ;  protecting  themselves  from  the 
sorties  of  the  garrison  by  lines  of  circumvallation ;  and,  if  neces- 
sary, constructing  lines  of  count ervallation,  to  protect  themselves 
from  any  exterior  army  coming  to  relieve  the  garrison ;  which  latter 
is  thus  cut  off  from  all  extraneous  supplies  or  assistance.  The 
enemy  next  advances  near  to  the  fort,  on  what  he  supposes  to  be  its 
weakest  side  ;  and  there,  under  cover  of  the  night,  digs  a  trench,  to 
shelter  his  men,  called  the  first  parallel.  This  trench  is  often  more 
than  a  mile  long ;  and  extends  circularly  around  that  side  of  the  fort, 
at  a  distance  of  600  or  800  yards.  A  strong  guard  is  then  placed  in 
it,  to  defend  the  sappers  ;  who  now  dig  trenches  from  it,  advancing 
towards  the  fort,  called  boyaux.  These  trenches  proceed  obliquely, 
in  a  zigzag  line  towards  the  fort,  to  avoid  being  enfiladed  by  its  fires. 

Meanwhile,  the  besiegers  are  erecting  batteries,  at  intervals  along 
the  first  parallel,  to  destroy  or  silence  the  guns  of  the  fort,  before  thejr 
venture  to  approach  nearer.  The  ricochet  fires,  in  which  the  ball 
strikes  so  obliquely,  as  to  rebound  several  times  successively,  are  the 
most  effective  for  this  purpose.  When  the  boyaux  are  extended 
nearly  halfway  from  the  first  parallel  to  the  fort,  a  second  parallel  is 
dug,  to  which  the  guards  are  then  advanced,  while  the  sappers  advance 
still  farther.  In  this  manner,  the  third  or  fourth  parallel  will  bring 
them  close  to  the  crest  of  the  glacis ;  along  which  they  will  next,  by 
sapping,  or  by  storm,  dig  a  trench,  in  which  to  defend  themselves, 
and  erect  new  batteries  to  make  breaches  in  the  walls  of  the  fort. 
The  digging  of  this  trench,  is  called  crowning  the  covert  way  ;  from 
which,  the  garrison  will  then  be  obliged  to  retreat  to  the  demilune. 
As  soon  as  a  breach  is  made  in  the  scarp  of  the  demilune,  and  a  gal- 
lery dug  by  which  to  descend  into  its  ditch,  the  besiegers  will  storm 
this  outwork,  climbing  up  over  the  ruins,  and  entrenching  themselves 
therein ;  and  they  will  then  proceed  in  the  same  manner  to  carry  the 
main  work,  unless  it  capitulate,  or  be  relieved  by  an  external  force. 

The  providing  of  means  for  passing  armies  over  rivers,  is  a  com- 
mon duty  of  the  engineers  and  artillery.  Where  ordinary  bridges 
are  not,  or  cannot  be  constructed,  and  common  boats  cannot  be  pro- 
cured, pontoons  are  occasionally  used  ;  which  are  flat  bottomed  boats 
of  a  prescribed  shape  and  size ;  such  as  are  usually  transported,  in 
63  2  T2 


498  MACHETECHNICS. 

considerable  numbers,  in  the  train  of  European  armies.  The  boats, 
or  pontoons,  used  for  a  bridge,  are  anchored  or  moored  at  short  inter- 
vals from  each  other,  with  their  heads  pointing  up  the  stream  ;  after 
which  scantling  is  laid  across  them,  with  proper  lashings ;  and  the 
whole  is  then  covered  with  suitable  planks.  Of  the  construction  of 
military  roads  ;  the  laying  out  and  fortifying  of  camps ;  and  the  making 
of  military  reconnaisances  ;  we  have  no  farther  room  here  to  speak. 


CHAPTER  III. 

GEOTACTICS. 

WE  propose  the  term  Geotactics,  to  include  the  exercises  of  troops 
of  all  kinds  ;  by  which  they  are  enabled  to  act  in  concert,  in  the  dis- 
charge of  their  proper  functions.  The  name  is  from  the  Greek,  *atf<y«, 
or  T-aT-fw,  I  arrange  ;  and  it  is  sometimes  made  to  include  Strategy  or 
Grand  Tactics ;  that  is,  the  management  of  battles  and  campaigns : 
but  the  later  writers  have  justly  considered  this  a  distinct  and  higher 
branch  of  Machetechnics.  We  have  added  the  prefix  Geo,  from  7*7, 
the  earth,  to  distinguish  this  from  Navitactics,  or  Naval  Tactics ;  a 
kindred,  but  separate  branch.  Geotactics  comprises  three  principal 
divisions  ;  Infantry  Tactics,  relating  to  troops  which  use  the  musket 
or  rifle ;  Artillery  Tactics,  relating  to  those  whose  chief  weapon  is 
the  cannon ;  and  Cavalry  Tactics,  for  troops  which  fight  on  horse- 
back, with  the  sword  and  pistol.  The  process  of  instructing  troops 
in  their  respective  exercises,  is  called  drilling ;  on  which  their  effi- 
ciency essentially  depends. 

The  arts  of  Tactics  were  carefully  studied  by  the  Greeks  and 
Romans ;  and  greatly  contributed  to  their  military  successes.  The 
Grecian  infantry  were  grouped  in  lochoi,  or  bands  ;  taxes,  or  compa- 
nies ;  xenagias,  or  battalions  ;  and  chiliarchise,  or  regiments ;  all 
having  their  proper  officers.  Their  cavalry  were  subdivided  into 
ilai,  or  squadrons ;  and  hipparchies,  or  regiments  ;  usually  of  8 
squadrons,  or  512  horsemen  each.  The  Grecian  phalanx,  was 
drawn  up  in  a  rectangular  form  having  from  8  to  16,  or  even  32 
ranks  ;  with  a  front  usually  of  500  men  :  its  force  having  gradually 
increased  from  4,000  to  16,000  infantry.  The  Roman  century,  was 
so  called  because  it  originally  consisted  of  100  men  ;  though  the  num- 
ber was  afterwards  increased.  Two  centuries  constituted  a  'maniple; 
three  maniples,  a  cohort ;  and  ten  cohorts  composed  a  legion;  two 
of  which,  commanded  by  a  consul,  formed  a  consular  army.  The 
Roman  legion  was  gradually  increased,  from  3000  to  6000  infantry, 
besides  300  cavalry ;  which  last  were  drawn  up  in  ten  turmse,  or 
troops.  On  the  distribution  of  the  different  classes  of  soldiers,  in 
the  legion  and  phalanx,  more  will  be  said  in  treating  of  Strategy. 

The  modern  changes  in  the  weapons  of  war,  introduced  correspond- 
ing changes  in  the  organization  of  troops ;  of  which  the  three  principal 
kinds  are  variously  subdivided.  The  heavy  infantry,  or  infantry  of 
the  line,  including  grenadiers,  armed  with  muskets  and  bayonets, 


GEOTACTICS.  499 

compose  the  great  mass  of  modern  armies.  The  light  infantry, 
including  riflemen,  armed  with  lighter  guns,  or  rifles,  are  chiefly  em- 
ployed as  skirmishers,  or  advanced  guards,  or  for  rapid  marches  and 
sudden  attacks.  The  heavy  artillery,  are  foot  soldiers,  armed  with 
short  muskets,  and  swords  ;  their  cannon,  and  caissons  or  ammunition 
waggons,  being  drawn  by  horses.  The  light  artillery,  or  at  least  the 
flying  artillery,  are  all  mounted,  and  armed  with  pistols  and  broad- 
swords ;  with  light  guns,  drawn  by  strong  horses.  The  heavy 
cavalry,  are  properly  cuirassiers,  armed  with  a  helmet  and  cuirass, 
and  broadsword  and  pistols  :  other  cavalry  are  carabiniers,  armed 
with  carabines,  and  straight  swords ;  and  among  the  light  cavalry, 
are  hussars,  of  Hungarian  origin,  armed  with  sabres ;  and  lancers, 
such  as  the  Russian  Cossacks.  Dragoons,  are  armed  with  muskets, 
and  fight  either  on  horseback  or  on  foot:  and  voltigeitrs,  are  troops 
that  ride  behind  cavalry  to  the  scene  of  action  ;  then  alight  and  fight 
on  foot. 

We  proceed  to  notice  separately  the  three  divisions  of  Geotactics, 
Infantry,  Artillery,  and  Cavalry  Tactics,  already  referred  to. 

§  1.  Infantry  Tactics,  is  the  most  important  division  of  this  branch; 
as  it  embraces,  to  a  considerable  extent,  the  principles  of  the  other 
divisions.  Infantry  are  usually  drawn  up  in  companies,  of  50  or 
more  men  each ;  and  eight  or  ten  companies  usually  constitute  a 
regiment.  In  manoeuvring,  each  regiment  is  termed  a  battalion; 
though  this  name  is  often  applied  to  a  half  regiment.  Two  regi- 
ments form  a  brigade,  commanded  by  a  brigadier  general ;  and  two 
brigades  form  a  division,  which  is  a  major  general's  command.  The 
officers  of  a  regiment,  in  the  order  of  rank,  are  the  colonel,  lieu- 
tenant colonel,  and  major ;  of  whom,  the  highest  who  is  present 
takes  the  command.  The  regiment  is  paraded,  and  orders  are  an- 
nounced, by  the  adjutant,  assisted  by  the  serjeant  major.  The 
name  regiment  was  first  introduced  into  the  French  service,  in  1567  : 
and  the  title  of  colonel  was  first  applied  in  its  present  sense,  in  1661. 

The  commissioned  officers  of  a  company,  in  the  order  of  rank,  are 
the  captain,  lieutenant,  and  ensign ;  and  the  subalterns  are  the  ser- 
geants, and  corporals,  usually  appointed  by  the  colonel.  The  first 
sergeant,  is  called  the  orderly  sergeant;  who  forms  the  company, 
and  commands  it,  in  the  absence  of  the  commissioned  officers.  A 
company  is  usually  drawn  up  in  two  ranks,  the  front,  and  rear.  A 
man  in  the  front  rank,  called  a  file  leader,  and  one  directly  behind 
him,  called  his  file-closer,  together  constitute  a  file  of  men.  A  com- 
pany is  divided  into  two  platoons ;  and  a  platoon  into  two  sections  ; 
each  consisting  of  two  ranks,  with  as  many  files  as  there  are  men  in 
the  front  rank.  One  sergeant,  and  one  corporal  are  assigned  to  each 
section  ;  but  their  posts  or  positions  we  have  no  room  to  specify. 
When  in  line,  the  captain  is  stationed  on  the  right  of  the  company ; 
but,  in  column,  his  post  is  in  front.  Two  companies  united  consti- 
tute a  grand  division  ;  of  which  there  are  usually  four  in  a  regiment. 

The  School  of  the  Soldier,  includes  such  instruction  as  every 
soldier  must  receive,  preparatory  to  entering  a  company  or  battalion. 
The  recruits,  drilled  in  small  squads,  are  first  taught  the  position  of  a 
soldier,  which  should  be  erect  and  firm  ;  next  the  dressing  or  align- 


500  MACHETECHNICS. 

ing  of  themselves  towards  the  right  or  left,  according  as  the  com- 
mand is  right  DRESS,  or  left  DRESS  ;  and  next,  the  facing,  or  turning 
to  the  right  or  left,  always  on  the  left  heel  as  a  pivot,  at  the  com- 
mand right,  or  left  FACE.  They  are  next  taught  to  march  ;  always 
commencing  with  the  left  foot,  and  taking  steps  of  28  inches  in 
length ;  90  in  a  minute  for  common  time,  and  120  for  quick  time, 
being  the  standard  speed.  Troops  marching  in  line,  those  of  the 
same  rank  being  side  by  side,  change  direction,  either  by  wheeling, 
or  turning :  but  when  marching  by  a  flank,  or  those  of  the  same 
rank  following  or  covering  each  other,  they  then  change  direction  by 
firing,  to  the  right,  or  left. 

The  remaining  part  of  the  School  of  the  Soldier,  relates  to  the  use 
of  arms,  or  the  manual  exercise,  with  the  musket  and  the  rifle  ;  but 
we  here  refer  exclusively  to  the  former.  At  the  command  shoulder 
ARMS,  the  musket  is  made  to  rest  vertically  against  the  left  shoulder, 
supported  by  the  left  hand  placed  under  the  butt ;  the  lock  being 
turned  to  the  front.  To  order  ARMS,  when  shouldered,  the  right 
hand  is  made  to  seize  the  gun,  above  the  lock,  and  bring  it  down  to 
the  right  side ;  the  butt  resting  on  the  ground,  the  lock  turned  to  the 
rear,  and  the  barrel  resting  against  the  right  thumb  and  fore  ringer. 
To  load  in  twelve  times,  the  successive  commands  are,  1.  LOAD; 
2.  Open-^an;  3.  Handle-car/nV/g-e  ;  4.  Tear-cartridge;  5.  Prime; 
6.  Shui-pan;  7.  Czst-about ;  8.  Charge-cartridge;  9.  Draw-ram- 
mer ;  10.  Ham-cartridge;  11.  Return-rammer;  12.  Shoulder- 
arms.  At  the  first  command,  the  gun  is  brought  to  a  horizontal 
position  at  the  right  side,  pointing  to  the  front,  and  supported  by  the 
left  hand:  and,  at  the  seventh  command,  the  gun  is  carried  around 
to  the  left  side,  with  the  butt  resting  on  the  ground ;  and  the  remainder 
of  the  cartridge,  hitherto  held  in  the  right  hand,  is  afterwards  inserted 
in  the  gun,  with  the  torn  end  downwards  ;  the  paper  of  the  cartridge 
serving  as  a  wad,  both  for  the  powder  and  ball.  To  load  in  four 
times,  and  to  load  at  will,  are  performed  in  the  same  manner ; 
but  with  four  commands,  in  the  former  case,  and  only  one  in  the 
latter. 

The  School  of  the  Company,  includes  instruction  in  all  manoeu- 
vres which  are  performed  by  a  company  ;  either  alone,  or  considered 
as  a  part  of  a  battalion.  It  consists  of  the  different  exercises,  in 
marching  and  fighting ;  as  taught  in  the  school  of  the  soldier,  but 
here  repeated  by  the  whole  company.  On  parade,  the  manual  exer- 
cise is  performed  with  open  ranks  ;  the  rear  rank  taking  six  steps 
backward,  to  make  room  between  it  and  the  front.  When  firing,  in 
close  order,  the  men  of  the  rear  rank  aim  over  the  right  shoulders  of 
their  file  leaders  respectively.  When  marching  in  line,  if  the  ser- 
geant, acting  as  guide,  is  on  the  right  of  the  line,  the  men  touch  and 
dress  to  the  right ;  but  if  on  the  left,  then  the  left  regulates  the 
movement.  When,  from  marching  by  a  flank,  the  company  is  to 
come  into  line,  the  rear  files  advance  rapidly,  and  take  their  places  on 
the  right  or  left  of  the  leading  file  ;  the  file  leader  of  which,  retains 
his  position.  The  platoons,  or  sections,  when  marching  in  column, 
keep  at  wheeling  distance  from  each  other ;  so  that  by  halting,  and 
wheeling  to  the  right  or  left,  they  would  again  be  in  line.  Of  the 


GEOTACTICS.  501 

School  of  the  Battalion,  or  evolutions  performed  by  a  single  regi- 
ment; and  of  Evolutions  of  the  Line,  as  performed  by  several 
regiments  ;  we  have  no  room  here  to  speak.  The  exercises  of  Light 
Artillery,  and  Riflemen,  are  closely  assimilated  to  those  of  infantry 
of  the  line. 

§  2.  Artillery  Tactics,  includes  the  various  manoeuvres  and  exer- 
cises required  in  marching  and  fighting  with  cannon.  There  are  four 
principal  kinds  of  cannon,  used  in  modern  warfare ;  the  gun,  including 
the  light  field  piece,  and  the  heavy  garrison  piece,  with  others  of  inter- 
mediate size ;  the  carronade,  which  is  shorter  and  thicker,  and  of 
less  certain  aim,  but  still  very  useful  in  forts  and  on  shipboard ;  the 
howitzer,  which  is  also  short,  thick  and  strong,  but  used  for  firing 
shells  horizontally ;  and,  lastly,  the  mortar,  which  is  extremely  short, 
having  a  bore  of  not  more  than  two  calibres  in  length,  and  used  for 
throwing  bombs  or  shells  to  a  great  elevation.  The  Paixhan  gun, 
which  has  recently  attracted  much  notice,  is  essentially  a  howitzer, 
of  great  weight  and  strength,  and  designed  for  throwing  shells  of  very 
large  size.  Of  the  weight  of  cannon,  and  the  nomenclature  of  their 
parts,  we  have  already  spoken,  as  far  as  our  room  would  permit,  in 
treating  of  Ordnance,  (p.  489).  .  '„ 

Field  Artillery,  is  generally  organized  in  batteries,  of  six  pieces 
each  ;  four  guns,  and  two  howitzers.  Allowing  eight  men  to  each 
gun,  such  a  battery  requires  a  company  of  48  men,  besides  officers, 
drivers,  and  a  small  reserve.  Eight,  or  ten  such  companies,  form  a 
regiment  of  artillery ;  and  a  half  regiment  is  sometimes  called  a 
battalion.  The  officers  of  artillery,  have  mostly  the  same  titles  and 
functions  as  those  of  the  infantry;  with  the  duties  of  which  they 
ought  also  to  be  acquainted.  When  horses  are  used,  as  they  gene- 
rally should  be,  for  drawing  the  guns,  they  are  harnessed  to  the 
limbers;  (p.  490):  and  when  the  gun  is  unlimbered,  it  may  still  be 
dragged  by  the  horses,  by  using  a  long  rope,  called  zprolonge,  to  con- 
nect the  gun  with  the  limber.  When  the  men  themselves  draw  the 
gun,  they  do  it  either  by  draught  ropes,  or,  when  in  action,  by  means 
of  bricoles  ;  which  are  leather  straps  passing  over  the  shoulder,  with 
a  cord  and  hook  to  each,  for  fastening  to  the  carriage. 

The  Manual  of  the  Piece,  is  performed  by  two  gunners,  and  four 
cannoneers,  or  matrosses,  who  are  numbered,  in  order  to  designate 
their  position.  The  piece  being  unlimbered,  with  the  trail  resting  on 
the  ground,  and  the  muzzle  turned  to  the  front,  it  is  then  said  to  be 
in  battery.  The  men  then  take  posts  on  each  side  of  the  piece, 
facing  towards  it,  as  follows  :  No.  1.,  with  the  sponge  and  rammer, 
on  the  right  of  the  muzzle  ;  No.  2.,  on  its  left:  No.  3.,  with  portfire 
and  linstock,  opposite  the  cascable,  or  rear  of  the  piece,  on  the  right ; 
No.  4.,  with  a  havresack,  for  ammunition,  opposite  to  the  cascable, 
on  the  left ;  the  Gunner  of  the  right,  opposite  to  the  middle  of  the 
pointing  or  trail  handspike,  on  the  right ;  and  the  Gunner  of  the  left, 
with  finger  stall,  tube  pouch,  priming  tubes,  and  priming  wire,  oppo- 
site to  the  pointing  handspike,  on  the  left.  At  the  command  "to 
action,1'  the  gunner  of  the  right  steps  to  the  pointing  handspike, 
gives  the  order  to  "/oac?,"  and  assists  the  gunner  of  the  left  in  point- 
ing the  piece.  Nos.  1.  and  2.  step  within  the  wheels,  and  sponge  and 


502  MACHETECHNICS. 

load  the  piece ;  but,  while  drawing  out  the  moist  sponge,  it  is  of 
vital  importance  that  the  gunner  of  the  left  should  close  the  vent  with 
the  finger,  protected  by  the  stall,  or  leather  covering ;  in  order  that 
any  fire,  previously  remaining  in  the  gun,  may  be  extinguished,  by 
the  transient  exhaustion  of  the  air.  The  gunner  of  the  left,  having 
aimed  the  piece,  pricks  the  cartridge,  and  inserts  a  priming  tube  in 
the  vent ;  when  No.  3.,  having  lighted  his  portfire,  touches  off  the 
gun,  at  the  command  to  that  effect.* 

The  School  of  the  Battery,  comprehends  the  manoeuvres  of  seve- 
ral pieces  in  concert;  usually  six  pieces,  manned  by  an  artillery 
company.  Such  a  battery  is  subdivided  into  three  sections,  of  two 
pieces  each;  and  sometimes  into  two  half  batteries.  When  the 
horses'  heads  are  directed  to  the  front  of  the  line,  and  the  pieces  point 
to  the  rear,  the  battery  is  said  to  be  in  line :  but  when  the  reverse  is 
the  case,  the  battery  is  said  to  be  in  battery.  In  both  cases,  the 
caissons  are  in  rear  of  the  guns  ;  which  are  placed  at  such  a  distance 
apart  that  the  sections  may  wheel  to  the  right  or  left,  and  occupy  no 
greater  space  in  column  than  in  line.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  order 
to  advance,  from  the  position  in  battery,  the  horses  must  first  turn, 
with  the  pieces,  and  face  to  the  front;  and  that,  in  order  to  resume  a 
position  in  battery,  they  must  turn  again,  and  face  to  the  rear.  To 
form  a  column  of  sections,  fronting  to  the  right,  the  command  is,  "  by 
section,  right  wheel ;  MARCH  ;"  when  the  first  section  of  the  battery 
in  line,  by  wheeling  to  the  right,  becomes  the  head  of  the  column; 
and  the  other  sections  cover  it,  in  its  rear.  Of  various  other  evolu- 
tions, depending  on  similar  principles ;  and  of  the  manoeuvres  of 
horse  artillery ;  as  well  as  the  exercise  of  mortars  and  garrison  pieces  ; 
and  the  art  of  gunnery ;  our  limits  forbid  any  farther  notice. 

§  3.  Cavalry  Tactics,  includes  the  exercises  and  evolutions  of 
mounted  troops,  other  than  horse  artillery,  in  marching  and  fighting, 
on  horseback.  It  embraces,  of  course,  many  exercises  in  common 
with  those  of  the  mounted  artillery :  as  the  manege,  or  management 
of  horses  and  art  of  riding,  and  the  general  principles  of  formation. 
Cavalry  is  usually  drawn  up  in  companies,  or  troops,  of  from  50  to 
100  men  each;  two  of  which  form  a  squadron,  corresponding  to  a 
grand  division  of  infantry ;  and  eight  of  which  usually  form  a  regi- 
ment. The  grades  and  titles  of  cavalry  officers,  for  the  most  part, 
correspond  to  those  of  the  officers  of  artillery  and  infantry.  A  troop 
of  cavalry  is  usually  paraded  in  two  ranks,  the  front  and  rear ;  with 
intervals  of  six  inches  between  the  men  in  the  same  rank ;  and  a  dis- 
tance of  three  feet  between  the  ranks,  in  close  order,  and  twelve  feet, 
in  parade  order  ;  but  in  open  order,  the  rear  rank  is  distant  a  half 
squadron's  length  from  the  front  rank,  so  that  on  wheeling  by  troops, 
to  the  right  or  left,  these  ranks  would  form  one  continuous  line. 

A  man  in  the  front  rank,  and  the  man  who  covers  him  in  the  rear 
rank,  together  constitute  a  fie  ;  and  when  the  line  forms  a  column, 
by  filing  to  the  right  or  left,  and  taking  distance,  the  two  men  of 
the  same  file  are  abreast  of  each  other :  but  the  column,  in  this  case, 

*  The  seventh  and  eighth  men,  or  Nos.  5  and  6,  are  stationed  opposite  to  the 
limber:  but,  in  action,  their  duty  is  to  supply  the  piece  with  ammunition,  from  its 
caisson,  or  ammunition  waggon,  in  the  rear. 


STR/TEGY.  503 

is  much  longer  than  the  line,  whu  h  it  previously  formed.  When 
the  troop  is  all  formed  continuously  in  one  rank,  it  is  said  to  form 
rank-entire :  but  when  the  men  of  each  rank  are  divided  into  triads, 
or  divisions  of  three  each,  they  are  said  to  form  ranks  by  threes ; 
the  advantage  of  which  is,  that  three  men  occupy  as  much  breadth 
as  depth,  and  can  wheel  as  one  body,  on  their  own  ground ;  the 
centre  man  being  the  pivot.  A  troop  thus  arranged,  would  present, 
after  wheeling,  a  column  of  six  men  abreast,  three  of  the  front  rank 
and  three  of  the  rear ;  who  by  wheeling  back  again  by  threes,  would 
resume  their  places  in  line.  To  these  explanations,  we  can  only 
add,  that  the  evolutions  of  cavalry  are  quite  analogous  to  those  of  in- 
fantry and  artillery ;  and  that  the  words  of  command  in  these  three 
arms  should  be  made  to  correspond  as  nearly  as  possible,  (p.  513.) 
It  remains  to  speak  briefly  of  the  Sword  Exercise  ;  which  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  cavalry,  in  making  a  charge.  At  the  com- 
mand, draw-s\voRV,  this  weapon  is  seized  by  the  hilt,  drawn  from 
the  scabbard,  and  extended  to  the  front,  with  the  point  a  little  raised, 
and  the  edge  towards  the  right;  it  is  then  brought  to  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, the  edge  to  the  left,  and  the  sword  hand  raised,  with  the  thumb 
under  the  chin ;  and  finally  carried  forward,  by  extending  the  arm, 
holding  it  still  vertical,  and  the  edge  turned  towards  the  horse's  left 
ear.  To  slope-swoRD,  the  hand  is  then  raised  a  little,  and  the  back 
of  the  sword  rested  on  the  right  shoulder :  and  to  carn/-swoRD,  is  to 
bring  it  again  to  the  last  position  of  drawing.  In  the  motion  to 
guard,  the  sword  is  first  raised  vertically,  bringing  the  hand  to  the 
left  breast ;  then  extended  forward,  and  held  nearly  horizontal,  point- 
ing a  little  to  the  left,  with  the  edge  turned  to  the  right,  and  inclined 
slightly  downwards.  In  the  St.  George,  or  head  protect,  the  sword 
is  held  above  the  head,  pointing  over  the  left  shoulder.  The  six 
cuts,  are  different  strokes  of  the  sword  ;  cut  one,  downwards  to  the 
left ;  cut  two,  downwards  to  the  right ;  cut  three,  upwards  to  the 
left ;  cut  four,  upwards  to  the  right ;  cut  Jive,  horizontally  to  the 
left ;  and  cut  six,  horizontally  to  the  right.  The  pistol  exercise,  we 
have  no  farther  room  to  notice. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

STRATEGY. 

STRATEGY,  or  Grand  Tactics,  is  that  branch  of  the  Arts  of  War 
which  relates  to  the  more  extended  operations  of  armies  during  a 
compaign ;  or,  in  other  words,  to  the  duties  of  a  general  command- 
ing in  chief.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  (rtpatog,  an 
army  ;  and  ayw,  I  lead  ;  or  from  o^pon^yta,  of  corresponding  signifi- 
cation. It  is  a  branch  of  high  importance  ;  to  which  the  three  pre- 
ceding branches  are  entirely  subordinate  :  and  it  should,  therefore, 
be  studied  not  only  by  high  commanders,  but  by  those  who  aspire  to 
high  command.  Geotactics  relates  to  the  training  of  individual 
corps,  or  their  component  parts;  but  Strategy,  or  Grand  Tactics,  re- 
lates to  the  combining  of  different  corps,  to  form  an  army,  and  the 


504  MACHETECHNICS. 

means  or  modes  of  employing  them  so  as  to  produce  the  greatest 
result.  The  principles  of  Strategy,  are  derived  partly  from  reasoning 
on  the  effects  of  certain  measures ;  but  chiefly  from  experience  as  to 
the  effect  of  these  and  similar  measures,  in  cases  where  they  have 
actually  been  tried. 

Strategy  is  an  art  of  ancient  origin,  though  it  has  but  recently  been 
treated  as  a  branch  distinct  from  Tactics.  It  was  practised  by  Alex- 
ander and  Caesar ;  and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  Grecian  phalanx, 
and  the  Roman  legion,  as  well  as  in  the  marshalling  of  modern 
armies,  (p.  498.)  In  the  Grecian  phalanx,  the  hoplitai,  or  heavy 
armed  infantry,  clad  in  full  armor,  with  broad  shields,  straight 
swords,  and  long  spears,  appear  to  have  occupied  the  rear ;  while 
the  peltastai,  or  targeteers,  with  smaller  shields  and  spears,  held  the 
middle  place ;  and  the  psiloi,  or  light  troops,  armed  with  darts, 
arrows,  and  slings,  were  posted  in  front,  to  begin  the  action.  The 
hippeis,  or  cavalry,  either  protected  the  flanks,  or  formed  a  reserve. 
The  Roman  legion  was,  in  early  times,  drawn  up  in  three  ranks ; 
the  hastati,  or  young  men,  in  front ;  the  principes,  or  middle  aged 
next;  and  the  triarii,  or  veterans,  in  the  rear.  They  were  all  armed 
with  a  shield,  sword,  spear,  and  two  javelins ;  but  the  hastati  bore 
the  largest  shields,  and  the  triarii,  the  longest  swords  and  spears. 
The  velites,  or  light  troops,  had  no  particular  place  assigned  them, 
but  fought  as  skirmishers,  with  javelins,  slings,  and  stones,  or  bows, 
and  arrows.  Of  ancient  marches,  encampments,  and  battles,  we 
have  no  room  here  to  speak. 

The  great  elements  of  Strategy,  or  the  combining  of  strength  with 
rapidity  of  motion,  were  first  developed  by  Maurice  of  Nassau ; 
practised  and  extended  by  the  Duke  of  Maryborough ;  farther  improved 
by  Frederick  the  Great ;  and  finally  perfected  by  Napoleon ;  who 
taught  them,  at  last,  even  to  his  enemies.  The  works  of  Lloyd  and 
Tempelhoflf,  describing  the  military  operations  of  Frederick  the 
Great,  are  perhaps  the  earliest  modern  writings  in  which  these  ele- 
ments are  formally  stated  and  explained.  Billow,  in  his  work  on  the 
Theory  of  War,  appears  to  have  committed  some  grave  errors  ;  such 
as  in  maintaining  that  retreats  should  be  made  in  separate  corps, 
diverging  from  each  other.  Jomini  opposes  this  and  other  maxims 
of  his  ;  and  insists  that  the  forces  should  be  kept  concentrated,  and 
led  by  the  shortest  way,  to  attack  the  enemy  in  overwhelming 
masses :  in  proof  of  which  he  cites  many  of  the  most  brilliant  ex- 
ploits of  Napoleon ;  and  might  have  cited  those  of  his  last  success- 
ful antagonist,  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  In  our  own  country,  the 
most  instructive  lessons  may  be  drawn  from  the  prudent  measures  of 
Washington,  compared  with  those  which  proved  fatal  to  Burgoyne 
and  Cornwallis ;  while  they  show  that  a  war  of  self-defence  has 
greatly  the  advantage  over  one  of  invasion  or  conquest. 

Our  further  remarks  on  Strategy,  will  be  arranged  under  the  heads 
of  Preliminary  Operations ;  Marches  and  Encampments  ;  and  Bat- 
tles and  Retreats. 

§  1.  Among  the  Preliminary  Operations  of  a  campaign,  or  sea- 
son's warfare,  are  the  organization  of  an  army  or  armies,  and  the 
devising  of  plans  of  operation.  European  armies  often  comprise 


STRATEGY.  505 

many  corps  ;  each  corps  consisting  of  one  or  more  divisions ;  each 
division,  of  two  or  more  brigades  ;  and  each  brigade,  of  two  or  more 
regiments  or  battalions.  In  smaller  armies,  a  single  brigade,  or 
even  a  battalion,  may  be  considered  as  forming  a  distinct  corps.  The 
principal  arms,  so  called,  which  compose  the  strength  of  an  army, 
are  the  infantry,  artillery,  cavalry,  and  engineering  or  fortification. 
As  cavalry  and  artillery  are  far  more  expensive  than  infantry,  the 
latter  constitute  the  great  mass  of  modern  armies.  Thus,  the  whole 
French  army,  in  1804,  consisted  of  about  500,000  infantry;  20,000 
artillery;  70,000  cavalry  ;  and  10,000  engineers,  including  sappers 
and  miners.  The  regular  army,  authorized  to  be  raised  by  our 
government,  in  the  war  of  1812,  would  have  amounted  to  62,448 
men  ;  but  the  number  in  service  at  any  one  time  was  far  less.  The 
present  army  of  the  United  States,  consists  of  eight  regiments  of 
infantry,  four  of  artillery,  and  two  of  dragoons ;  which,  with  the 
staff  corps,  form  a  nominal  aggregate  of  12,539  men. 

Troops  are  raised  or  recruited,  either  by  voluntary  enlistment,  or 
by  draughts,  or  conscriptions,  under  the  direction  of  the  civil  govern- 
ment. Although  the  militia  are  the  great  resource  for  the  defence  of  a 
nation,  still  they  cannot  generally  be  depended  upon,  until  they  have 
been  drilled  and  practised  in  warfare,  so  as  to  acquire  somewhat  of 
the  character  of  regular  troops.  The  importance  of  drilling  a  suffi- 
cient body  of  our  militia,  to  be  ready  to  suppress  insurrection,  or 
repel  invasion,  seems  to  be  too  evident,  and  urgent,  to  require  an 
argument  here  in  its  favor.  The  means  of  providing  supplies  of 
every  kind  for  an  army,  have  already  been  indicated,  as  far  as  our 
limits  would  allow,  in  treating  of  Hoplistics.  (p.  490  and  492).  The 
Staff  Corps  and  Departments  of  our  own  service,  are  1.  The  Adju- 
tant General's  department ;  2.  The  Inspector  General's  department; 
3.  The  corps  of  Engineers ;  4.  The  corps  of  Topographical  Engi- 
neers ;  5.  The  Ordnance  department ;  6.  The  Quartermaster 
department ;  7.  The  Subsistence  department :  8.  The  Purchasing 
department;  9.  The  Medical  department;  and  10.  The  Pay  de- 
partment. The  chief  officers  of  these  different  corps  and  depart- 
ments, present  with  the  army,  together  with  the  chaplains  and 
the  aides-de-camp  (or  aidecamps)  of  the  commander,  constitute  the 
Staff  of  the  army ;  on  which  its  efficiency  greatly  depends.  The 
Adjutant  General,  keeps  all  records  relating  to  the  personnel  of  the 
army,  or  the  officers  and  men ;  and  issues  the  orders  and  regulations 
directed  by  the  Commander-in-chief.  The  duties  of  the  Inspector 
General,  are  implied  by  his  title ;  and  can  here  require  no  farther 
mention. 

Before  taking  the  field,  it  is  customary  for  the  commander  to 
digest  a  plan  of  operations,  proposing  the  accomplishment  of  cer- 
tain objects,  and  based  on  the  best  information  which  he  can  obtain  ; 
but  liable  to  alteration  from  the  various  and  uncertain  chances  of 
war.  As  such  a  plan  generally  has  reference  to  a  whole  season,  it  is 
also  called  a  plan  of  the  campaign.  It  depends  upon  a  knowledge 
of  his  own  strength,  and  that  of  the  enemy  ;  and  a  knowledge  of  the 
country  which  is  to  be  the  field  or  theatre  of  war.  If  the  objects  of 
the  campaign  be  purely  defensive,  as  the  protection  of  a  certain 
64  2  U 


506  MACHETECHNICS. 

region,  or  frontier,  or  fortress,  or  chain  of  fortresses,  with  supplies 
in  the  vicinity,  the  plan  is  then  limited  to  the  best  arrangement  of  the 
troops  for  this  object ;  recollecting  that  they  should  not  be  so  much 
subdivided,  nor  so  far  separated,  as  to  expose  them  to  defeat  in 
detail ;  and  that  the  best  defence  may  sometimes  be  made  by  carrying 
the  war  into  the  enemy's  own  country,  or  meeting  him  in  advance. 

But  if  the  objects  proposed  be  offensive,  the  plan  of  operations 
becomes  much  more  complicated.  Considering  the  whole  field  or 
theatre  of  war  as  one  great  parade  ground,  the  side  towards  the  ene- 
my is  called  its  front;  the  opposite  side,  its  rear;  and  the  other 
sides  are  called  the  right  and  left  flanks.  If  the  army  draws  its  sup- 
plies and  recruits  from  the  rear,  the  space  where  they  are  assembled, 
or  whence  they  are  procured,  is  called  the  basis  of  operations.  As 
the  army  advances,  the  roads  or  routes  by  which  these  supplies  are 
carried  forward  to  overtake  it,  are  called  lines  of  operation.  As 
these  lines  usually  require  to  be  guarded  by  detachments,  stationed 
at  successive  posts  along  them ;  and  as  the  army,  if  obliged  to  retreat, 
ought  generally  to  be  concentrated  at  some  one  position ;  it  is  gene- 
rally preferable  to  have  only  one  principal  line  of  operations,  which 
may  then  be  guarded  more  strongly.  The  posts,  for  this  purpose, 
should  of  course  be  carefully  selected ;  and,  if  possible,  fortified,  at 
least  with  field  works. 

§  2.  Marches,  are  generally  performed  in  column,  on  account  of  the 
narrowness  of  roads ;  and,  if  long,  they  require  nightly  Encampments* 
to  give  rest  to  the  troops.  The  column  of  march,  should  be  so  disposed 
that  it  may  readily  deploy,  or  display  in  line,  by  oblique  marches  of  its 
centre  and  rear  to  the  right  and  left,  if  it  should  be  necessary  to  give 
or  sustain  battle.  It  should  be  protected  by  strong  van  and  rear 
guards  ;  with  scouts  and  skirmishers  on  the  flanks,  and  in  all  the  en- 
virons ;  to  guard  against  surprise,  and  gain  useful  information.  The 
greatest  precautions  are  required,  in  passing  forests,  ravines,  bridges, 
or  other  defiles ;  where  an  enemy  might  lie  in  ambush,  and  where 
there  would  be  no  room  to  form  in  battle  array.  The  baggage 
train,  should  be  placed  either  in  the  column,  or  so  near  it  that  it 
may  be  speedily  defended,  in  case  of  an  attack  ;  being  of  course  well 
guarded.  Detachments  are  often  required,  as  guards,  or  escorts,  or 
foragers :  and  they  should  neither  be  so  weak  as  to  be  easily  over- 
powered, nor  yet  so  strong  as  greatly  to  weaken  the  main  army. 

The  crossing  of  rivers,  in  presence  of  an  enemy,  and  especially 
in  retreating,  is  one  of  the  most  hazardous  warlike  operations.  To 
the  means  of  constructing  bridges  for  this  purpose,  where  bridges 
are  wanting,  we  .have  already  briefly  referred,  (p.  497.)  If  they 
are  to  be  built  in  the  face  of  an  enemy  on  the  opposite  shore,  he 
must  be  driven  back  by  a  powerful  cannonade ;  by  which  the  troops 
that  are  to  cross  should  also  be  protected.  If  we  are  to  retreat  across 
a  river,  with  the  enemy  pursuing,  it  is  very  desirable  to  have  defen- 
sive works  near  the  entrance  to  the  bridge;  forming  a  tetc-de-pont, 
by  which  the  enemy  may  be  held  in  check,  and  within  which  our 
troops  may  be  sheltered,  till  all  have  crossed  except  the  rear  guard ; 
which  then  evacuates  the  works,  and  destroys  the  bridge,  the  mo- 
ment that  it  has  crossed  it.  It  is  only  by  keeping  the  enemy  at  a 


STRATEGY.  507 

distance,  while  the  successive  corps  are  crossing  and  debouching 
on  the  opposite  shore,  that  such  a  movement  can  be  effected  without 
certain  destruction. 

In  all  marches  and  movements,  it  is  important  that  our  different 
columns,  or  corps,  should  keep  within  striking  distance  of  each 
other ;  so  that  if  either  were  attacked,  the  others  might  come  in  time 
to  aid  it.  The  nearer  the  enemy  may  be,  the  more  concentrated 
should  our  own  troops  be,  to  effect  this  object.  It  is  not  safe  to 
divide  our  own  army,  because  that  of  the  enemy  is  divided,  unless 
one  of  our  corps  can  be  trusted  to  itself,  while  the  other  is  able  lo 
vanquish  one  of  the  opposing  corps.  A  better  course,  in  this  case, 
is  to  attack  one  of  the  enemy's  corps  with  our  whole  force ;  and  thus 
beat  him  in  detail.  If  our  supplies  come  from  the  rear,  it  is  of  the 
greatest  importance  to  preserve  our  line  of  operations,  and  prevent 
the  enemy  from  intercepting  our  convoys.  The  line  of  battle,  of  an 
army,  which  is  usually  perpendicular  to  its  line  of  operations,  is 
technically  called  a  parallel;  because  it  is  also  parallel  to  the  enemy's 
line.  Should  the  enemy  move  to  the  right  or  left,  in  his  parallel,  it 
may  require  a  corresponding  movement  of  our  own,  either  to  give  or 
avoid  battle  ;  and  this  may  require  a  change  in  our  line  and  plan  of 
operations,  unless  it  has  been  already  provided  for. 

§  3.  A  Battle,  is  properly  an  engagement  in  which  the  great 
mass  of  both  the  contending  armies  is  present ;  and  if  unsuccessful, 
it  generally  necessitates  a  Retreat,  or  if  this  be  impossible,  a  sur- 
render. When  a  part  only  of  one  or  both  armies,  is  present,  the 
engagement  is  called  an  action,  or  affair  ;  and  if  it  is  between  only 
a  few  troops,  and  attended  with  slight  results,  it  is  called  a  skirmish. 
Of  course  a  battle  should  be  voluntarily  hazarded  only  under  favor- 
able circumstances,  or  else  for  some  urgent  reason:  and  the  army 
which  acts  on  the  offensive,  is  the  most  likely  to  win  the  day,  be- 
cause troops  on  the  advance  generally  retain  their  courage  and  firm- 
ness better  than  those  who  await  the  onset.  An  army,  anticipating 
an  attack,  should  choose  a  strong  and  somewhat  elevated  position; 
with  natural  obstacles,  or  temporary  works,  if  possible,  to  defend  its 
flanks ;  but  with  a  free  passage  for  retreat,  in  case  of  heavy  reverses. 
It  is  also  desirable  to  have  some  detached  field  works  in  front,  to 
break  the  shock  of  the  enemy's  charge ;  but  with  intervals  through 
which  charges  may  be  made  in  return.  Besides  the  main  army, 
usually  drawn  up  in  two  lines,  there  should  be  a  strong  reserve, 
ready  to  act  at  any  critical  moment. 

If  any  positions  can  be  found,  from  which  the  enemy's  line  can 
be  enfiladed  by  our  artillery,  they  should  of  course  be  made  avail- 
able. Instead  of  distributing  the  different  troops  uniformly  along  the 
line,  it  is  generally  better  that  the  cavalry,  and  artillery,  should  be 
concentrated  in  large  masses ;  which  can  thus  be  made  to  act  more 
effectively  against  the  enemy.  An  attack  is  often  made  on  one  wing 
or  flank  of  our  line ;  which  method  is  called  an  oblique  attack,  or 
oblique  order  of  battle.  The  best  mode  of  meeting  it  would  probably 
be  to  make  the  threatened  wing  change  front,  and  stand'  its  ground, 
while  the  main  army  takes  such  a  position  as  to  outflank  the  enemy, 
instead  of  allowing  itself  to  be  outflanked :  but  a  skilful  general 


508  MACHETECHNICS. 

would  always  endeavor  to  avoid  being  exposed  to  an  oblique,  or  a 
flank  attack.  An  army  throwing  back  one  wing,  so  as  to  present  a 
salient  angle  in  its  line,  is  said  to  form  a  potence,  or  crotchet ;  but 
such  a  position  can  rarely  be  recommended.  Oblique  movements, 
are  often  advantageously  made  by  echelons,  of  battalions,  or  brigades, 
preserving  certain  intervals,  by  which  they  are  left  more  free  to 
inancBuvre,  or  engage,  or  retreat.  To  attack  the  weakest  point  of 
an  enemy,  with  an  overwhelming  force,  and  then  follow  up  the  suc- 
cess, appears  to  be  the  leading  maxim  of  Strategy  ;  applicable  by  sea 
as  well  as  by  land. 


CHAPTER  V. 

NAVITACTICS. 

NAVITACTICS,  or  Naval  Tactics,  is  that  branch  of  Machetechnics 
which  relates  to  the  arming,  manoeuvring,  and  fighting  of  ships  of 
war.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  vav$,  (or  the  Latin 
navis],  a  ship ;  and  raocrco,  I  arrange.  This  great  division  of  the 
arts  of  war,  depends  immediately  on  the  branches  of  Navitecture  and 
Navigation  ;  which  have  already  found  their  place  in  the  present  clas- 
sification of  knowledge,  and  to  which  we  here  simply  refer,  (p.  451). 
Ships  of  War,  are  distinguished  from  merchant  vessels,  by  their 
being  generally  larger,  stronger,  and  armed  with  numerous  guns  ; 
while  the  latter  seldom  carry  more  than  one  or  two,  for  making  sig- 
nals. They  are  also  recognized  by  some  peculiarities  of  rigging ; 
which  are  at  once  detected  by  a  practised  eye ;  but  which  cannot 
here  be  described.  A  navy,  is  the  whole  assemblage  of  vessels  of 
war  belonging  to  one  nation  ;  any  number  of  which,  serving  together, 
under  one  commander,  is  called  a  fleet,  or,  if  small,  a  squadron. 
On  the  importance  of  navies  to  the  defence  of  maritime  nations,  now 
so  generally  admitted,  we  need  not  here  enlarge. 

The  earliest  instance  of  naval  warfare,  is  assigned  by  some  writers 
to  Erythras,  who,  at  an  early  period,  became  master  of  the  Red  Sea ; 
but  by  others  to  Neptune,  or  to  Jason.  The  ancient  ships  of  war, 
called  galleys,  were  usually  of  moderate  size  ;  and,  though  provided 
with  masts  and  sails,  they  were  generally  manoeuvred,  in  battle,  by 
oars  alone.  Some  of  them  had  two,  and  some  of  them  three  rows  or 
banks  of  oars,  one  above  the  other ;  those  above  being  the  longest, 
and  pulled  by  men  sitting  or  standing  on  higher  benches.  Those 
with  three  banks,  were  called  by  the  Romans,  triremes.  The  beak, 
or  foremost  end,  of  the  galleys,  was  made  very  strong :  often  present- 
ing the  shape  of  a  lion,  or  some  formidable  figure  :  and  an  attack  was 
sometimes  made  by  rowing  with  all  force,  and  striking,  with  the  beak, 
the  side  of  the  opposing  vessel,  with  a  view  to  crush  and  sink  it,  or 
run  it  down.  The  largest  of  the  Grecian  vessels  at  the  great  battle 
of  Salamis,  had  50  oars,  but  only  18  fighting  men. 

The  rowers,  were  deemed  of  inferior  grade  to  the  soldiers  ;  who 
fought  with  javelins  and  arrows,  or  manned  the  heavy  weapons. 


NAVITACTICS.  509 

These  consisted  of  balistsc,  for  hurling  stones  heavy  enough  to  pierce 
the  bottom  of  the  opposing  ship,  and  sink  it,  as  they  fell ;  dolphins, 
or  battering  rams,  of  iron,  suspended  from  the  mast,  and  made  to 
swing,  with  heavy  blows,  against  the  sides  of  the  enemy  ;  or  crows, 
which  were  long  beams  with  iron  hooks  at  the  prows,  first  used  by 
the  Roman  consul  Duillius,  to  grapple  with  the  Carthaginian  fleet ; 
by  means  of  which  the  Romans  were  at  once  enabled  to  board  their 
enemy.  Ignited  combustibles  were  sometimes  thrown  upon  the  foe, 
to  burn  his  vessels;  and  the  Greek  fire,  invented  at  a  late  period, 
served  this  purpose  most  effectually,  as  it  could  not  be  extinguished. 
The  ancient  mode  of  drawing  up  a  fleet,  was  in  the  form  of  a  trian- 
gle :  the  admiral's  ship  being  in  front ;  the  others  extending  from  his, 
in  two  diverging  lines  ;  and  the  store  ships  forming  a  connecting  line 
in  the  rear. 

With  the  general  introduction  of  fire  arms,  and  improvement  of 
navigation  and  ship-building,  naval  warfare  assumed  a  new  aspect. 
Ships  of  war  were  built  so  large  that  oars  became  insufficient  to  move 
them  ;  and  they  were  propelled  by  means  of  sails  alone.  Port  holes, 
were  invented  by  Decharges,  a  French  navitect  at  Brest,  in  1500; 
and  the  Great  Harry,  of  1000  tons  burthen,  built  in  1509,  under 
Henry  VII.,  was  the  first  British  ship  of  war  which  carried  guns  on 
two  decks.  In  the  reign  of  James  I.,  ten  ships  were  built,  of  1400 
tons  burthen,  and  64  guns  each ;  but  they,  were  still  inferior  in  size 
to  the  ships  of  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese.  The  earlier  ships  of 
war  were  greatly  encumbered  by  lofty  forecastles  and  quarterdecks, 
forming  as  it  were,  towers  at  the  ends  of  the  ship,  but  greatly  impeding 
her  sailing,  increasing  her  exposure,  and  diminishing  her  force.  The 
use  of  naval  signals,  is  said  to  have  been  improved  and  extended  by 
the  Duke  of  York ;  but  it  is  only  within  the  last  century  that  the 
evolutions  of  fleets  have  been  reduced  to  anything  like  system.  The 
invention  of  the  mode  of  attack  by  breaking  the  enemy's  line,  is 
claimed  by  Mr.  Clerk ;  who  wrote  on  this  subject  in  1779  :  but  its 
originality  has  been  strongly  disputed  by  Sir  Howard  Douglass. 

Our  own  country  may  claim  to  have  made  some  decided  improve- 
ments, both  in  naval  architecture,  and  naval  tactics ;  as  the  results  of 
former  wars  abundantly  testify.  The  introduction  of  Paixhan  guns, 
throwing  shells  of  great,  weight  horizontally,  is  likely  to  render  naval 
warfare  more  hazardous,  and  its  results  more  decisive  than  they  have 
hitherto  been  deemed.  This  we  regard  as  a  happy  omen :  for  the 
more  dangerous  war  becomes,  the  less  disposed  will  nations  be  to 
engage  in  it.  The  use  of  steam,  for  propelling  large  vessels,  is  also 
likely  to  make  some  change  in  naval  warfare  ;  though  it  will  not 
probably  turn  the  balance  of  power,  unless  it  be  against  those  who 
neglect  it.  The  idea  has  been  entertained  by  some  persons,  that 
the  use  of  steam  batteries,  for  harbor  defence,  will  supersede  the 
necessity  of  fortifications  on  shore.  This  opinion  we  cannot  adopt : 
but  considering  the  great  advantage  which  forts  possess  over  floating 
batteries,  in  regard  to  safety,  certainty  of  aim,  and  permanency, 
where  they  are  well  planned  and  constructed,  we  think  they  must 
continue  to  be  regarded  as  an  essential  element  of  coast  and  harbor 
defence. 

2  US 


510  MACHETECHNICS. 

We  proceed  to  give  some  farther  ideas  of  Navitactics,  under  the 
heads  of  Naval  Armaments ;  Naval  Engagements  ;  and  Manoeuvres 
of  Fleets. 

§  1.  A  Naval  Armament,  consists  of  vessels  of  war,  fully  armed, 
manned,  and  equipped  for  active  service:  but  the  term  armament,  is 
also  applied  to  the  guns  of  a  single  vessel.  Vessels  of  war  are 
ranked  according  to  the  number  of  decks  on  which  their  guns  are 
carried.  Those  carrying  guns  on  three  or  more  decks,  are  called 
ships  of  the  line,  or  line  of  battle  ships  ;  carrying  usually  74,  but 
some  of  them  100,  or  even  120  guns.  Those  carrying  guns  on  two 
decks,  are  called  frigates  ;  if  of  44  guns  or  more,  frigates  of  the 
first  class  ;  but  if  of  smaller  armament,  frigates  of  the  second  class. 
Vessels  carrying  guns  on  one  deck  only,  but  ship-rigged,  are  called 
sloops  of  war,  or  corvettes  ;  and  carry  usually  18,  20,  or  24  guns. 
Other  vessels,  chiefly  of  still  inferior  force,  receive  their  appellation 
merely  from  their  rig  and  build,  as  brigs,  schooners,  and  cutters. 
Among  the  principal  officers  of  a  vessel  of  war,  are  the  captain, 
lieutenants,  midshipmen,  sailing  master,  quarter  masters,  boatswain, 
carpenter,  and  sailmaker ;  besides  the  chaplain,  surgeon,  purser,  and 
captain's  clerk. 

The  uppermost  deck  of  all  vessels  of  war,  is  called  the  spar-deck. 
When  there  is  another  deck  carrying  guns,  it  is  called  the  gun-deck'; 
and  if  there  are  two  others,  they  are  distinguished  as  the  upper  and 
lower  gun-decks.  Next  below  the  gun-decks  is  the  orlop-deck,  or 
orlop ;  and  below  this  are  the  hold,  for  stowing  spare  rigging  and 
provisions  ;  and  the  magazine,  for  storing  powder, — which  lies  en- 
tirely below  the  surface  or  level  of  the  water.  Ships  recently  built, 
have  an  arrangement  for  drowning  the  magazine ;  or  filling  it  with 
water  from  below,  to  prevent  the  powder  from  exploding,  but  with- 
out admitting  the  water  into  the  rest  of  the  vessel.  The  guns, 
usually  42,  32,  24,  and  18  pounders,  long  guns  and  carronades,  are 
mounted  on  carriages  resembling  those  for  garrison  guns,  running  on 
trucks  or  small  wheels ;  and  their  recoil  is  limited  by  a  strong  rope 
attached  to  the  side  of  the  ship.  The  officers  are  quartered  aft,  and 
the  men  forward,  on  the  gun-decks ;  the  upper  one  in  preference. 

The  dimensions  of  ships  of  war  have  been  materially  increased, 
in  recent  times.  A  ship  of  120  guns  is  about  210  feet  long  on  the 
lower  gun  deck,  and  has  a  breadth  of  beam  of  about  58  feet,  and  a 
depth  in  hold  of  about  33  feet ;  the  extreme  length  being  about  230 
feet,  and  the  burthen  about  3200  tons.  A  ship  of  74  guns,  is  about 
196  feet  long,  and  54  broad,  and  of  about  2600  tons  burthen.  A 
frigate  of  44  guns,  is  about  179  feet  long,  47  broad,  and  of  about 
1600  tons  burthen ;  but  a  sloop  of  war,  of  24  guns,  is  about  132  feet 
long,  36  broad,  and  has  a  burthen  of  about  900  tons.  A  ship  of  the 
line,  draws  at  least  24  feet  of  water;  a  frigate  of  44  guns,  22  feet; 
and  a  sloop  of  24  guns,  draws  16  feet  of  water.  A  ship  of  120 
guns,  requires  a  crew  of  about  900  sailors  and  gunners,  besides  ma- 
rines ;  a  74  gun  ship,  requires  650  ;  a  44  gun  frigate,  about  300 ; 
and  an  18  gun  sloop  of  war,  requires  about  125  men,  besides  ma- 
rines ;  these  latter  being  soldiers,  designed  to  act  as  a  guard,  and  to 
assist  in  close  combat,  especially  in  boarding.  The  usual  coinple- 


NAVITACTICS.  511 

ment  of  marines  in  the  British  service,  is  one  for  every  gun.  The 
rigging  of  ships  of  war,  differs  so  little  from  that  of  the  largest  mer- 
chant ships,  as  to  require  no  farther  notice  in  this  place,  (p.  453.) 

§  2.  Naval  Engagements,  or  battles,  may  take  place  either  be- 
tween fleets,  or  single  ships :  but  the  mode  of  fighting  being  essen- 
tially the  same  in  both  cases,  we  shall  confine  the  present  descrip- 
tion to  those  of  the  latter  kind.  When  two  hostile  ships  come  in 
sight  of  each  other  upon  the  ocean,  the  one  which  happens  to  be  to 
the  windward,  or  on  the  side  from  which  the  wind  blows,  is  said  to 
have  the  weather  gage.  This  is  considered  so  great  an  advantage 
that  ships  often  manoeuvre  some  time  before  fighting,  the  one  to  gain, 
and  the  other  to  retain  it.  If  the  weather,  or  windward  ship,  be  of 
inferior  force,  it  enables  her  to  avoid  an  action  much  longer ;  and,  in 
the  opposite  case,  she  can  the  more  speedily  bear  down  upon  her 
enemy.  Moreover,  the  windward  ship  is  less  endangered  in  action ;  as 
she  careens  towards  the  enemy,  and  exposes  less  of  her  side  to  his 
fire.  A  ship  sailing  with  the  wind  on  her  right,  is  said  to  be  on  her 
starboard  tack  ;  but  with  the  wind  from  the  left  hand,  she  is  said  to 
be  on  her  larboard  or  left  hand  tack. 

In  preparing  for  action,  the  courses,  or  lower  sails,  are  usually 
hauled  up,  and  not  used  ;  though  kept  in  readiness,  if  required  :  the 
ship  being  most  manageable  under  topsails,  top-gallant-sails,  gib,  and 
spanker.  The  crew  are  called  to  quarters  by  beat  of  drum  ;  each 
man  taking  the  station  which  had  previously  been  assigned  to  him  in 
drilling.  The  commander,  is  stationed  in  the  hinder  part  of  the 
ship,  called  the  quarterdeck;  and  his  orders  are  communicated  to  the 
lieutenants,  or  other  commanders  of  sections,  or  batteries,  as  also 
to  the  sailing-master,  and  other  officers,  either  directly,  or  by  send- 
ing his  aids, — who  are  usually  midshipmen,  selected  for  this  pur- 
pose. The  carpenter  rigs  the  pumps ;  collects  his  plugs  to  stop  shot 
holes  ;  and  has  fishes  or  splits  of  wood  ready  for  strengthening  a 
crippled  mast  or  spar.  The  surgeon  is  stationed  in  the  cockpit,  a 
part  of  the  hold  prepared  for  the  purpose,  to  attend  to  the  wounded. 
The  decks  are  wetted  and  sanded,  the  latter  to  prevent  their  being 
slippery ;  and  vessels  of  water  are  provided  to  extinguish  fire. 
Finally,  the  magazine  is  opened  by  the  gunner  and  his  crew ;  and  the 
ammunition  served  to  the  powder  boys,  who  pass  it  to  the  different 
guns.* 

Meanwhile,  the  ship  nears  the  enemy ;  and  as  they  sail  past, 
or  alongside  of  each  other,  the  firing  commences  in  close  action, 
if  it  did  not  begin  at  a  distance.  Each  ship,  in  firing,  except 
with  bow  and  stern  chasers,  (long  guns),  must  present  its  side  to 
the  enemy  ;  and  then  usually  fires  a  broad-side,  or  nearly  half 
its  guns  at  once.  It  is  generally  considered  best  to  fire  at  the 
water  line  of  the  enemy's  ship,  (between  wind  and  water),  with 
a  view  to  sink  him  ;  or  else  at  the  foot  of  his  masts,  with  a 
view  to  cut  them  away.  Each  vessel  also  strives  to  obtain  a 

*  Of  Naval  Gunnery,  which  differs  only  in  its  details  from  that  of  the  Artillery, 
we  have  no  room  here  to  treat. 


512  MACHETECHNICS. 

position,  or  watch  the  time,  for  raking  the  other;  that  is,  for  firing 
lengthwise  of  the  antagonist  ship,  especially  as  she  turns  in  tacking 
or  wearing ;  such  fires  being  very  effective.  It  often  happens,  that 
one  of  the  two  ships  is  so  disabled,  as  to  be  obliged  to  haul  down  its 
colors,  in  token  of  surrender,  without  coming  in  contact  with  the 
other :  if  not,  the  last  resort  is  boarding  ;  by  running  one  ship  afoul 
of  the  other  ;  when  the  men  fight  hand  to  hand,  with  boarding  pikes, 
cutlasses,  and  small  arms  ;  and  headlong  valor,  oftener  than  numbers, 
decides  the  contest. 

§  3.  The  Manoeuvres  of  Fleets,  consist  in  the  arranging  of  several 
vessels  in  prescribed  order ;  and  much  resemble  the  evolutions  of 
artillery  batteries,  or  of  large  bodies  of  troops.  When  several  ves- 
sels of  war  are  to  act  in  concert,  it  is  of  course  necessary  that  they 
should  all  be  placed  under  one  commander,  who  in  foreign  services 
has  the  title  of  admiral,  or,  if  commanding  a  squadron,  that  of  com- 
modore. The  ship  in  which  he  sails,  has  a  separate  captain,  like  the 
others ;  and  is  called  the  flag  ship,  because  it  bears  the  flag  of  the 
chief  commander.  His  orders  are  conveyed  to  the  other  vessels,  by 
preconcerted  signals ;  which  are  usually  small  flags,  pennons,  or 
streamers,  of  different  colors,  or  in  different  positions  of  the  rigging  ; 
and,  in  the  night,  lights,  or  rockets,  or  the  firing  of  guns  at  prescribed 
intervals  of  time.  Fleets  are  often  attended  by  transports,  or  store 
ships ;  and  they  sometimes  act  as  convoys  to  merchantmen,  when 
their  cargoes  are  of  national  value. 

Fleets  often  manceuvre  in  one  or  more  columns ;  all  the  ships 
tacking,  or  making  sail,  or  taking  in  sail  at  the  same  time :  and  the 
distance  between  the  ships  may  vary,  from  a  cable's  length,  to  a 
third  of  the  same,  that  is,  from  120  to  40  fathoms,  according  to  cir- 
cumstances. When  there  are  two  or  more  columns,  they  should 
be  so  far  apart  that  a  line  drawn  from  the  ship  at  one  end  of  one 
column,  to  the  ship  at  the  opposite  end  of  the  next,  would  make  an  angle 
of  two  points,  or  22£°,  with  the  direction  of  either  column.  Gene- 
rally, the  van-guard  forms  the  weather,  or  windward  column;  and 
the  rear-guard,  the  leeward  column:  but  this  order  is  sometimes 
changed.  Among  the  other  orders  of  sailing,  besides  in  line,  the 
triangular  order,  of  the  ancients,  is  perhaps  the  most  important.  The 
particular  evolutions  by  which  the  different  ships  preserve  their  pre- 
scribed place,  in  these  orders,  we  have  no  room  here  to  describe. 

In  the  order  of  battle,  the  ships  are  generally  drawn  up  in  line ; 
under  easy  sail,  and  on  parallel  courses.  Here,  as  in  the  case  of 
single  ships,  it  is  deemed  an  advantage  to  have  the  weather-gage ; 
though  this  is  sometimes  lost,  even  at  the  moment  of  engaging,  by 
an  unforeseen  change  of  the  wind.  The  two  fleets  usually  come 
into  action  with  the  wind  oblique,  or  nearly  abeam  ;  and  they  formerly 
arranged  themselves  in  two  parallel  lines ;  each  ship  exchanging 
broadsides  with  those  she  passed,  and  perhaps  finally  engaging  with 
a  single  adversary.  The  more  approved  method  is,  as  in  Strategy, 
to  concentrate  if  possible  an  overwhelming  force  against  one  portion 
of  the  enemy,  and  thus  vanquish  him  peacemeal.  A  favorite  manceu- 
vre for  this  object,  recommended,  if  not  invented,  by  Mr.  Clerk,  is  to 


NAVITACTICS.  513 

break  the  line,  of  the  enemy,  by  an  oblique  attack ;  when  the  rear- 
ward portion  of  his  ships,  separated  from  the  rest,  may  be  captured 
with  comparative  ease,  while  the  others  are  too  far  distant  to  aid 
them.  This  method  was  practised  by  Rodney,  in  the  West  Indies ; 
and  also  by  Nelson,  in  the  battles  of  the  Nile,  and  Trafalgar :  its 
excellence,  therefore,  may  be  considered  as  fully  established. 

Note  to  page  503.  The  formation  by  threes  is  that  prescribed  in 
Herries'  Cavalry  Tactics ;  but  the  formation  now  adopted  in  the 
United  States  service  is  by  fours:  four  men  of  the  front  rank  wheel- 
ing as  one,  and  being  followed  by  four  men  of  the  rear  rank ;  thus 
forming  a  column  of  four  men  abreast,  to  march  by  a  flank. 


65 


XVI.  DEPARTMENT : 

CALLO  TECHNICS. 


IN  the  department  of  Callotechnics,  we  comprehend  those  arts  of 
ornament  and  amusement  which  relate  to  material  objects,  and  hence 
depend  upon  materials  and  instruments  for  their  exercise.  The  name 
is  derived  from  the  Greek,  xaxoj,  beautiful,  or  xaMoj,  beauty ;  and  te xv*ii 
an  art :  and  the  term  Fine  Arts,  is  chiefly  applied  to  this  group  ;  which 
is  here  made  to  include  Printing,  Painting,  Sculpture,  Music,  and 
Argics,  or  active  amusements.  These  arts  have  close  relations  with 
Poetry  and  Romance,  or  Callography  ;  and  they  are  accordingly 
assigned  to  the  final  place  in  the  study  of  the  material  world,  as  Cal- 
lography was  in  the  intellectual :  but  they  differ  essentially  in  the 
means  which  they  employ  to  produce  the  same  ideas  or  emotions  ; 
the  one  acting  through  the  medium  of  the  senses ;  the  other  directly 
upon  the  imagination. 

Painting  and  Sculpture,  have  many  principles  of  taste  in  common 
not  only  with  Architecture  and  Horticulture,  which  are  sometimes 
ranked  as  fine  arts,  but  also  with  Vestiture  and  Furniture,  in  their 
more  ornamental  productions.  There  is,  however,  this  distinction 
between  them  ;  that  while  these  latter  arts  are  chiefly  subservient  to 
utility,  or  the  physical  wants  of  man,  the  former  are  designed  chiefly 
for  intellectual  gratification.  This  distinction  also  applies  to  Music, 
and  to  Argics,  including  gymnastic  exercises  and  games  of  chance 
and  skill :  and  it  may  be  extended,  though  with  less  force,  to  the  art 
of  Printing,  for  which  the  present  department  has  seemed  the  most 
appropriate  place.  The  close  connection  of  writing  and  printing 
with  drawing  and  engraving,  is  another  reason  for  the  arrangement 
here  adopted;  especially  as  books,  the  joint  production  of  these  arts, 
are  really  specimens  of  the  Fine  Arts,  and  greatly  contribute  to  our 
intellectual  gratification. 

The  characteristic  arts,  embraced  in  this  group,  have  often  been 
termed  Imitative  Arts  ;  a  term  which  belongs  to  them  in  common 
with  various  others.  It  is  true  that  Painting  and  Sculpture  imitate 
shapes  and  colors,  and  Music  imitates  sounds  and  motions ;  and 
hence  arises  one  source  of  the  pleasure  which  these  arts  afford.  But 
they  are  imitative  in  a  higher  sense  than  this ;  that  is  to  say,  in 
copying  abstract  nature,  and  representing  objects  not  merely  as  they 
do  exist,  or  have  existed ;  but  as  they  might  be  supposed  to  exist, 
under  any  imagined  circumstances  or  conditions.  In  this  sense,  they 
are  properly  termed  Creative  Arts ;  as  producing  representations 
which  have  no  original  in  nature ;  and  thus  enlarging  the  boundaries 

514 


PRELIMINARY    REMARKS.  515 

of  human  conception.  But  while  venturing  into  this  sphere,  it  is 
necessary  that  they  should  be  controlled  by  the  principles  of  pure 
taste,  and  never  lose  sight  of  probabilities,  or  at  least  of  possibilities, 
in  their  imaginative  excursions. 

Of  the  Fine  Arts,  as  of  Ornamental  Literature,  it  may  be  said,  that 
they  spring  from  the  constitution  of  human  nature  ;  and  though  not 
absolutely  necessary  to  its  physical  existence,  yet  they  have  in  all 
ages  served  to  develope  its  mental  powers,  and  to  promote  its  highest 
enjoyments.  By  furnishing  a  pleasing  recreation,  they  have  often 
kept  the  young  mind  from  wandering  in  forbidden  paths  ;  while  age 
has  derived  from  them  the  vigor  of  the  bow  unstrung.  But  it  is 
rather  to  the  sentient  than  to  the  reasoning  powers  of  our  nature  that 
they  address  themselves ;  and  hence,  if  rightly  directed,  they  have 
power  to  soothe  the  stormy  passions,  and  calm  the  troubled  breast ; 
or  to  warm  the  heart  to  goodness,  and  implant  the  seeds  of  virtue  and 
piety  ;  or  to  rouse  the  soul  to  action,  and  incite  it  to  the  performance 
of  deeds  of  daring  and  of  glory.  That  they  have  often  been  abused, 
and  applied  to  unworthy  purposes,  must  ever  be  a  subject  of  regret, 
to  virtuous  minds :  and  it  furnishes  a  reason  for  their  being  legally 
and  morally  scrutinized  ;  but  none  for  their  neglect  or  extirpation. 

To  compare  the  relative  merits  of  these  arts,  or  to  give  a  preference 
either  to  them  or  to  Rhetoric,  Poetry,  or  Romance,  we  deem  unneces- 
sary and  invidious  ;  as  each  admits  of  masterly  skill  in  its  own  sphere ; 
and  the  best  productions  of  each  branch  may  well  vie  with  those  of 
the  others.  Of  sensible  forms,  Painting  may  give  more  exact  ideas 
than  Poetry ;  but,  for  this  very  reason,  the  effect  may  be  less  impos- 
ing ;  because  deprived  of  the  charm  or  spell  which  imagination  casts 
over  objects  half  revealed.  The  effects  of  Music,  are  generally  less 
definite  than  those  of  either  poetry  or  painting  :  but  still  they  are  often 
not  the  less  pleasing ;  as  the  very  vagueness  of  their  impressions 
leaves  the  mind  only  the  more  free  to  follow  any  train  of  thought,  or 
feeling,  which  they  may  excite,  or  with  which  they  may  harmonize. 
This  fact  reminds  us  that  all  these  arts  should  be  kept  within  their 
proper  bounds,  and  enjoyed  moderately  ;  else  instead  of  relaxing  and 
invigorating  the  mind,  they  will  only  enervate  it,  by  the  thraldom  of 
mental  dissipation. 

The  history  of  Callotechnics,  will  be  more  appropriately  distributed 
among  its  different  branches.  The  most  important  topic  in  this  his- 
tory, is  the  invention  of  the  art  of  Printing ;  by  which  knowledge, 
once  confined  in  manuscripts,  and  accessible  only  to  the  privileged 
few,  is  now  disseminated  in  multiplied  copies,  widely  as  the  winds 
are,  and  almost  as  free.  Though  of  later  date  than  the  invention  of 
the  compass,  and  of  fire  arms,  it  has  exercised  an  influence  not  less 
important  than  theirs,  on  the  destiny  of  the  world  ;  and  when  the 
mighty  power  of  steam  arose,  and  winged  its  way  over  sea  and  land, 
the  genius  of  Printing  at  once  took  advantage  of  its  progress,  and  sub- 
sidized it  as  the  carrier  of  her  literary  treasures.  Of  the  other  Fine 
Arts,  none  has  made  substantial  progress,  in  modern  times,  excepting 
Music ;  but  this  art,  next  to  Printing,  has,  we  think,  exerted  the 
greatest  influence  upon  national  character.  We  are  of  the  opinion 
that  music  does  not  form  the  national  character,  so  much  as  it  is 


516  CALLOTECHNICS. 

formed  by  it:  yet  each  has  an  influence  upon  the  other.  The  gene- 
ral fact  that  the  most  enlightened  nations  have  made  the  greatest 
progress  in  the  arts  of  this  class,  forms,  we  think,  a  substantial  argu- 
ment in  favor  of  their  liberal  but  judicious  cultivation. 

We  proceed  to  give  some  further  illustrations  of  Callotechnics, 
under  the  branches  of  Printing ;  Painting ;  Sculpture ;  Music  ;  and 
Argics ;  the  latter  comprehending  various  games  and  active  amuse- 
ments. 


CHAPTER  I. 

PRINTING. 

WE  use  the  term  Printing,  in  a  generic  sense,  for  the  want  of 
another  more  appropriate,  to  include  the  arts  of  communicating  ideas 
by  means  of  letters  and  other  symbols.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Latin,  imprimo,  I  imprint  or  engrave ;  and  this  from  premo,  I 
press;  probably  alluding  originally  to  the  impression  of  seals  or 
signets.  We  here  comprehend,  besides  printing,  properly  so  called, 
the  arts  of  writing  and  engraving,  bookbinding,  and  telegraphic  com- 
munication :  all  of  which  have  close  relations  with  printing,  and  are 
subservient  to  the  same  general  object.  The  arts  of  this  group  have 
also  a  reference  to  Glossology,  or  the  study  of  Languages  ;  and  the 
art  of  Writing  might  be  introduced  under  that  department,  as  subser- 
vient to  the  study  of  it,  were  it  not  more  closely  related  here.  These 
arts  are,  collectively,  of  the  highest  importance,  as  means  for  the 
diffusion  of  knowledge;  by  which  the  thoughts,  inventions,  or  dis- 
coveries of  any  individual,  may  speedily  be  communicated  to  the 
whole  civilized  world. 

The  most  ancient  writings  now  remaining,  are  those  engraved  on 
stone;  as  the  Egyptian  hieroglyphics;  and  the  arrow-head  charac- 
ters of  Persepolis  and  Babylon,  which  have  but  recently  been  decy- 
phered.  The  Egyptians  also  wrote  on  papyrus,  a  kind  of  paper 
made  from  a  reed  growing  along  the  river  Nile  ;  and  recent  mention 
is  made  of  a  manuscript  at  Turin,  of  this  material,  written  as  early 
as  1700  B.  C. ;  though  we  are  not  informed  of  its  contents.*  It  is 
highly  probable  that  the  books  of  Moses  were  written  on  papyrus ; 
though  possibly  on  prepared  linen.  The  poem  of  Hesiod,  entitled 
Works  and  Days,  is  said  to  have  been  written  on  leaden  tablets, 
and  kept  in  the  Temple  of  the  Muses.  Tablets  of  brass,  ivory,  or 
wood,  were  also  used  by  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ;  being  either 
covered  with  wax,  and  written  upon  transiently,  with  the  stylus,  or 
iron  point ;  or  else  being  written  upon  permanently,  with  ink,  and  a 
calamus,  or  reed,  for  a  pen.  Parchment,  made  from  the  skins  of 
animals,  was  invented  at  Pergamus,  200  B.  C. ;  when  papyrus 
could  not  be  procured  from  Egypt.  Paper,  was  made  of  cotton,  by 
the  Arabians,  as  early  as  A.  D.  704 :  and  they  introduced  its  manu- 

*  Dr.  Jenks's  Comprehensive  Commentary;  I;  213;  where  reference  is  also 
made  to  other  ancient  Egyptian  manuscripts  on  papyrus. 


PRINTING.  517 

facture  into  Europe ;  where  paper  was  first  made  of  linen  rags, 
about  1320.  The  bark  and  leaves  of  trees,  are  still  used  as  writing 
materials  by  some  half-civilized  nations  or  tribes. 

The  art  of  Xylographic,  or  block  printing,  by  means  of  engraved 
wooden  plates,  was  known  to  the  Chinese,  it  is  said,  1100  B.  C. 
It  was  reinvented  in  Europe ;  we  believe  by  Laurentius  Jansen, 
called  Coster,  at  Harlaem,  as  early  as  1430 ;  but  the  great  invention 
of  typography,  or  printing  with  moveable  types,  is  we  believe  due 
to  Guttenberg,  otherwise  called  Gansfleisch,  who  was  assisted  in 
improving  it,  by  Schoeffer,  and  perhaps  by  Faust.  The  date  now 
generally  assigned  to  this  invention,  is  1440:  and  the  first  printed 
edition  of  the  Bible  was  completed  in  1455.  The  invention  of  ste- 
reotype printing,  from  cast  metallic  plates,  is  due  to  Vander-Mey, 
of  Holland,  who  first  matured  it  about  1690  ;  and  to  Ged,  of  Scotland, 
who  reinvented  it  in  1725.  The  invention  of  the  printing  press  is 
ascribed  to  Guttenberg;  but  the  invention  of  printing  machinery, 
or  the  power  press,  commenced  in  1790,  with  Mr.  W.  Nicholson; 
and  was  first  successfully  applied  by  Messrs.  Bacon  and  Donkin,  in 
1813. 

The  art  of  engraving  on  wood,  is  also  said  to  have  originated  in 
Germany,  with  the  stamping  of  cards,  as  early  as  1360.  Engraving 
on  copper  appears  to  have  been  invented  by  Finiguerra,  of  Italy,  as 
early  as  1452  ;  and  it  was  known  in  Germany  as  early  as  1460. 
The  engravings  of  Schoen,  (or  Schoengaur)  of  Antwerp,  are,  among 
the  earliest  extant.  Etching  was  practised  by  Albert  Durer,  as  early 
as  1518  :  Mezzotinto  engraving  was  invented  by  De  Siegen  in  1643, 
or  Prince  Rupert,  in  1649  ;  and  Lithography,  by  Senefelder,  in  1796. 
Bookselling,  as  a  distinct  profession,  commenced  with  Otto,  of  Nu- 
remberg, in  1516.  Newspapers  originated  in  Venice,  in  1563  ;  and 
the  first  in  England  was  printed  in  1588.  The  first  printing  press 
in  the  United  States  was  brought  to  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  in 
1639.  The  use  of  signals  to  convey  information,  was  known  to  the 
ancients  ;  and  a  Telegraph  was  contrived  by  the  Marquis  of  Wor- 
cester, as  early  as  1 663  ;  but  the  first  actual  Telegraph  was  put  in 
operation  in  1794,  by  Chappe,  of  France. 

The  branch  of  which  we  are  now  treating  may  be  distributed 
under  the  heads  of  Writing ;  Printing ;  Engraving ;  Paper  Making, 
and  Book  binding;  and  Telegraphies,  or  telegraphic  communications. 

§  1.  The  art  of  Writing,  also  termed  Chirography,  is  too  simple 
to  require  any  long  explanation  here ;  but  we  may  remark  that  its 
greatest  perfection  consists  in  its  free  and  easy  style,  its  neatness  and 
regularity  of  appearance,  and  especially  its  ready  legibility.  Much 
depends  upon  having  a  good  pen,  which  is  best  made  from  a  strong 
and  elastic  quill ;  and  much  depends  upon  a  good  position  of  the 
hand  and  body, — such  as  freely  to  admit  of  the  proper  motions. 
The  body  should  be  held  as  erect  as  possible,  to  prevent  distortion 
of  the  spine  ;  and  the  table  or  desk  should  be  so  low  that  the  right 
fore  arm  may  rest  upon  it,  without  being  carried  very  far  from  the 
side.  The  pen  should  be  so  held  between  the  thumb  and  first  two 
fingers,  that  the  thumb  can  be  bent  with  ease,  and  that  the  end  of  the 
fore  finger  may  be  raised  from  the  pen  without  letting  go  of  it,  The 


518  CALLOTECHNICS. 

learner  should  commence  with  the  elementary  parts  of  letters ;  and 
we  would  advise  that  he  should  form  them,  from  the  beginning,  not 
much  larger  than  of  the  ordinary  size  in  writing ;  as  the  hand  be- 
comes thereby  the  sooner  accustomed  to  the  requisite  motions. 

Stenography,  or  Short  Hand  Writing,  is  an  interesting  art ;  by 
the  aid  of  which,  the  accomplished  Stenographer  can  record  most  of 
the  words  of  an  orator,  as  fast  as  they  flow  from  his  lips  :  but  it  is 
an  art  which  requires  too  much  practice  and  dexterity  in  writing, 
and  too  much  skill  in  reading,  to  admit  of  its  ever  coming  into 
general  use,  even  among  professional  men.  The  principles  of  Ste- 
nography, consist  in  selecting  the  simplest  possible  distinct  charac- 
ters, such  as  can  be  made  the  most  rapidly  with  the  pen,  to  represent 
the  letters ;  or,  when  standing  alone,  to  represent  certain  selected 
words,  of  frequent  occurrence.  All  silent  letters,  and  most  of  the 
vowels  are  omitted  :  as  hvn  for  heaven  ;  angl  for  angel,  or  angle  : — 
and,  in  order  to  keep  pace  with  a  public  speaker,  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  omit  minor  words  or  particles  entirely  ;  supplying  them  after- 
wards from  memory,  or  the  context ;  as  ur  fthr  iv.  n  hvn,  for  Our 
father  who  art  in  heaven.  It  will  at  once  be  seen,  that  the  advan- 
tage of  these  abbreviations  is  counterbalanced,  for  common  purposes, 
by  the  increased  difficulty  of  reading  what  is  thus  written ;  imper- 
fect as  it  necessarily  must  be,  in  following  a  public  speaker. 

§  2.  The  earliest  mode  of  Printing,  and  that  which  is  still  prac- 
tised in  China,  has  been  called  xylograp/iic,  from  the  Greek  ft-jicw, 
wood ;  because  the  letters  are  all  cut  on  wooden  blocks,  after  the 
manner  of  wood  engraving.  Each  block,  as  prepared  by  the  Chi- 
nese, usually  contains  two  pages ;  and  the  printing  is  executed  by 
inking  the  letters  with  a  brush,  and  Indian  ink,  then  laying  on  the 
paper,  and  rubbing  it  gently  over,  so  that  it  may  receive  the  ink  from 
the  letters.  Our  common  printing  is  styled  typographic,  or  typo- 
graphy; because  done  by  means  of  types  ;  which  are  small  elongated 
pieces  of  soft  metal,  (lead  and  antimony),  cast  in 
a  matrix  or  mould,  and  each  bearing  a  letter  pro- 
jecting in  relief  from  one  end  of  it.  The  types 
are  distributed  in  the  compartments  of  a  recep- 
tacle, or  drawer,  called  the  case ;  those  letters 
which  occur  most  frequently,  as  e,  t,  and  a, 
being  placed  nearest  to  the  workman.  The 
more  common  sizes  of  type  are  exhibited  here 
in  the  margin  ;  being  used  in  printing  their  own 
names. 

The  process  of  setting  up  the  types,  to  form  a  page,  is  called  com- 
posing, and  the  workman  who  performs  it,  a  compositor.  When  a 
few  lines  have  been  set  up  in  a  composing  stick,  held  in  the  hand, 
they  are  then  emptied  upon  the  galley  ;  which  is  a  flat  board  made  to 
hold  them,  standing,  as  they  do,  endwise,  in  compact  masses :  and 
when  as  many  pages  have  thus  been  composed  as  will  constitute  a 
form,  or  print  one  side  of  a  sheet,  they  are  then  arranged  upon  the 
imposing  stone,  and  locked  up,  or  wedged  together  in  an  iron  frame 
called  the  chase ;  after  which  they  are  ready  for  the  printing  press. 
The  ink,  made  of  boiled  linseed  oil,  and  lampblack,  is  applied  either 


English. 

Pica. 

Small  Pica. 

Long  Primer. 

Burgeois. 

Brevier. 

Minion. 

Nonpareil. 

Pearl. 


PRINTING.  519 

by  means  of  inking  balls,  made  of  leather,  firmly  stuffed  with  wool, 
and  provided  with  handles  ;  or  else  by  means  of  elastic  rollers.  The 
paper  is  then  laid  on,  and  strongly  pressed  ;  and  thus  the  printing  is 
executed,  on  one  side  of  the  sheet  at  a  time.  A  single  copy  is  first 
printed,  called  the  proof;  by  reference  to  which,  any  errors  in  the 
composition  are  corrected,  before  any  more  impressions  are  taken. 

In  the  process  of  stereotype  printing,  a  page  of  moveable  types  is 
set  up,  as  already  explained,  and  then  covered  with  a  paste  or  cream 
of  calcined  gypsum,  freshly  mixed  with  water;  which  soon  hardens, 
and  being  then  removed,  forms  a  mould,  from  which  the  whole  page 
may  afterwards  be  cast,  in  one  solid  piece.  The  common  printing 
press,  consists  essentially  of  a  frame,  supporting  a  bed,  or  firm  table,, 
on  which  the  form,  containing  the  types  is  placed  ;  and  a  platten,  or 
strong  metallic  plate,  which,  being  moved  by  a  lever,  on  the  principle 
of  the  screw  or  inclined  plane,  presses  the  paper  hard  against  the 
types,  to  take  the  ink  therefrom.  In  the  printing  machine,  or  power 
press,  the  types  are  inked  by  means  of  rollers  ;  the  paper  supplied 
by  passing  over  revolving  cylinders ;  and  in  some  cases  the  types 
themselves  are  arranged  around  a  cylinder,  which  turns  as  it  receives 
the  paper. 

§  3.  The  art  of  Engraving,  presupposes  an  acquaintance  with 
Drawing,  and  Perspective ;  but  we  shall  here  treat  only  of  its  me- 
chanical processes ;  reserving  those  auxiliary  studies  for  the  follow- 
ing chapter,  to  which  they  naturally  belong.  Xylography,  or 
engraving  on  wood,  is  performed  by  first  making  a  drawing  of  the 
intended  design,  on  a  flat  fine  grained  block,  of  boxwood  in  pre- 
ference, cut  across  the  grain,  and  planed  very  smooth.  Those  parts 
which  are  to  make  no  impression,  or  leave  the  paper  white,  are  then 
cut  away  with  a  graver,  a  kind  of  chisel,  pushed  forward  by  the 
hand ;  while  those  parts  which  are  to  receive  the  ink,  are  left  pro- 
jecting, as  in  common  types.  Sometimes,  an  engraving  is  made  at 
once  on  soft  metal ;  but  more  frequently,  plaster  casts  are  made  from 
the  wood  ;  and  in  this  way  as  many  metallic  copies,  like  stereotype 
plates,  may  be  founded,  as  are  desired,  for  use  in  common  printing. 

Copper  plate  engraving,  differs  from  that  on  wood,  in  having  the 
parts  that  are  to  retain  the  ink  and  blacken  the  paper,  cut  into  the 
surface,  instead  of  being  raised  above  it.  The  ink,  applied  by  means 
of  a  roller,  at  first  covers  the  whole  plate  ;  but  it  is  then  wiped  off 
from  the  smooth  surface,  before  the  paper  is  applied,  which,  by  severe 
pressure,  in  the  roller  press,  receives  the  ink  from  the  sunken  part, 
in  the  process  of  copper-plate  printing.  Line  engraving,  is  per- 
formed by  means  of  the  graver,  already  mentioned,  or  the  dry 
point,  of  steel,  made  hard  and  sharp.  Dot  engraving,  or  stippling, 
is  performed  by  pricking  the  plate,  either  with  the  dry  point,  which 
produces  circular  dots,  or  with  the  graver,  which  makes  them  triangu- 
lar. Etching,  is  executed  by  corroding  the  metal  with  an  acid,  instead 
of  cutting  it  away  mechanically.  The  whole  copper  plate  is  first 
covered  over  with  a  resinous  varnish  ;  which  is  then  scraped  off 
from  those  parts  which  are  to  be  bitten,  or  eaten  away  by  the  acid. 
Any  part,  after  being  slightly  bitten,  may  be  stopped  out,  by  washing: 


520  CALLOTECHNICS. 

off  the  acid,  and  covering  that  part  with  varnish ;  and  the  rest  may 
then  be  bitten  deeper,  at  pleasure. 

Mezzotinto  engraving,  is  executed  by  first  roughening  the  copper 
surface  all  over  mechanically,  and  then  burnishing,  or  smoothing  down 
again,  those  parts  which  are  to  be  light  in  the  picture.  Aquatinta 
engraving,  is  usually  performed  by  sprinkling  the  plate  over  with 
finely  powdered  mastic,  and  then  heating  it  till  the  particles  soften 
and  adhere  to  the  plate.  Those  parts  which  are  to  be  entirely  white, 
are  then  completely  covered  over  with  varnish,  as  in  etching ;  and 
the  specks  of  varnish  on  the  remaining  part,  protecting  numerous 
small  points  from  the  acid,  cause  the  dark  parts  of  the  prints  to  be 
covered  with  fine  white  dots,  which  produce  a  pleasing  effect.  The 
use  of  steel  plates,  instead  of  copper,  for  engraving,  was,  we  believe, 
introduced  by  our  countryman,  Mr.  Perkins.  The  plates  are  ren- 
dered soft  for  the  engraver ;  but  afterwards  hardened  by  tempering, 
and  thus  rendered  very  durable.  Lithography,  or  stone  printing,  is 
executed  from  a  simple 'drawing,  made  on  porous,  calcareous  stone, 
with  an  oily  ink  or  crayon,  which  drawing  is  firmly  fixed,  or  ren- 
dered permanent,  by  the  action  of  a  dilute  acid.  On  moistening  the 
stone,  the  oily  lines  or  dots  remain  dry ;  and  then,  on  applying  the 
ink,  it  is  repelled  by  the  wet  parts,  and  adheres  only  to  the  drawing; 
which  is  thus  transferred  to  the  paper,  by  means  of  a  roller  press. 

§  3.  The  art  of  Paper  making,  resembles  that  of  cloth  making, 
in  producing  extended  surfaces  from  vegetable  fibres ;  but  differs  so 
much  in  the  mode  of  producing  them,  and  in  the  use  to  which  they 
are  applied,  that  it  may  properly  be  mentioned  here.  The  best  paper 
is  made  of  white  linen  rags  ;  which  are  first  washed  and  ground  in 
the  paper  mill ;  in  which  they  pass  between  sharp  revolving  knives 
or  cutters,  till  they  are  reduced  to  a  fine  pulpy  substance,  uniformly 
diffused  in  the  water.  For  paper  made  by  hand,  a  quantity  of  this 
pulp  is  taken  up  on  a  sieve  ;  and,  the  water  running  through,  it  is  left 
as  a  continuous  sheet,  which  is  then  removed  and  pressed.  For  ma- 
chine paper,  the  pulp  is  received  on  a  revolving,  cylindrical  sieve ; 
which  discharges  the  water,  but  retains  the  pulp,  and  delivers  it  on 
another  cylinder,  in  a  long  sheet :  and  it  is  then  pressed,  by  passing  it 
between  rollers.  Writing  paper,  before  being  pressed,  is  sized,  with 
a  solution  of  glue  or  gelatin,  which  renders  it  smoother,  and  prevents 
common  ink  from  spreading  upon  it.  Printing  paper,  is  usually 
unsized,  and  therefore  bibulous,  or  capable  of  absorbing  water  freely. 

The  process  of  Book  binding,  commences  with  the  folding  of  the 
sheets  into  leaves,  and  the  arrangement  of  them,  according  to  the 
signatures  ;  which  are  letters,  or  numbers,  placed  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pages,  at  certain  intervals;  by  reference  to  which,  the  labor  of 
counting  the  pages  is  avoided.  The  leaves  are  then  stitched  together 
at  the  back  edges  ;  during  which  operation  they  are  kept  in  place  by 
a  frame,  holding  the  threads  to  which  they  are  fastened:  and  the 
whole  back  is  firmly  compacted,  by  covering  it  with  glue.  The  cover 
is  then  applied,  and  secured  to  the  body  of  the  book,  by  the  ends  of 
the  threads,  left  protruding  for  that  purpose.  The  blank  leaves  at 
the  beginning  and  end  of  a  book  are  technically  called  fly  leaves ; 
and  ought  to  b«  of  sized  paper,  that  they  may  be  written  upon  with 


PAINTING.  521 

common  ink.  A  book  is  said  to  be  in  folio,  (2io),  when  a  sheet  is 
folded  into  two  leaves ;  in  quarto,  (4£o),  when  a  sheet  makes  four 
leaves  ;  in  octavo,  (Svo),  when  a  sheet  is  folded  into  eight  leaves  ; 
and  in  duodecimo,  when  twelve  leaves  are  contained  in  one  sheet. 
Every  book  intended  for  reference,  should  contain  a  table  of  contents 
at  the  beginning,  and  a  copious  alphabetical  index  at  the  close. 

§  5.  The  Telegraph,  is  a  contrivance  for  communicating  with 
persons  at  a  distance,  by  means  of  a  system  of  preconcerted  signals. 
That  invented  by  Chappe,  and  called  by  him  the  semaphore,  or 
signal  bearer,  consisted  of  a  wooden  bar,  called  the  long  indicator, 
supported  at  the  top  of  a  strong  mast,  and  capable  of  revolving  in  a 
vertical  plane,  on  an  axle  passing  centrally  through  it.  It  was  moved 
by  means  of  a  cord,  passing  over  a  pulley,  attached  to  the  same  axle; 
and  at  each  end  of  it  were  smaller  arms,  called  indicators,  attached  to 
it  by  an  axle,  and  capable  of  turning  around  it,  so  as  to  take  any  re- 
quired direction,  by  means  of  cords  and  pulleys.  This  apparatus, 
since  called  the  T  telegraph,  admits  of  about  100  different  signals ; 
each  of  which  may  be  made  to  represent  either  a  letter,  a  number,  a 
word,  or  a  sentence.  The  stations  are  usually  from  five  to  ten  miles 
apart ;  and  in  this  way  information  has  been  conveyed  at  the  rate  of 
more  than  500  miles  in  a  minute. 

The  semaphoric  telegraphs,  erected  by  Mr.  Parker,  in  Boston 
Harbor,  consist  of  tall  masts,  having  each  three  moveable  arms,  one 
at  the  top,  called  the  indicator,  and  the  others  at  different  heights 
below.  Each  of  these  arms  may  be  placed  in  six  different  positions, 
making  a  total  of  216  simple  combinations,  which  by  compounding, 
or  taking  them  two  or  more  at  a  time,  may  express  any  desirable 
number  of  words  or  sentences.  In  place  of  these,  and  in  correspond- 
ence with  them,  there  are  six  marine  flags,  of  blue  and  white 
differently  disposed,  which,  with  a  seventh,  called  the  conversation 
flag,  used  to  announce  an  intended  conversation,  constitute  a  Marine 
Telegraph,  of  great  service  occasionally  to  ships  at  sea.  A  Tele- 
graphic Dictionary  is  prepared,  answering  to  these  signals  ;  by  means 
of  which,  an  intelligent  person  may,  in  a  short  time,  be  able  to 
understand  the  indications  of  the  telegraph  if  it  be  visible. 


CHAPTER  II. 

PAINTING. 

PAINTING,  in  its  generic  sense,  including  drawing,  is  the  art  of 
representing  objects  on  surfaces,  by  means  of  lines,  shades,  or  colors. 
The  name  is  derived  from  the  French,  peindre,  to  paint ;  and  this 
perhaps  from  the  Latin,  pingere,  of  the  same  meaning.  In  a  more 
limited  or  specific  sense,  painting  signifies  the  representation  of 
objects  by  means  of  their  appropriate  colors  :  but  as  this  cannot  be 
done  without  giving  their  outlines,  which  constitutes  drawing,  and 
their  chiaroscuro,  or  lights  and  shades,  by  the  process  of  shading, 
these  latter  processes  are  included,  together  with  coloring,  in  the 
66  2x2 


522  CALLOTECHNICS. 

present  branch  of  the  fine  arts.  It  comprehends  therefore  the  prin- 
ciples of  engraving ;  the  mechanical  processes  of  which  we  have 
already  explained,  (p.  519.)  Painting  holds  a  high  rank  among  the 
ornamental  arts  ;  often  addressing  the  understanding  as  well  as  the 
feelings  ;  and  hence  subserving  important  purposes  in  science  and 
morals,  as  well  as  contributing  to  relaxation  and  amusement. 

Drawings,  are  made  with  the  pen,  pencil,  or  crayon  :  but  paintings, 
strictly  so  called,  are  executed  with  the  brush  ;  either  in  water  colors, 
on  paper,  or  ivory,  sometimes  called  washing;  or  in  a  still  stricter 
sense,  in  oil  colors,  or  distemper,  on  canvass,  or  on  walls,  or  the  like. 
A  picture  shaded  with  only  one  color,  is  called  a  monochrome  ;  in 
contradistinction  from  polychromes,  shaded  with  various  colors.  As 
regards  the  subjects  represented,  painting  is  designated  as  flower, 
fruit,  shell,  or  game  painting,  all  in  still  life ;  landscape,  and  marine 
painting,  either  from  nature  or  fancy ;  portrait  painting,  which 
requires  both  ease  and  accuracy  of  execution  ;  and  historical  paint- 
ing, which  demands  the  highest  powers  of  the  pictorial  art.  Portraits, 
are  painted  either  in  miniature,  that  is,  very  small ;  or  in  half  size ; 
or  in  full  size,  whether  full  length,  or  not :  and  as  regards  the  posi- 
tion, they  are  either  in  profile,  giving  a  side  view,  or  frontal,  giving 
a  front  view  of  the  face.  Historical  paintings,  comprehending 
allegorical  and  mythological,  require  for  their  success,  the  choice  of 
a  noble  or  striking  subject,  and  of  the  best  point  of  time,  and  of  view, 
for  its  exhibition. 

Painting  or  drawing,  in  a  rude  form,  appears  to  have  been  prac- 
tised in  the  earliest  times,  and  by  all  the  nations  of  antiquity.  Thus, 
among  the  monuments  of  Egypt,  the  walls  of  temples  and  caverns, 
are  often  found  painted  with  figures  of  men  and  animals,  in  colors 
which  have  retained  most  of  their  brilliancy,  notwithstanding  the 
lapse  of  ages.  Most  of  these  paintings,  like  those  of  the  Mexican 
Indians,  are  historical  and  hieroglyphical ;  portraying  the  exploits  of 
warriors  and  the  worship  of  the  gods.  This  art  was  introduced  into 
Greece,  it  is  said,  by  Euchirus,  long  before  the  Trojan  war  :  but  the 
first  Grecian  painting,  in  various  colors,  appears  to  have  been  the 
Battle  of  Magnet e,  painted  by  Bularchus,  about  720  B.  C.  Zeuxis 
and  Parrhasius,  famed  for  their  rivalry,  brought  this  art  to  great  per- 
fection, in  the  age  of  Pericles  ;  and  the  picture  of  Venus  Anady- 
omene,  or  Venus  rising  from  the  sea,  by  Apelles,  about  330  B.C., 
was  deemed  the  most  graceful  and  faultless  painting  of  ancient  times. 
Both  the  Greeks  and  Romans  appear  to  have  attached  less  value  to 
this  art,  than  to  Sculpture ;  perhaps  because  it  was  less  intimately 
connected  with  their  religious  institutions.  The  ancient  art  of 
encaustic  painting,  consisted  in  mingling  the  colors  with  wax,  and 
applying  them  to  the  wall,  or  other  surface,  in  a  melted  state. 

The  art  of  painting  was  revived,  in  Italy,  by  Cimabue,  who  flou- 
rished at  Florence,  about  A.  D.  1270.  He  copied  or  studied  the 
ancient  artists ;  and  improved  the  Italian  style  so  much,  that  he  has 
often  been  termed  the  father  of  this  art.  After  his  time,  four  different 
schools,  or  styles  of  painting,  arose  in  Italy,  distinguished  as  the 
Florentine,  Roman,  Venetian,  and  Lombard.  The  Florentine 
school,  commenced  with  Cimabue  ;  and  reached  its  acme  in  the 


PAINTING.  523 

works  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  It  was  charac- 
terized by  the  gravity  of  its  subjects  ;  and  by  correctness  of  design, 
and  boldness  of  composition  and  coloring.  The  Roman  School, 
rose  and  flourished  with  Raphael ;  and  breathed  its  last  with  Maratti, 
who  repaired  Raphael's  fading  pictures.  This  school  was  remarkable 
for  gracefulness  of  design,  and  chaste,  harmonious  coloring.  Sal- 
vator  Rosa  of  Naples,  and  Carlo  Dolci,  who  painted  at  Florence, 
belong,  as  regards  their  style,  to  the  Roman  School  ;  though  the 
latter  is  usually  numbered  with  the  Florentines.  The  Venetian 
School,  famed  in  the  works  of  Giorgione,  Titian,  Paul  Veronese, 
and  Tintoretto,  was  characterized  by  simplicity  of  design,  but  rich- 
ness, if  not  gorgeousness  of  coloring.  The  Lombard  School,  was 
of  later  origin,  and  numbered  among  its  masters,  Correggio,  the 
Carracci,  Guido,  and  Domenichino.  It  was  generally  distinguished 
by  harmony,  grace,  and  expression  ;  but  its  style  was  less  settled 
than  that  of  the  preceding  schools.  Caravaggio,  is,  by  some,  regarded 
as  the  founder  of  another  school,  termed  the  natural ;  as  he  professed 
to  imitate  nature,  without  regard  to  ancient  art. 

The  use  of  oil,  for  mixing  and  applying  colors,  was  unknown  to 
the  ancient  painters  ;  and  its  invention  has  been  attributed  to  John 
Van  Eyck,  or  John  of  Bruges,  in  Flanders,  about  A.  D.  1410; 
though  some  writers  claim  the  honor  for  the  city  of  Venice.  The 
Flemish  School  of  painting,  is  renowned  in  the  works  of  Rubens 
and  Vandyke ;  which  are  remarkable  for  their  accuracy  in  details, 
and  the  minuteness  with  which  they  are  finished ;  as  well  as  for 
richness  of  coloring,  and  freedom  of  design.  The  Dutch  School, 
though  it  may  boast  of  a  Rembrandt,  is  generally  inferior  to  the 
Flemish  :  but  the  German  School,  as  illustrated  by  Martin  Schoen, 
Hans  Holbein,  and  Albert  Durer,  is  more  original  and  wild ;  being 
founded  on  Gothic  taste,  but  combining  Flemish  accuracy  with 
Italian  coloring.  Of  French  painters,  we  may  name  Cousin  as 
the  earliest,  and  Poussin  as  probably  the  greatest.  Claude  Lor- 
raine was  born  in  France,  but  spent  his  life  chiefly  in  Italy,  and  is 
usually  classed  with  the  Lombard  school.  England  also  can  boast 
of  her  Hogarth  and  Reynolds ;  Scotland  of  her  Wilkie ;  and  our 
own  country  may  name  her  Copley,  Stuart,  and  West;  without  re- 
ferring to  living  artists  of  deserved  celebrity.  A  few  of  the  more 
celebrated  paintings  will  be  named  at  the  close  of  the  present  chapter 

Our  remaining  remarks  on  this  art,  will  be  comprehended  under 
the  heads  of  Drawing ;  Shading ;  Coloring ;  and  Pinacography,  or 
Descriptions  of  remarkable  Pictures. 

§  1.  The  art  of  Drawing,  consists  in  the  representation  of  the 
outlines  of  objects ;  and  depends  upon  the  principles  of  Descriptive 
Geometry,  (p.  331.)  We  here  resume  the  subject  of  Scenographic 
Drawing,  or  Perspective  ; — of  which  a  correct  idea  may  be  formed 
by  looking  through  a  window,  and  observing  the  relative  positions, 
on  the  glass,  at  which  the  different  external  objects  appear.  The 
glass  corresponds  to  the  perspective  plane,  or  surface  of  the  drawing; 
the  position  of  the  eye  is  called  the  point  of  view  ;  and  lines  drawn 
from  the  eye  to  the  various  points  of  the  original  or  external  objects, 
are  called  visual  rays  ;  which,  by  their  intersections  with  the  glass, 


524  CALLOTECHNICS. 

form  the  perspective  required.  Hence,  a  simple  mode  of  drawing 
in  perspective,  consists  in  using  a  vertical  frame,  divided  by  cross 
threads  into  small  squares,  with  a  sight  vane  placed  behind  it,  to  fix 
the  position  of  the  eye  while  looking  through  it.  The  paper  being 
divided,  by  pencil  lines,  into  corresponding  squares,  we  have  only  to 
draw  in  each  of  these,  the  objects  which  are  seen  in  the  correspond- 
ing squares  of  the  vertical  frame ;  which,  from  its  use,  is  called  a 
perspectograph. 

In  perspective,  objects  appear  smaller  when  they  are  more  distant; 
and  their  appearance  changes,  as  we  change  our  point  of  view.  When 
a  near  object  hides  a  more  remote  one,  the  part  which  is  hidden,  is 
not  represented;  as  the  nearer  object  fills  its  place.  In  general,  lines 
which  are  truly  vertical,  are  drawn  vertical  in  the  picture  ;  but  hori- 
zontal lines  appear  oblique,  unless  they  are  precisely  on  the  level  of 
the  eye,  or  else  parallel  to  the  plane  of  the  picture.  If  they  are 
above  the  level  of  the  eye,  their  farthest  end  appears  the  lowest: 
otherwise  the  effect  is  reversed.  Lines  which  are  truly  parallel,  and 
recede  from  the  observer,  are  drawn  converging,  in  perspective,  to- 
wards their  vanishing  point,  at  which,  if  they  were  infinitely  pro- 
longed in  reality,  they  would  all  appear  to  meet  upon  the  picture.  A 
line  drawn  through  the  eye,  and  parallel  to  them,  will  meet  the  per- 
spective plane,  or  picture,  in  their  vanishing  point,  which  is  thus 
found.  Objects  seen  obliquely,  appear  smaller  than  their  real  size; 
and  are  then  said  to  be  foreshortened ;  as  when  a  carriage  wheel, 
seen  obliquely,  is  represented  by  an  ellipse ;  or  a  square  represented 
by  a  trapezoid.  Of  the  general  principles  of  design,  or  composition, 
we  have  no  room  here  to  speak. 

§  2.  The  art  of  Shading,  called  by  the  French  clair-obscure, 
and  by  the  Italians,  chiaro  oscuro,  consists  in  making  the  different 
parts  of  the  picture  either  light  or  dark,  according  to  the  actual 
appearance  of  the  objects  represented  ;  that  is,  in  expressing  the 
lights,  shades,  and  shadows,  which  depend  on  the  direction  and  in- 
tensity of  the  light.  The  lights,  technically  so  called,  are  the 
brightest  parts  of  a  picture :  the  shades,  are  those  parts  of  objects 
which  are  turned  from  the  light ;  and  the  shadows,  are  those  parts 
from  which  the  light  is  intercepted  by  some  other  object.  The 
middle  tints,  are  intermediate  between  the  lights  and  shades ;  and 
the  reflected  lights,  are  diminutions  of  the  shade,  produced  by  reflec- 
tion from  adjacent  objects.  The  brilliant  points,  or  parts,  are  those 
which  reflect  their  light  directly  to  the  eye ;  being  the  very  brightest 
parts  of  the  picture.  The  dead  points,  are  those  which  receive  no 
light,  either  direct  or  reflected ;  and  hence  are  the  darkest  parts  of 
the  picture ;  by  which  all  the  other  shading  should  be  adjusted. 

The  shading  is  easiest,  and  most  distinct,  when  all  the  objects  are 
lighted  from  only  one  source ;  as  the  sun,  or  an  elevated  window  : 
by  which  cross  lights  are  avoided.  In  rounded  bodies,  the  shades 
vary  gradually:  but  in  angular  bodies  the  transitions  are  often  abrupt, 
and  extreme.  Shadows  generally  terminate  gradually  ;  and  the  faint, 
indistinct  edge,  in  which  the  transition  takes  place,  is  called  the 
penumbra.  A  bright  object,  seen  in  front  of  a  dark  one,  that  is,  on 
a  dark  ground,  appears  to  stand  out  from  the  picture,  and  is  then 


PAINTING.  525 

said  to  be  relieved,  or  in  relief.  When  objects  are  seen  at  a  dis- 
tance, the  intervening  air  makes  the  light  parts  seem  darker,  and  the 
dark  parts  lighter,  than  if  they  were  near ;  thus  reducing  them  more 
nearly  to  one  uniform  shade.  This  effect,  which  causes  distant 
mountains,  or  the  ocean,  to  blend,  almost,  with  the  sky,  is  called 
aerial  perspective.  Shading  may  be  executed  with  a  pen,  pencil, 
crayon,  or  brush  ;  and  by  means  of  lines,  or  dots,  01  a  continuous 
mass  of  color,  as  in  drawings  washed  with  Indian  ink. 

§  3.  The  art  of  Coloring,  consists  in  representing  the  various 
colors  of  the  objects  in  a  picture;  of  course,  in  connection  with 
drawing  and  shading.  The  theory  of  colors  has  already  been 
noticed  under  the  head  of  Optics  ;  (p.  359) ;  but  we  must  here  add, 
that  the  colors  of  individual  objects  are  greatly  modified  by  the  light 
reflected  from  other  objects  which  surround  them.  Thus,  a  person 
sitting  by  the  side  of  crimson  drapery,  would  receive  a  red  tinge 
therefrom,  distinct  from  his  natural  color ;  and  still  more  so  from 
what  he  would  receive,  were  the  drapery  of  a  gloomy  hue.  The 
brilliant  parts  of  a  picture,  are  painted  by  diluting  the  natural  color 
with  white :  but  the  dark  parts  require  a  mixture  of  some  darker 
pigment,  harmonizing  with  the  natural  color  ;  which  last  is  found  only 
in  the  middle  tints.  If  the  colors  of  a  picture  are  generally  bright, 
with  feeble  shades,  they  give  it  a  light  tone  ;  but  darker  colors  pro- 
duce a  deeper  tone ;  and  any  one  color  predominating,  gives  its  own 
tone  to  the  picture.  In  portrait  painting,  much  depends  on  the 
proper  choice  of  the  back  ground,  or  part  surrounding  the  principal 
figure ;  which  should  generally  be  of  a  neutral  or  mixed  tint,  rather 
than  of  a  decided  color. 

Water  colors,  are  finely  ground,  and  mixed  with  gum  arabic,  to 
give  them  consistency  and  cohesion ;  but  oil  colors  are  mixed  with 
linseed  or  other  vegetable  oil,  which  has  been  previously  boiled, 
to  render  it  siccative,  or  capable  of  drying  speedily.  Vermilion, 
chrome  red,  Indian  red,  carmine  lake,  madder  lake,  burnt  sienna,  raw 
sienna,  (terra  di  sienna),  chrome  yellow,  gamboge,  yellow  ochre, 
chrome  green,  Brunswick  green,  Prussian  blue,  ultramarine,  indigo, 
ivory  black,  Indian  ink,  umber,  bistre,  flake  white,  and  zinc  white, 
are  among  the  pigments  used  in  coloring  pictures  ;  most  of  them 
being  suitable  either  for  water  colours  or  oil.  In  distemper  painting, 
which  was  much  practised  before  the  use  of  oil,  the  colors  are  mixed 
with  glue,  or  size ;  and  in  fresco  painting,  the  colors,  thus  mixed, 
are  applied  to  freshly  plastered  walls,  and  imbibed  by  the  plaster 
before  it  becomes  dry.  Mosaic  work,  is  executed  with  small  blocks 
of  marble,  glass,  or  other  substance,  attached  to  a  proper  ground ; 
each  block  having  the  color  of  that  part  of  the  picture  or  design 
which  it  contributes  to  form. 

§  4.  Under  the  head  of  Pinacography,  we  propose  to  name  a 
few  of  the  most  remarkable  paintings ;  of  which  this  would  be  the 
place  for  a  full  description,  in  a  more  extensive  work.  The  name  is 
suggested  by  the  term  pinacotheca,  signifying  a  picture  gallery, 
derived  from  the  Greek  rftpal,  a  picture.  It  is  a  subject  of  regret, 
that  many  of  the  finest  paintings  of  the  oldest  masters  are  much 
decayed  ;  and  unless  perpetuated  by  means  of  superior  copies,  their 


526  CALLOTECHNICS. 

excellence  will,  in  time,  like  that  of  the  Grecian  paintings,  become 
a  mere  matter  of  history.  Of  the  Florentine  school,  the  most  cele- 
brated productions  are  the  Last  Supper,  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  and 
the  Last  Judgment,  by  Michael  Angelo  Buonarotti.  The  former 
represents  our  Saviour  seated  with  the  twelve  Apostles,  and  warning 
them  of  his  betrayal ;  while  the  latter  portrays  the  final  resurrection 
of  the  dead,  representing  upwards  of  three  hundred  figures,  on  a 
wall  forty  feet  wide  and  fifty  feet  high,  in  the  Sistine  chapel  of  the 
Vatican.  The  ceiling  of  the  same  chapel,  contains  a  picture  of  the 
Creation,  also  by  Michael  Angelo. 

Of  the  Roman  school,  the  most  celebrated  production  is  the 
Transfiguration,  by  Raphael;  which,  with  many  other  paintings  by 
him,  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican.  His  Madonna  della  Seggiola, 
representing  the  Mother  of  our  Saviour  seated  and  holding  the  Infant 
Jesus,  is  now  in  Paris ;  and  his  Cartoons,  or  drawings  of  Scriptural 
subjects,  which  served  as  models  for  the  tapestry  of  the  Pope's 
chapel,  are  now  preserved  at  Hampton  Court%  in  England.  Among 
the  best  paintings  of  Carlo  Dolce,  are  St.  Cecilia,  playing  the  organ ; 
and  Christ  blessing  the  Bread  and  Wine,  or  the  Eucharist ;  both  of 
which  are  now  at  Dresden.  Of  the  Venetian  school,  Titian's  Last 
Supper,  and  Christ  crowned  with  Thorns,  are  very  celebrated  pic- 
tures; and,  after  these,  we  may  name  the  Crucifixion,  by  Tintoretto; 
the  History  of  Esther,  by  Paul  Veronese  ;  and  the  Fountain  piece 
of  Giorgione.  Of  the  Lombard  school,  we  may  mention  Corregio's 
picture  of  Night,  or  the  shepherds  seeking  the  infant  Jesus  ;  and 
especially  his  St.  Jerome  and  the  Virgin,  which  rivals  the  works 
of  Raphael.  The  fresco  paintings  of  Bacchus  and  Ariadne,  by  Han- 
nibal Carracci,  at  Rome,  are  of  great  size,  and  justly  celebrated. 
Guido  is  renowned  for  his  Aurora  ;  and  Domenichino  for  his  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Andrew,  which  rivals  a  picture  of  the  same  by  Guido. 

Of  the  Flemish  school,  the  Descent  from  the  Cross,  by  Rubens, 
is  a  fine  picture ;  but  he  found  a  more  congenial  theme  in  his  mytho- 
logical allegories,  painted  in  the  Luxembourg  palace,  in  honor  of 
Mary  de'Medici.  More  than  three  hundred  engravings  have  been 
made  from  his  paintings.  Vandyke  excelled  in  portraits ;  but  his 
Crucifixion,  and  St.  Augustine,  are  works  of  merit,  among  many 
others.  Of  the  Dutch  school,  we  may  name  the  picture  of  Tobias 
and  the  Angel,  and  that  of  Christ  at  Emmaus,  by  Rembrandt,  as 
among  the  best  specimens.  Of  the  German  school,  the  picture  of 
the  Dance  of  Death,  by  Hans  Holbein,  is  very  celebrated  ;  and 
among  the  -best  paintings  of  DUrer  are  his  Adam  and  Eve,  and 
Christ  bearing  the  Cross.  Of  the  French  school,  the  Seven  Sacra- 
ments, and  the  Deluge,  painted  by  Nicholas  Poussin,  are  all  that  we 
have  room  to  mention.  Claude  Lorraine  excelled  in  landscapes ; 
and  in  marine  painting,  Vernet  is  unsurpassed.  Among  English 
paintings,  the  Ugolino,  and  the  Death  of  Cardinal  Beaufort,  by 
Reynolds,  perhaps  rank  highest ;  and  of  similar  style  are  the  pictures 
of  Christ  Rejected,  Christ  Healing  the  Sick,  and  Death  on  the  Pale 
Horse,  by  our  countryman  West;  the  last  that  we  have  room  to 
mention. 


SCULPTURE.  527 

CHAPTER  III. 

SCULPTURE. 

SCULPTURE,  in  its  most  general  sense,  is  the  art  of  imitating  or 
producing  tangible  forms,  by  the  carving,  moulding,  or  casting  of 
solid  materials.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Latin,  scu/po,  I 
carve,  or  grave ;  as  the  carving  or  cutting  of  statues,  from  marble  or 
stone,  has  long  been  the  most  prominent  division  of  this  art.  Sculp- 
ture has  also  been  termed  the  plastic  art ;  but  this  appellation  belongs 
more  properly  to  moulding  or  modelling  alone ;  which  is  only  one 
portion  of  the  entire  art,  corresponding  to  design  and  composition  in 
Painting.  Sculpture,  like  Painting,  is  partly  imitative,  and  partly 
inventive.  It  preserves  the  resemblance  of  objects  in  nature,  as  well 
as  ideal  forms  ;  the  features  of  men  who  darkened  nations  when  they 
died,  as  well  as  the  imaginary  beings  of  mythology ;  and  the  noble 
or  affecting  descriptions  of  the  historian,  as  well  as  the  sublime  or 
beautiful  conceptions  of  the  poet.  Sculpture  and  Painting  have  the 
same  object ;  but  they  effect  it  by  somewhat  different  means. 

The  most  important  productions  of  Sculpture,  are  statues,  or  re- 
presentations of  persons,  either  draped  or  nude ;  and  next  to  these, 
busts,  which  represent  only  the  head  and  shoulders.  Statues  are 
said  to  be  reduced,  when  much  smaller  than  the  natural  size ;  heroic, 
when  slightly  larger  than  the  natural  size ;  and  colossal,  when  they 
far  exceed  the  size  of  the  person  represented.  They  are  also  termed 
equestrian,  or  pedestrian,  according  as  they  represent  the  person  on 
horseback,  or  on  foot.  Relievos,  are  figures  partially  sculptured, 
as  if  projecting  from  a  tablet,  or  back  ground.  They  are  called 
alto-relievos,  when  the  figures  project  as  much  as  one  half  of  their 
dimensions ;  mezzo-relievos,  when  the  figures  are  less  prominent ; 
and  basso-relievos,  when  the  figures  project  but  slightly  above  the 
surface.  Gems  are  often  sculptured  in  relievo  ;  and  when  the  figure 
is  cut  from  a  vein  of  one  color,  leaving  another  color  for  the  back 
ground,  the  work  is  called  a  cameo.  Sculptures  in  which  the  figures 
are  sunk  below  the  surface,  are  called  intaglios;  such  as  seals, 
which  produce  an  impression  in  relievo,  on  wax.  Other  objects  of 
sculpture  are  vases ;  coats  of  arms,  and  military  trophies  ;  and  monu- 
mental or  architectural  decorations. 

Sculpture  is  an  art  of  very  ancient  origin,  and  probably  more 
ancient  than  Painting ;  traces  of  it  being  found  among  the  earliest 
antiquities  of  the  oldest  nations.  It  appears  to  have  been  first  applied 
to  the  carving  of  idols  :  and  Laban  is  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  as  hav- 
ing his  teraphim,  or  images  of  household  gods,  as  early  as  1739  B.  C. 
The  remains  of  Egyptian  sculpture  consist  of  relievos,  on  the  walls 
of  temples  and  tombs;  with  colossal  statues,  lions,  and  sphynxes, 
often  arranged  in  rows,  exterior  to  the  temples.  Two  of  these  statues, 
in  the  Memnonium  at  Thebes,  are  said  to  be  fifty  feet  high  ;  but  their 
posture  is  stiff  and  constrained.  The  capitals  of  Egyptian  columns, 
are  often  carved  into  the  form  of  human  heads  ;  and  in  the  caverns, 


528  CALLOTECHNICS. 

at  Phylee,  Elephantis,  and  Silsilis,  cut  in  the  solid  rock,  those  parts 
which  are  left  to  support  the  roof,  are  also  carved  into  the  form  of 
statues ;  something  like  the  Grecian  caryatides.  The  same  occurs 
in  the  ancient  cavernous  temples  of  Hindoostan,  particularly  at  Ele- 
phanta,  Ellora,  and  Salsette,  where  portions  of  the  rock  are  left,  in 
the  form  of  demigods  and  elephants,  to  support  the  roof.  The  Per- 
sians had  many  works  of  sculpture,  but  their  figures  were  always  in 
drapery  :  and  in  Assyria,  mention  is  made  of  brazen  statues  of  Semi- 
ramis,  Belus,  and  Ninus. 

Sculpture,  or  rather  modelling,  was  first  practised  in  Greece,  it  is 
said,  by  Dibutades,  a  potter  of  Sicyon.  The  earliest  statues,  were 
little  more  than  rounded  blocks  of  wood,  or  stone,  sculptured  first 
with  the  head  only,  but  afterwards  representing  the  entire  body. 
Daedalus  improved  on  these  rude  performances,  and  produced  statues 
so  much  like  life,  that  lie  is  by  some  regarded  as  the  inventor  of  this 
art.  Rhoecus  of  Samos,  about  750  B.  C.  is  said  to  have  been  the 
first  who  practised  the  casting  of  statues  in  brass ;  and  Dipamus  and 
Scyllis  are  said  to  have  first  used  marble,  instead  of  wood,  or  metal, 
for  statues,  at  Sicyon,  about  600  B.  C.  Grecian  sculpture,  reached 
its  greatest  perfection,  in  the  hands  of  Phidias,  under  the  administra- 
tion of  Pericles  ;  and  retained  it  until  the  death  of  Praxiteles,  who 
was  contemporary  with  Alexander  the  Great.  The  number  of 
Grecian  statues  is  said  to  have  amounted  to  upwards  of  30,000,  when 
Greece  was  subjugated  by  the  Romans ;  but  many  of  these  were 
afterwards  removed  to  Rome.  The  ancient  Etrurians  made  no  small 
proficiency  in  sculpture ;  but  the  Romans  were,  for  the  most  part, 
only  copyists  of  the  Greeks. 

After  the  lapse  of  the  dark  ages,  Sculpture  was  first  revived  in 
Italy,  by  the  labours  of  Ghiberti,  who  died  in  1455,  and  Donatello, 
who  died  in  1466.  Michael  Angelo  was  scarcely  less  celebrated  as 
a  sculptor,  than  as  a  painter ;  though  all  his  works  are  in  the  same 
grand  and  severe  style.  Benevento  Cellini,  was  alike  distinguished 
as  a  sculptor,  goldsmith,  and  engraver  ;  and  Bernini  was  also  a 
sculptor  of  genius.  To  Canova  belongs  the  high  distinction  of 
having  rivalled  the  ancients  in  beauty,  as  Michael  Angelo  did  in 
grandeur  ;  and  the  mantle  of  the  latter  seems  to  have  fallen  on  Thor- 
waldsen  of  Denmark.  France  has  produced  her  Puget,  whose  style, 
though  cold  was  grand  and  classical  ;  and  her  Falconet,  who  wrote 
upon  his  art,  as  well  as  practised  it,  with  ability.  England  may  also 
boast  of  her  Flaxman,  Chantry,  and  Westmacott;  and  the  names  of 
Greenough,  and  Powers,  already  do  credit,  in  this  branch  of  art,  to 
our  own  young  republic. 

Our  remaining  remarks  on  Sculpture,  will  be  arranged  under  the 
heads  of  Modelling ;  Carving ;  Casting ;  and  Glyphography,  or 
descriptions  of  remarkable  statues. 

§  1.  The  art  of  Modelling,  consists  in  forming  a  representation  of 
any  object,  out  of  some  soft  material,  by  pressing  or  moulding  it 
with  the  hands,  or  proper  instruments.  It  is  the  common  practice  of 
sculptors,  before  carving  a  statue  in  marble,  or  casting  it  in  metal,  to 
form  a  model  of  it  in  clay ;  which  admits  of  repeated  alterations, 
until  the  artist  has  exhausted  his  skill  in  perfecting  it.  In  this  process, 


SCULPTURE.  529 

genius,  and  inventive  power,  are  mostly  displayed  ;  as  the  remaining 
process  of  transferring  it  to  the  stone,  or  making  a  cast  from  it,  is 
chiefly  mechanical.  When  a  clay  model  is  undertaken,  if  the  pro- 
posed figure  be  large,  a  frame  of  wood  or  iron  is  erected,  to  give  it 
support  and  strength.  Upon  this  frame,  the  tempered  clay  is  distri- 
buted, and  shaped  with  tools  of  wood  or  ivory,  until  it  has  taken  the 
form  required.  The  clay  hardens  in  drying;  and  if  the  figure  be 
small  enough,  it  may  be  rendered  firm  and  permanent  by  burning  or 
baking  it,  like  pottery. 

Modelling  in  wax,  is  executed  in  a  similar  manner  ;  only  requiring 
that  the  wax  should  be  softened,  by  a  gentle  heat,  in  order  10  give  it 
plasticity,  and  tenacity.  The  wax  figures,  often  carried  about  for 
exhibition,  are  made  of  a  light  frame  covered  with  beeswax;  which, 
for  delicate  work,  is  bleached,  and  then  colored  with  different  pig- 
ments, in  the  same  manner  as  for  making  wax  flowers.  Wax  figures 
are  very  perishable,  being  easily  soiled  by  dust,  and  deformed  or 
melted  by  heat ;  and  hence  they  are  for  the  most  part,  rudely  made, 
and  of  little  value.  The  great  principles  to  be  observed  in  modelling, 
are,  the  choice  of  a  suitable  subject ;  of  a  suitable  attitude  and  cos- 
tume ;  the  observance  of  harmony  and  proportion  of  the  parts  ;  of 
unity,  ease,  and  boldness  in  the  design  :  and  of  delicacy  and  freedom 
in  the  execution  : — the  final  object  being  to  produce  some  striking 
expression,  or  decided  effect. 

§  2.  Carving,  or  sculpturing,  is  most  frequently  executed  in  white 
marble  ;  but  statues  of  alabaster,  serpentine,  porphyry,  freestone,  and 
granite,  are  sometimes  executed  ;  and  such  are  found  occasionally 
among  the  remains  of  antiquity.  Ivory  is  sometimes  used  for  small 
objects,  or  parts  of  large  ones  ;  and  wood  was  used  by  the  earlier 
artists  of  Greece,  before  the  introduction  of  marble.  The  material 
being  provided,  the  sculptor  begins  by  cutting  with  the  chisel  and 
hammer,  until  he  establishes  a  point  in  the  block,  corresponding  to 
some  prominent  point  in  the  model.  From  this,  he  measures  the 
exact  distance  and  position  of  another  prominent  point,  working  deli- 
cately as  he  approaches  it,  to  avoid  cutting  in  too  far.  Proceeding  in 
this  manner,  he  knows  where  he  may  cut  deeply,  and  rapidly ;  and 
the  nearer  he  approaches  the  intended  surface,  the  more  frequent  and 
cautious  are  his  measurements. 

Instruments  have  been  contrived,  to  facilitate  these  measurements ; 
such  as  compasses  with  three  or  more  feet,  to  be  applied  first  to  the 
marked  points  of  the  model,  and  then  to  the  corresponding  points  of 
the  work  ;  or  a  frame,  with  moveable  arms  sliding  horizontally  and 
vertically,  fitted  to  the  model,  and  another  frame  precisely  simi- 
lar, fitted  to  the  block,  to  which  the  measurements  are  thus  trans- 
ferred. When  a  sufficient  number  of  points  is  thus  established,  the 
surface  between  them  is  rounded  and  shaped  by  the  judgment  and 
skill  of  the  artist.  Occasionally,  saws,  and  drills,  or  other  per- 
forating tools  are  employed ;  and  the  surface  may  be  rubbed  down 
with  files,  or  sand  paper,  and  polished  with  pumice  stone,  or  putty 
of  tin  :  but  the  ancient  sculptors  appear  to  have  relied  chiefly  on  the 
chisel,  and  to  have  finished  many  of  their  finest  works  with  this  tool 
alone. 

67  2  Y 


530  CALLOTECHNIC9. 

§  3.  The  Casting,  or  founding,  of  statues,  is  most  frequently 
executed  in  bronze  ;  but  sometimes  in  brass,  or  in  lead  ;  or  in  varia- 
ble mixtures  of  copper,  lead,  tin,  and  zinc.  The  moulds  in  which 
they  are  cast,  are  made  of  calcined  gypsum  and  brickdust,  tempered 
together ;  the  latter  serving  to  resist  the  heat  of  the  melted  metal, 
and  prevent  the  mould  from  crumbling.  The  mould  is  formed  in 
separate  parts ;  which  are  afterwards  united.  When  the  casting  is 
to  be  hollow,  the  mould  is  coated  internally  with  soft  clay,  and  the 
rest  of  the  interior  is  filled  with  a  core,  of  the  same  material  as  the 
mould.  The  mould  is  then  taken  apart,  the  soft  clay  removed,  and 
the  mould  then  readjusted ;  so  that  the  melted  metal,  when  poured 
in,  occupies  only  the  space  from  which  the  soft  clay  was  removed. 

Casting  in  plaster,  depends  upon  the  property  which  gypsum,  or 
plaster  of  Paris,  possesses ;  that  when  heated  to  about  300°  Fah.,  it 
gives  off  the  water  chemically  combined  with  it,  and  being  then 
pulverized  and  moistened,  it  recombines  with  water,  and  speedily 
become  a  hard,  solid  mass.  The  mould,  for  such  casting,  is  itself 
made  of  this  plaster,  applied  to  the  original  statue  or  model ;  which 
is  previously  oiled,  to  prevent  the  plaster  from  adhering.  The 
mould  may  be  formed  in  parts ;  and  the  cast  itself,  if  of  a  compli- 
cated form,  may  also  be  made  in  parts,  which  are  afterwards  united. 
The  mould  is  oiled  internally,  before  the  plaster,  mixed  with  water 
to  the  consistency  of  cream,  is  poured  in,  and  allowed  to  harden. 
Plaster  casts  may  be  varnished  with  a  solution  of  soap  and  white 
wax,  in  boiling  water,  and,  when  dry,  they  may  then  receive  a  fine 
polish.  When  exposed  to  the  weather,  they  may  be  protected  by 
applying  paint  or  oil,  with  which  wax  or  rosin  may  be  combined. 

§  4.  Under  the  head  of  Glyptography,  so  named  from  the  Greek, 
yhvtyy,  sculpture,  we  proceed  to  name  a  few  of  the  most  remarkable 
productions  of  this  branch  of  the  arts.  The  most  wonderful  Gre- 
cian statues,  were  those  of  Minerva,  in  the  Parthenon  at  Athens,  and 
Jupiter,  in  his  temple  at  Olympus  ;  both  executed  by  Phidias.  They 
were  both  of  colossal  size,  wrought  in  ivory,  and  robed  in  cloth  of 
gold.  That  of  Minerva  was  41  feet  high,  and  held  in  its  hand  a 
statue  of  Victory,  as  large  as  the  ordinary  human  figure.  That  of 
Jupiter  was  of  nearly  the  same  size.  Next  to  these,  we  may  name 
the  colossal  statue  of  Juno,  at  Argos,  made  of  ivory  and  gold,  by 
Polycletus,  the  rival  of  Phidias ;  and  next  to  this,  the  colossal  group 
of  Minerva,  presenting  the  deified  Hercules  to  Jupiter,  executed  by 
Myron,  at  about  the  same  period.  Polycletus  modelled  the  juvenile 
form,  in  his  Mercury ;  and  Myron,  the  mature  athletic  form  in  his 
Hercules.  The  statue  called  the  Dying  Gladiator,  is  ascribed  to 
Ctesilaus,  a  contemporary  of  Phidias.  Pythagoras  of  Rhegium 
created  the  ideal  form  of  Apollo,  of  which  the  Apollo  Belvidere  is  a 
copy ;  and  Praxiteles,  that  of  Diana.  Praxiteles  made  two  statues 
of  Venus,  one  of  which,  the  Cnidian,  was  nearly  copied  in  the 
Venus  de  Medici,  by  Cleomenes.  Scopas  invented  the  groups  of 
Thyades,  or  dancing  Bacchantes  :  and  the  group  of  Niobe  and  her 
Children,  is  ascribed  either  to  him  or  to  Praxiteles.  Lysippus  cast 
the  Tarentine  Jupiter,  of  bronze,  60  feet  high  ;  and  Chares,  his 
pupil,  is  said  to  have  made  the  Colossus,  at  Rhodes,  The  group  of 


MUSIC.  531 

Laocob'n,  is  attributed  to  Agesander  and  his  sons;  and  the  Farnese 
Hercules,  to  Glycon. 

Of  modern  sculpture,  the  Moses,  of  Michael  Angelo  is  a  sublime 
production  ;  and  his  statues  of  Morning,  Noon,  Evening,  and 
Night,  are  justly  celebrated.  Cellini  executed  a  superior  bronze 
statue  of  Perseus ;  and  Bernini  is  remembered  in  his  St.  Theresa 
and  St.  Bibiana.  Puget's  colossal  St.  Sebastian  does  honor  to 
French  sculpture ;  and  Falconet  executed  the  colossal,  equestrian 
statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  at  St.  Petersburg!).  Rauchmiiller  modelled 
the  equestrian  statue  of  Frederick  William  at  Berlin :  and  the  Ari- 
adne, of  Dannecker,  is  mentioned  as  worthy  of  classic  fame.  Flax- 
man's  monument  of  Lord  Mansfield,  is  considered  the  best  of  the 
kind  in  England.  Canova  excelled  in  the  beautiful,  as  shown  in  his 
statues  of  Venus,  Cupid,  and  Psyche  ;  and  his  groups  of  Venus  and 
Jldonis,  and  Cupid  and  Psyche :  but  Thorwaldsen  excels  also  in 
severer  themes,  as  shown  in  his  statues  of  Mars,  and  Jldonis,  which 
first  established  his  fame.  His  group  of  the  Graces  is  worthy  of  its 
author;  but  that  of  our  Saviour  and  the  Twelve  Jlpostles,  is  doubt- 
less the  most  remarkable  which  this  art  has  produced  since  the  days 
of  Grecian  glory. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

MUSIC. 

Music,  is  that  branch  of  the  Fine  Arts,  which  relates  to  the  pro- 
duction of  sounds,  regulated  according  to  the  principles  of  melody 
and  harmony.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  povaixy  ;  which 
originally  included  not  only  music,  but  poetry  and  eloquence ;  or,  in 
a  still  wider  sense,  all  the  arts  attributed  to  the  Muses.  In  common 
language,  the  word  Music  signifies  not  only  the  art  of  composing  or 
performing,  but  the  musical  composition  or  the  performance  itself. 
Though  its  object  is  frequently  mere  amusement ;  it  serves  other 
purposes,  when  used  to  convey  information,  or  commands,  as  by  the 
notes  of  the  trumpet  or  bugle,  in  war ;  and,  from  its  power  in  exciting 
and  expressing  strong  emotions,  it  has  been  introduced  and  conse- 
crated, in  all  ages,  as  a  part  of  divine  worship.  Its  influence,  even  on 
the  brute  creation,  proves  that  it  is  founded  on  natural  principles  ;  and 
when  rationally  cultivated,  without  neglecting  higher  duties,  it  is  a 
pure  and  noble  source  of  enjoyment. 

Music  is  doubtless  an  art  of  extremely  ancient  origin ;  and  it  may 
have  sprung  from  an  imitation  of  the  notes  of  birds,  whose  strains  it 
still  occasionally  aims  to  copy.  According  to  the  Mosaic  records, 
Jubal  invented  musical  instruments,  long  before  the  deluge :  and 
when  the  Egyptians  were  overthrown  in  the  Red  Sea,  Miriam,  and 
the  other  women  of  Israel,  sang,  to  the  notes  of  the  timbrel,  songs 
of  praise  and  exultation.  Some  writers  have  supposed  the  Hebrew 
music  to  have  been  derived  from  the  Egyptians  ;  and  it  is  certain  that 
the  lyre  and  harp,  the  timbrel  or  tabor,  and  pipe  or  flute,  were  used 


532  CALLOTECHNICS. 

in  Egypt,  in  very  remote  times.  The  invention  of  the  lyre,  which 
at  first  had  only  three  strings,  is  ascribed  to  the  Egyptian  Thoth  or 
Mercury ;  and  the  harp,  of  a  superior  construction,  is  found  pictured 
in  the  ancient  Sepulchres  of  the  Kings,  near  Thebes.* 

The  Greeks  ascribed  the  invention  of  the  pipe  to  Pan ;  and  that 
of  the  flute  to  Marsyas ;  but  the  honor  of  inventing  the  lyre,  they 
reserved  for  Mercury,  or  Apollo.  The  number  of  its  strings  was 
increased,  they  state,  by  Orpheus,  Linus,  Thamyris,  Amphion  or 
Terpander ;  and  the  eighth  was  added  by  Pythagoras,  to  complete 
the  octave  ;  which  he  is  said  to  have  discovered.  The  Grecian  scale 
of  musical  sounds,  was  made  up  of  tetrachords,  or  series  of  four  notes 
each ;  the  highest  being  a  minor  fourth  to  the  lowest :  and  as  the 
upper  tetrachord  began  with  the  highest  note  of  the  lower,  making 
only  seven  notes  in  the  two,  the  eighth  note  was  placed  below  these 
seven,  and  hence  called  proslambanomenos,  or  the  added  note.  The 
five  modes,  called  the  Dorian,  Ionian,  Phrygian,  ^Eolian,  and  Lydian, 
appear  to  have  designated  the  pitch,  or  key  note,  with  which  the 
piece  commenced  ;  the  last  named  mode  being  the  highest  and  softest. 
The  modern  diatonic  scale,  is  said  to  have  been  invented  by  Ptolemy, 
the  astronomer  and  geographer;  about  130  years  after  the  Christian 
Era.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Greeks  understood  counterpoint  or 
harmony ;  as  their  singing  appears  to  have  been  only  a  recitative, 
accompanied  by  instruments  to  support  the  rhythm. 

The  use  of  Sacred  Music,  in  the  Christian  Church,  was  coeval 
with  its  foundation.  As  early  as  the  first  century,  the  Jewish  prac- 
tice of  antiphonal  singing  was  adopted  by  Ignatius,  at  Antioch ; 
different  singers  responding  to  each  other,  or  to  the  patriarch  himself. 
This  practice  was  introduced  in  the  west,  by  Ambrose,  bishop  of 
Milan,  author  of  the  Ambrosian  chant.  Pope  Gregory  the  Great, 
about  A.  D.  600,  reformed  the  style  of  church  music,  and  established 
the  graver  style,  with  notes  of  equal  length,  still  preserved  in  the  Gre- 
gorian chant.  The  introduction  of  the  organ  in  churches,  (p.  477), 
led  to  the  invention  of  counterpoint,  or  the  writing  and  performing 
of  different  parts  together,  so  as  to  combine  harmony  with  melody. 
This  invention  has  been  ascribed  to  Guido  Aretinus,  (of  Arezzo), 
about  A.  D.  1020;  but  probably  belongs  to  an  earlier  age.  Guido 
introduced  the  musical  staff,  in  which  the  notes  are  written  both  on 
lines  and  spaces  ;  and  he  was  the  inventor  of  solmization,  or  the  use 
of  certain  syllables,  to  designate  the  notes  of  the  hexachord,  then  in 
vogue.  These  he  selected  from  a  hymn  to  St.  John ;  using  the 
initial  syllables  in  each  hemistich  of  the  following  stanza. 

"  UT  queant  laxis  REsonare  fibris 
Mira  gestorum  FAmuli  tuorum 
SOLVC  polluti  LAbii  reatum, 

Sancte  Johannes." 

A  seventh  syllable,  si  has  since  been  added,  it  is  said,  by  Maire 
of  Paris,  to  complete  the  octave ;  and  the  first  syllable,  ut  has  been 
changed  to  do,  by  the  Italians.  The  theory  of  counterpoint,  or  har- 
mony, was  much  improved  by  Franco  of  Cologne,  about  1050 ;  and 

*  A  brief  notice  of  musical  instruments  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  Furniture, 
(p.  479. 


MtTSlC.  533 

by  Palestiina,  in  1555,  and  Monte verde,  in  1582.  In  the  fifteenth 
century,  notes  were  first  varied  in  shape,  to  distinguish  their  length 
or  time ;  but  bars  were  not  employed  to  divide  the  piece  into  equal 
measures,  till  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The  first 
opera,  called  Dap/me,  the  words  by  Rinuccini,  and  the  music  by 
Jacopo  Peri,  was  composed  and  performed  at  Florence,  in  the  year 
1598.  It  was  followed,  in  1600,  by  the  first  oratorio,  entitled  Dell' 
Auima  e  del  Corpo,  composed  by  Emilio  del  Cavaliere,  partly  in 
imitation  of  the  ancient  recitative.  The  opera  differs  from  the  sim- 
ple drama,  in  uniting  the  charms  of  music  to  those  of  poetry ;  and 
hence  it  has  been  called  by  the  Italians  musica  parlante,  or  speaking 
music.  The  oratorio,  consisting  of  a  sacred  poem  set  to  music,  is, 
we  think,  the  noblest  and  grandest  of  musical  productions.  As  a 
sequel  to  the  history  of  Music,  a  few  of  the  best  operas  and  oratorios 
will  be  mentioned  in  the  concluding  section  of  this  chapter. 

The  study  of  Music,  may,  we  think,  be  comprised  under  the  heads 
of  Physical  Theory  of  Music ;  Musical  Notation ;  Musical  Compo- 
sition and  Execution  ;  and  Musical  Productions. 

§  1.  The  Physical  Theory  of  Music,  depends  upon  laws  of 
Acoustics,  the  statement  of  which  has  been  reserved  for  the  present 
place.  Music  is  either  a  succession,  or  a  combination  of  sounds : 
the  former  producing  melody,  and  the  latter  harmony.  Musical 
sounds,  or  tones,  are  caused  by  regular  vibrations  of  the  particles  of 
the  air;  which  vibrations  are  transmitted  from  sounding  bodies  to 
the  ear.  The  grave,  or  low  tones,  are  caused  by  slower  vibrations 
of  the  air,  and  are  sounded  by  the  longest  pipes,  or  strings,  corres- 
ponding to  the  left  hand  keys  of  the  organ,  or  piano.  The  more 
acute,  or  higher  sounds,  result  from  more  rapid  vibrations,  from 
shorter  strings  or  pipes.  The  tone  of  a  musical  string,  depends 
upon  its  tension,  its  diameter,  and  its  length.  Hence,  if  its  tension,  or 
tightness,  and  its  diameter  continue  the  same,  we  may  vary  its  length 
to  produce  various  tones ;  and  express  these  tones  by  means  of  the 
lengths  to  which  they  correspond :  for  the  number  of  vibrations  in  a 
given  time  is  inversely  proportional  to  these  lengths. 

Thus,  two  similar  strings,  of  the  same  length,  will  vibrate  in  equal 
times,  or  unison;  both  sounding  the  same  note.  But  if  one  of  the 
strings  be  only  half  as  long  as  the  other,  it  will  vibrate  twice  as 
rapidly ;  and  produce  a  sound  called  an  octave  above  that  of  the 
longer  string;  because  this  interval  is  made  to  comprehend  eight 
notes,  including  the  two  in  question,  in  the  diatonic  scale.  If  the 
strings,  and  consequently  their  vibrations,  be  in  the  ratio  of  2  to  3, 
the  resulting  interval  is  called  a  perfect  fifth :  but  the  ratio  of  3  to  4 
gives  a  minor  fourth ;  the  two  extreme  notes,  in  all  these  cases, 
being  counted.  The  ratio  of  4  to  5,  corresponds  to  the  interval  of  a 
major  third ;  and  the  ratio  of  3  to  5,  or  a  major  third  above  the 
minor  fourth,  gives  the  interval  of  the  major  sixth.  The  ratio  of  8 
to  9,  gives  the  major  second  ;  and  that  of  8  to  15,  or  a  major  third 
above  the  perfect  fifth,  gives  the  major  seventh  ;  which  completes 
the  eight  notes  of  the  octave,  in  the  diatonic,  or  natural  scale.  In 
passing  from  one  of  these  notes  to  the  next,  the  ratio  will  be  found 
to  vary ;  showing  that  they  are  at  unequal  intervals,  which  are  com- 

2Y2 


534  CALLOTECHNICS. 

monly  distinguished  as  tones  and  semitones ;  the  latter  occurring 
between  the  third  and  fourth,  and  the  seventh  and  eighth  notes,  as 
above  given.  It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  the  octave  may  be  subdi- 
vided into  two  equal  and  similar  parts,  of  4  notes  each. 

§  2.  The  basis  of  modern  Musical  Notation,  is  the  staff,  consist- 
ing of  five  parallel  lines,  and  their  intermediate  spaces,  on  which  the 
notes,  denoting  the  sounds,  are  written.  (Plate  XII.)  Each  line,  and 
space,  corresponds  to  some  one  note  of  the  diatonic  scale,  and  con- 
stitutes one  degree  of  the  staff.  A  few  more  degrees  may  be  added 
above  and  below,  by  means  of  short  lines  called  legerlines.  The 
staff  itself  may  also  be  made  to  express  a  higher,  or  a  lower  group 
of  notes,  by  means  of  characters  called  clefs.  These  are  the  bass, 
or  F  clef;  the  treble,  or  G  clef;  and  the  tenor,  or  C  clef;  which  last 
is  sometimes  used,  for  the  intermediate  parts  of  the  harmony.  The 
staves  for  those  parts  which  are  to  be  performed  together,  are  con- 
nected by  a  brace.  All  the  degrees  of  the  scale  are  named  from  the 
first  seven  letters  of  the  alphabet ;  their  order,  in  ascending,  being 
A,  B,  C,  D,  E,  F,  G ;  and,  in  ascending  still  higher,  they  are 
repeated  in  the  same  order ;  so  that  all  the  degrees  of  the  same  name 
are  octaves  to  each  other.  The  bass  clef  is  usually  placed  on  the 
fourth  line,  which  hence  is  called  F ;  and  then  the  lowest  line  of  the 
bass  is  G :  and  the  treble  clef  is  commonly  placed  on  the  second 
line,  which  thence  becomes  G ;  so  that  the  lowest  line  of  the  treble, 
or  air  is  E  ;  from  which  the  rest  of  the  degrees  may  be  named. 

When  the  diatonic  octave,  (sometimes  termed  the  eight  notes), 
commences  with  C,  the  music  is  said  to  be  in  the  natural  key,  or 
key  of  C  :  and,  in  solmization,  this  letter  is  then  called  do  ;  the 
next  above,  re;  the  next,  mi;  and  so  on,  as  already  explained. 
(p.  532,  and  Plate  XII).  The  notes  in  this  key,  are  all  sounded  by 
the  white  keys  of  the  organ  or  piano  ;  the  semitones  falling  between 
E  and  F,  and  B  and  C.  But  when  the  diatonic  octave  is  made  to 
commence  on  a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  the  scale,  some  of  the 
degrees  require  to  be  sounded  either  higher  or  lower  by  half  a  tone, 
corresponding  to  the  black  keys  of  the  organ  or  piano,  in  order  to 
bring  the  semitones  in  their  proper  place.  This  is  denoted  by  writing 
either  sharps,  or  flats,  characters  so  called,  on  the  degrees  which  are 
to  be  raised  or  lowered ;  and  these  characters,  at  the  beginning  of  a 
staff,  constitute  the  signature:  but  their  effect  may  be  counteracted 
by  means  of  another  character,  called  a  natural. 

The  time  allotted  to  the  music,  is  divided  into  equal  portions,  pro- 
perly called  measures,  by  lines  called  bars,  crossing  the  staff.  In 
common  time,  each  measure  is  divisible  into  two  or  four  equal  parts  ; 
in  triple  time,  it  is  divisible  into  three ;  and  in  compound  time,  each 
primary  division  of  the  measure  is  again  subdivided  into  three  equal 
parts.  Notes  are  varied,  in  shape  and  name,  to  denote  the  relative 
times  during  which  they  should  be  sounded.  A  semibreve  is  as  long 
as  two  minims;  or  four  crotchets;  or  eight  quavers;  or  sixteen 
semiquavers ;  or  thirty-two  quadriquavers ;  or  sixty-four  octoqua- 
vers :  and  the  same  relation  exists  between  the  different  rests,  or 
marks  of  silence.  Notes  are  often  connected  by  a  tie  or  slur,  to 
denote  that  they  are  to  be  sung  to  one  syllable,  or  played  legato,  thai 


PLATE  XII.      MUSIC. 


STAFF  AND  CLEFS. 

v^,*  r       ^      id                                         V\ 

f     *     r 

•                        .        _  1 

J  ;     Mi.   _.r    " 

1    i    j    r   w  e  ^  _  ivy 

*     « 

FEDCBAG        "  G    F  E    B    c    D 

Bass  or                                                  Treble  or 
F  Clef.                                                 G  Clef. 

MOODS  OF  TIME. 

E 

Tenor  or 
C  Clef. 

—  ^    ^        /f»    ^      -^-"r-y  1       "   »j    e2 

ir—  ST-ST- 

_L  ipbf  4  i    [    -2  

3=  

Common  Time.                                 Triple  Time.                       Compound  Time. 
NOTES  AND  RESTS. 

-g^—     -g>  -      -jr-|s~    -iF-cr    -irsc      *    *  *    ^      -g    ^J    3 

breve"       Miniin-    Crotchet.    Quaver.    q^a™er           Havers 
MEASURE  OF  TIME. 

Octo- 
quavers. 

pr-if  H-f  rrlrn 

i  r  r  r  r  i  r  r 

£-••  \  \  \  r 

First  mood  of  common  time.             Pointed  minim.                        Pointed  Crotchet. 

DIATONIC  SCALE. 

1          1  1 

_        '    Semitone.           /  ^£ 

i        i      i 

•    1    s    Mi 

7-Sh     Tone.                 @H£—  1  

'  .     1  —  4  *_ 

?_±_r^ML 

5  Sol 
'          Tone.           •<                 Do        Re 

'     ^'    Semitone,    p 

Mi       Fa      Sol       La 

Si         Do 

m        -p- 

O.    Ml.        rp                                                    /fj\.  ,*1.             I      . 

0       • 

1                "II  " 

* 

j            MB 

i                '     t 

MI 

i            ' 

1  1 

The  octave  in  the  natural  key. 

DIATONIC  SCALE. 

t*~*l  —  1  1   i    J  i  r~T*~f~H*~l  —  '    '  ' 

P 

A     A    ~*'      ^    " 

-!  —  •  —J  —  |—  —  j  ^  

1         III 

•ft'  °              i            - 

1    ° 

•  1 

12345         6 

7813 

5            8 

/Sv  it  f>                            '          1         I 

m~        01      &    .         =? 

p           ^11 

^i-tf1^                   1                          J        * 

r           1 

•"•     .4   J   =3   "«"  '  *     *^ 

-i  L_l_ 

The  octave  in  the  key  of  one  sharp.                                     Concords. 
OCCASIONAL  CHARACTERS. 

_    /  —  ^ 

0                 • 

—  HT 

fr  -   D-  -  •          R               r         i 
1 

i  F  j_ 

||L 

1 
Sharp.          Flat.        Natural.            Tie. 

Pause.       Repeat 

Close. 

MVSIC.  535 

is,  slurring  them,  or  gliding  smoothly  from  each  to  the  next.  The 
dash,  is  placed  over  or  under  notes  which  are  to  be  performed  stac- 
cato, or  very  distinct  from  each  other.  The  hold,  is  placed  over  or 
under  notes  that  are  to  be  prolonged  beyond  their  regular  time,  and 
at  the  pleasure  of  the  performer. 

§  3.  The  Principles  of  Musical  Composition  and  Execution,  are 
partly  arbitrary,  depending  on  taste  and  fashion ;  and  partly  fixed,  or 
founded  on  the  physical  theory  of  music,  already  explained.  We 
commence  this  subject  by  remarking  that  those  notes  which,  sounded 
together,  produce  harmony,  would,  if  sounded  in  succession,  pro- 
duce melody :  because  the  vibrations  which  they  produce,  corres- 
pond, or  coincide,  at  certain  intervals  of  time ;  and  this  coincidence 
is,  to  a  certain  extent,  agreeable  to  the  ear.  When  the  vibrations 
coincide  frequently,  they  produce  a  concord ;  but  when  they  concur 
only  at  long  intervals,  they  produce  a  dissonance,  or  in  extreme 
cases  a  discord ;  which  is  pleasing  occasionally,  if  sparingly  intro- 
duced. The  first,  third,  fifth,  and  eighth  notes,  of  the  diatonic 
octave,  produce  the  most  perfect  concord ;  and  next  to  this  we  may 
name  the  first,  fourth,  sixth,  and  eighth ;  and  the  first,  third  and 
sixth ;  which  last  concord  is  the  basis  of  the  minor  modes,  charac- 
terized by  their  sadness  and  solemnity. 

Musical  intervals,  are  named  from  the  number  of  tones  and  semi- 
tones which  they  comprehend.  The  unison,  is  termed  an  interval, 
although  the  two  notes  are  sounded  precisely  alike.  The  minor 
second,  is  an  interval  of  one  semitone ;  and  the  major  second,  an 
interval  of  one  tone,  between  the  two  notes  which  are  sounded 
together.  Both  of  these  intervals  are  dissonances  :  and  the  others 
are  similarly  named  and  distinguished.  The  study  of  thorough 
bass,  comprehends  that  of  all  these  intervals  and  their  changes  ;  with 
the  principles  which  regulate  their  use,  in  harmonic  composition. 
Vocal  music  is  also  governed  by  the  grammatical  rules  of  accent, 
emphasis,  and  cadence,  as  in  reading  or  speaking.  Voices,  in 
reference  to  music,  are  distinguished  as  bass,  tenor,  and  counter  or 
alto  ;  the  latter  being  the  highest  male,  or  lowest  female  voices  ;  and 
treble,  or  soprano,  which  are  the  highest  voices  of  females. 

§  4.  Of  the  numerous  Musical  Productions  now  before  the  pub- 
lic, we  have  only  room  to  name  a  few  of  the  most  celebrated  operas 
and  oratorios.  Piccini  wrote  numerous  operas,  of  which  La  Burma 
Figliuola  was  extremely  popular ;  and  his  Dido  is  considered  the 
best.  Cimarosa  wrote  120  operas,  some  of  them,  as  II  Matrimonio 
Secreto,  or  the  Secret  Marriage,  of  superior  merit.  Of  Rossini's 
operas,  II  Tancredi,  or  Tancred,  was  brought  out  in  1813,  with 
brilliant  success ;  and  was  followed  by  the  Barber  of  Seville ;  La 
Cenerentola,  or  Cinderella;  La  Gazza  Ladra,  or  the  Thievish  Mag- 
pie; La  Donna  del  Lago,  or  the  Lady  of  the  Lake;  and  several 
others.  Bellini  is  the  author  of  II  Pirata';  La  Somnambula  ;  Norma, 
and  two  other  operas  ;  and  Cherubini  wrote  Les  deux  Journees,  or 
the  Two  Days,  which  is  deemed  a  masterly  production.  The  Zau- 
ber  Flote,  or  Magic  Flute,  of  Mozart,  is  highly  original  and  beau- 
tiful ;  Weber's  Der  Freyschutz,  or  the  Free  Hunter,  is  grand  and 
wild ;  and  Meyerbeer's 'Crociato  in  Egitto,  or  Crusade  in  Egypt,  is 


536  CALLOTECHNICS. 

regarded  as  his  best  production.  Beethoven  composed  but  one 
opera,  Fidelio.  Auber's  Massaniello,  and  Fra  Diavolo,  and  Boiel- 
dieu's  Caliph  of  Bagdad,  and  La  Dame  Blanche,  are  among  the 
most  celebrated  operas  by  the  French  composers. 

Handel  wrote  several  superior  operas ;  but  they  were  all  eclipsed 
by  his  oratorios  ;  of  which  the  Messiah  and  the  Samson  are  con- 
sidered the  best.  Next  to  these  sacred  compositions  we  would  name 
Haydn's  chief  oratorios,  the  Creation,  and  the  Seasons,  as  among 
the  noblest  efforts  of  musical  genius.  Beethoven's  Mount  of  Olives, 
is  also  a  sublime  composition,  ranking  next  to  the  preceding.  Lind- 
painter's  Seven  Sleepers,  is  an  oratorio  of  merit,  and  the  last  which 
we  have  room  here  to  name.  The  oratorio  of  David,  by  Neu- 
komm  ;  and  that  of  the  Last  Judgment,  by  Spohr  ;  are  also  celebrated 
productions  ;  though  the  latter  is  a  subject  which  we  think  should 
have  been  left  to  the  awful  mystery  which  belongs  to  it. 


CHAPTER  V. 

ARGICS. 

IN  the  branch  of  Argics,  we  comprehend  a  variety  of  exercises  and 
amusements,  not  included  in  the  preceding  branches  ;  particularly 
Gymnastics,  Calisthenics,  and  Sedentary  as  well  as  Active  Games 
and  Sports.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  apyta,  leisure,  or 
rest ;  as  the  arts  here  embraced  are  mostly  the  employment  of  leisure 
hours,  devoted  to  the  pursuit  of  health  or  amusement.  These  arts 
constitute  a  miscellaneous  group,  of  various  tendency  :  and  some 
discrimination  is  necessary,  in  order  to  separate  the  baneful  from 
the  useful.  In  general,  those  amusements  which  contribute  to  health, 
strength,  and  physical  activity,  without  fostering  savage  or  boisterous 
passions  and  habits,  are  worthy  of  encouragement ;  but  those  which 
lead  to  indolent,  effeminate  or  vicious  habits  and  indulgences,  should 
be  carefully  proscribed,  as  deleterious  both  to  individuals  and  to 
society.  The  prevalence  of  such  amusements,  in  all  nations  and 
ages,  shows  their  congeniality  to  our  nature ;  but  it  does  not  prove 
that  they  are  indiscriminately  useful  or  praiseworthy.  Even  the  best 
of  them  are  liable  to  abuse,  when  pursued  excessively  ;  and  this  is 
one  reason,  among  various  others,  why  their  nature  and  tendency 
should  be  understood,  and  their  practice  regulated,  by  those  who 
have  the  supervision  of  youth,  and  the  care  of  public  morals. 

The  name  Gymnastics,  was  first  applied,  by  the  Spartans,  to  those 
active  exercises  in  which  their  youth  were  trained,  for  the  purpose 
of  making  them  skilful  and  hardy  in  war :  and  the  place  of  training 
was  called  a  Gymnasium.  From  Sparta,  this  custom  was  extended 
to  the  rest  of  Greece ;  and  athletic  exercises  acquired  increased  im- 
portance, in  becoming  a  part  of  the  celebration  of  the  great  national 
games,  or  festivals  ;  the  Olympic,  Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemasan  ; 
held  in  honour  of  their  gods  and  heroes.  Prizes  and  honors  were 
awarded  to  those  who  excelled  at  these  games,  until  success  became 


ARGICS.  537 

so  difficult  that  none  but  professed  athletx  appeared  as  competitors, 
and  the  exercises  degenerated  to  mere  shows  of  physical  strength 
and  brutality.  The  early  Roman  gymnastics  were  also  of  a  military 
character ;  and  the  taste  of  the  Romans  led  to  the  exhibition  of  still 
more  savage  and  sanguinary  scenes ;  as  the  naumachise,  or  sea 
fights,  to  which  slaves  and  criminals  were  devoted ;  or  the  combats 
of  gladiators,  often  fatal,  with  wild  beasts  or  with  each  other. 
These,  perhaps,  gave  rise  to  the  bull  fights  of  modern  Spain. 

In  the  ancient  gymnasia,  the  palsestra  was  that  part  in  which  the 
athletic  exercises  were  performed.  Five  of  these  exercises  were 
called  by  the  Greeks  pentathlon,  and  by  the  Romans,  quinquertium  ; 
including  leaping,  running,  wrestling,  quoiting,  and  darting ;  or  in 
place  of  the  two  latter,  some  writers  mention  boxing  and  dancing. 
Boxing,  or  the  csestus,  was  a  common  amusement  of  the  Romans : 
and  in  the  game  called  pancratium,  or  all  fights,  two  men,  disrobed 
and  unarmed,  fought  together  till  one  of  them  yielded,  barely 
escaping  with  his  life.  Dancing  was  in  early,  and  in  classic  times, 
made  a  part  of  religious  festivities ;  but,  unlike  the  dancing  now  in 
vogue,  it  consisted  chiefly  in  measured  movements  of  individual  per- 
formers. The  chariot  race  was  a  favorite  sport ;  and  the  Greeks,  as 
well  as  the  Romans,  set  a  great  value  on  the  art  of  swimming.  With 
the  decline  of  Roman  virtue,  the  ancient  gymnasia  degenerated  into 
mere  haunts  of  licentiousness  and  vice. 

In  the  middle  ages,  the  tournament  became  the  favorite  amuse- 
ment ;  in  which  knights  or  cavaliers  contended  with  each  other,  in 
the  lists,  on  horseback,  and  armed  with  the  lance.  These  festivals 
originated  in  France,  as  early  as  A.  D.  900 :  and  a  code  of  regula- 
tions, concerning  them,  was  drawn  up  by  Godfrey  de  Preuilly,  in 
1066.  With  the  changes  in  the  art  of  war,  they  had  already  begun 
to  decline,  when  the  death  of  Henry  II.,  who  was  mortally  wounded 
in  tilting  with  Count  Montgomery,  in  1559,  led  to  their  abolition  in 
the  country  which  gave  rise  to  them.  Swordsmanship,  including 
fencing,  was  also  a  favorite  practice  of  the  middle  ages :  and  archery 
is  celebrated  in  the  exploits  of  Robin  Hood  and  his  foresters,  in  the 
lawless  times  of  Richard  and  King  John.  Hunting,  has  long  been  a 
fashionable  recreation  among  the  European  nobility ;  and  since  the 
days  of  Izaak  Walton,  fishing  may  claim  an  honorable  place  among 
the  arts  of  amusement. 

A  regular  system  of  Gymnastics,  was  first  matured  in  Germany, 
by  Salzmann,  a  clergyman,  at  his  school  in  Thuringia,  about  the 
year  1790.  The  exercises  which  he  taught,  were  chiefly  running, 
leaping,  climbing,  balancing,  and  swimming.  The  first  treatise  on 
Gymnastics,  was  written  by  Guts-Muths,  who  was  a  teacher  in  Salz- 
mann's  institution.  Jahn  proposed  the  general  introduction  of  Gym- 
nasia, with  a  view  to  rouse  the  youth  of  Germany  in  the  cause  of 
political  freedom;  but  this  course  led  to  their  suppression,  in  1819 
or  20.  On  the  subsequent  persecution  of  the  liberal  leaders,  Mr. 
Volker  went  to  London,  and  there  established  the  first  Gymnasium 
in  England,  in  1824 :  and  Dr.  Beck,  a  pupil  of  Jahn,  founded  the 
first  Gymnasium  in  the  United  States,  at  Northampton,  Mass.,  in 
1825.  At  about  the  same  time,  a  system  of  Calisthenics,  or  ex- 
68 


538  CALLOTECHNICS. 

ercises  for  ladies,  was  introduced  in  London ;  but  none  of  these 
systems  has  met  with  general  favor  in  our  own  country ;  perhaps, 
because  the  exercises  have  heretofore  been  too  monotonous  to  pre- 
serve their  interest. 

Of  sedentary  amusements,  or  games,  the  invention  of  chess,  is 
claimed  by  the  Chinese  ;  but,  more  probably,  -belongs  to  Sissa,  a 
brahmin  of  Hindoostan ;  and  dates  back  to  the  fifth  century  of  our 
era.  The  object  of  this  invention  is  said  to  have  been  to  show  the 
king  of  the  Indies  how  great  was  his  dependence  upon  his  officers 
and  men ;  and  thus  to  procure  for  them  a  milder  treatment.  Chess 
was  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Crusaders ;  and  has  ever  been 
regarded  as  a  scientific  game,  affording  great  exercise  to  the  intellec- 
tual powers.  Dice  are  said  to  have  been  invented  in  Greece,  by 
Palamedes ;  and  they  were  also  used  by  the  Romans  ;  although  the 
use  of  them  in  Rome  was  prohibited  by  law.  Cards  also,  were  pro- 
bably invented  in  the  East ;  and  painted  cards  were  made  in  Italy  as 
early  as  1299  :  but  the  manufacture  of  playing  cards,  by  block  print- 
ing, originated  in  Germany,  between  the  years  1350  and  1360.  The 
game  of  billiards  originated  in  France ;  but  at  what  date,  we  are  not 
informed. 

Our  few  remarks  on  Argics,  will  be  distributed  under  the  heads  of 
Field  and  Water  Sports  ;  Gymnastics  and  Calisthenics  ;  and  Games 
of  Chance  and  Skill. 

§  1.  Under  the  head  of  Field  and  Water  Sports,  we  include  those 
active  amusements  which  are  enjoyed  in  the  open  air,  and  require 
free  space  for  their  enjoyment.  Such  are  riding,  driving,  rowing, 
sailing,  swimming,  skating,  running,  bathing  or  playing  ball,  quoit- 
ing,  slinging,  darting,  archery,  shooting,  hunting,  and  fishing.  Some 
of  these  sports  may  also  be  practised  in  the  Gymnasium,  or  hall  pre- 
pared for  this  purpose ;  but  they  are  all,  we  think,  more  appropriate 
for  the  field  or  the  water.  Hiding,  on  horseback,  is  a  healthy  exer- 
cise, generally  practised  in  the  open  country,  and  especially  serviceable 
in  the  operations  of  war.  The  rider  should  sit  steadily  over  the  cen- 
tre of  motion  of  the  horse,  without  pressing  too  hard  upon  the  sides 
of  the  saddle ;  the  feet  being  turned  directly  to  the  front,  the  toes 
raised,  the  shoulders  thrown  back,  the  breast  advanced,  the  elbows 
kept  near  the  sides,  and  the  whole  body  balanced,  and  adjusted  to  the 
motions  of  the  horse.  Both  riding  and  driving,  whether  of  several 
horses,  or  only  one,  require  a  careful  study  of  this  noble  animal,  and 
the  means  of  managing  him  with  ease  and  safety. 

Rowing,  is  also  a  healthy  exercise,  and  very  bracing  to  the  arms 
and  chest.  It  requires  a  regulated  motion  of  the  hands,  in  order  to 
dip  or  raise  the  oar  at  the  proper  moment,  and  then  to  pull  it  horizon- 
tally, or  to  carry  it  back  without  raising  it  too  high  above  the  water. 
Sailing,  is  a  more  dangerous  amusement,  though  not  the  less  fasci- 
nating, for  that  reason ;  while  it  is  enjoyed  with  so  little  effort. 
Swimming,  is  a  healthy  and  useful  exercise ;  by  means  of  which 
life  is  often  rescued,  though  sometimes  lost.  The  human  body  is 
lighter  than  its  own  bulk  of  water ;  and  hence,  by  keeping  the  nos- 
trils above  water,  no  exertion  is  necessary  merely  to  prevent  submer- 
sion and  drowning.  Skating,  is  perhaps  a  more  exhilarating  sport, 


ARGICS.  539 

but  one  which  should  be  practised  only  on  ice  that  is  known  to  be 
firm  and  continuous.  Running,  which  may  be  practised  at  all  sea- 
sons, is  one  of  the  best  juvenile  exercises;  and  auxiliary  to  most  of 
the  games  of  Batting,  or  playing  ball,  the  favorite  games  of  boyhood. 
Quoiting,  or  the  tossing  of  stones,  or  metallic  disks,  called  quoits ; 
and  Slinging,  or  throwing  stones  by  whirling  a  sling,  we  think  less 
commendable  sports  than  Darting,  or  hurling  the  lance,  and  Archery, 
or  practising  with  the  bow  and  arrows.  Shooting,  with  fire  arms, 
is  one  of  the  most  dangerous  amusements,  suitable  only  for  men,  of 
mature  age,  and  instructed  as  to  the  nature  of  these  weapons.  Our 
chief  objection  to  Hunting,  and  Fishing,  is  the  temptation  which 
they  hold  out  to  waste  time  which  should  be  employed  in  some 
nobler  pursuit. 

§  2.  Under  the  head  of  Gymnastics,  and  Calisthenics,  we  include 
those  exercises  which  are  suitable  for  the  Gymnasium,  or  hall  of 
exercise ;  the  former  class  being  intended  for  young  men,  and  the 
latter,  or  Calisthenics,  more  especially  designed  for  young  ladies. 
Among  all  these  exercises,  Fencing,  or  the  use  of  the  small  sword  or 
rapier,  has  long  been  accounted  one  of  peculiar  dignity ;  and  it  is 
one  producing  excellent  development  of  all  the  muscular  powers ; 
although,  on  account  of  the  uses  to  which  it  has  been,  and  may  be 
applied,  it  may  be  liable  to  serious  objections.  It  is  usually  practised 
\\\i\\  foils,  or  slender  and  elastic  swords,  with  buttons  on  the  points ; 
the  fencers  also  wearing  wire  gauze  masks,  and  thick  gloves,  to  pro- 
tect themselves  from  injury.  In  the  common  guard,  or  carte,  the 
right  foot  is  thrown  forward,  the  body  presented  sideways  to  the 
antagonist,  resting  and  balancing  on  the  left  leg,  and  inclining  a  little 
backward ;  while  the  foil,  with  the  point  slightly  elevated,  and  directed 
towards  the  antagonist,  is  held  in  the  right  hand  carried  forward  and 
slightly  depressed,  the  palm  and  nails  being  turned  upward  ;  and  the 
left  hand  is  carried  back,  and  raised  to  the  level  of  the  forehead,  to 
balance  the  body.  In  the  guard  of  tierce,  the  position  is  the  same, 
but  the  right  hand  is  turned,  with  the  palm  inclining  downward. 
We  have  no  room  to  pursue  this  subject ;  nor  to  speak  of  the  Broad- 
sword Exercise,  which  indeed  belongs  more  closely  to  the  preceding 
department,  or  the  Arts  of  War. 

The  systematic  exercises  in  Gymnastics,  recently  introduced  in 
various  seminaries,  consist  in  leaping,  both  in  length  and  in  height ; 
hopping  and  balancing,  on  one  foot  at  a  time,  using  the  feet  alternate- 
ly ;  leaping  with  a  pole,  held  in  the  hands,  which  are  thus  exerted 
at  the  same  time  ;  jumping  with  a  hoop  or  rope  ;  vaulting,  or  spring- 
ing over  an  object  by  resting  the  hands  upon  it ;  climbing,  up  a  pole, 
or  a  rope,  or  a  ladder,  in  the  latter  case  supporting  the  body  by  the 
hands  alone  ;  walking  the  rope,  or  on  a  horizontal  bar,  and  balancing 
on  the  same ;  swinging  and  seesaw ;  swinging  the  dumb-bells, 
which  are  heavy  metallic  weights  ;  and  pulling,  pushing,  lifting,  or 
carrying:  heavy  bodies.  In  these,  and  similar  exercises,  provision 
should  be  made,  as  far  as  possible,  for  avoiding  danger;  and  they 
should  not  be  taken  immediately  after  eating,  nor  too  violently  at  the 
commencement.  Of  wrestling,  and  boxing,  we  think  less  favora- 
bly ;  and  we  regard  field  sports  as  preferable  to  those  of  the  hall, 


540  CALLOTECHNICS, 

whenever  they  are  equally  accessible  :  but  we  will  venture  to  add  the 
opinion)  that  the  same  amount  of  exercise,  devoted  to  some  of  the 
active  arts,  as  turning,  planing,  cabinet  making,  forging  and  filing, 
machine  making,  farming,  or  gardening,  would  be  alike  beneficial  to 
persons  of  sedentary  habits,  and  far  more  productive.  Of  Calisthe- 
nics, or  exercises  for  young  ladies,  we  would  particularly  recom- 
mend dancing  ;  which,  in  the  social  circle,  is,  we  think,  alike  grace- 
ful and  healthy ;  though  its  practice  in  crowded  halls,  and  at  late 
hours,  is  doubtless  in  many  ways  injurious. 

§  3.  Of  Games  of  Chance,  and  of  Skill,  the  most  scientific, 
and  interesting,  is  that  of  Chess ;  which  is  played  by  two  persons, 
on  a  board  divided  into  64  squares,  painted  alternately  black  and 
white ;  the  board  being  so  placed  that  each  player  may  have  a  white 
square  on  the  right  hand,  in  the  row  which  is  nearest  to  him.  Each 
player  has  eight  pieces,  besides  eight  pawns ;  which,  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  game,  are  placed  in  a  certain  order ;  those  of  the 
different  sides  being  distinguished  by  their  colors.  The  white  queen 
is  placed  on  the  central  white  square  of  one  side,  the  king  being  on 
her  left.  The  two  pieces  called  bishops,  are  placed  next  to  the  king 
and  queen ;  the  knights  next  to  these ;  and  the  castles,  or  rooks, 
occupy  the  corners.  The  black  queen  is  placed  on  the  central  black 
square  ;  the  black  king  being  on  her  right ;  and  the  pawns  are  placed 
in  the  second  row  on  each  side.  The  pawns  can  only  be  moved 
forward,  either  one  or  two  squares  at  their  first  move,  and  then  one 
square  at  a  time ;  and  they  can  take  the  opposite  pieces  only  by 
moving  obliquely  forward.  The  knights  move  obliquely,  three 
squares  at  a  time  ;  the  bishops  obliquely,  forward  or  backward  ;  the 
castles  directly,  forward,  backward,  or  sideways ;  and  the  queen  has 
the  moves  either  of  the  bishop  or  the  castle,  moving,  like  them,  as 
far  as  she  pleases,  if  the  board  be  free.  The  king  moves  in  every 
direction ;  but  only  one  square  at  a  time,  except  in  castling,  or  dis- 
placing one  of  the  antagonist  castles. 

If  a  frequent  indulgence  in  the  game  of  chess  be  an  unjustifiable 
waste  of  time,  how  much  more  so  must  be  those  games  of  mere 
chance,  which  serve  only  to  consume  the  fleeting  hours  of  life,  and 
leave  no  returns  of  health,  usefulness,  or  improvement ;  but  rather 
bear  with  them  to  eternity  the  stamp  of  self-condemnation.  Such 
are  games  of  cards,  and  of  dice;  which  are  alike  pernicious  and 
dangerous,  as  the  avenues  to  effeminacy  and  dissipation,  to  gambling, 
drinking,  and  all  their  train  of  vices  :  while  the  poor  victim  imagines 
that  he  is  only  indulging  in  a  little  harmless  amusement,  till  the  chains 
are  forged  and  fastened  upon  him,  which  shall  drag  him  down  to  tem- 
poral if  not  eternal  perdition.  Some  of  these  games  may  be  interest- 
ing, as  matters  of  curiosity,  or  ingenuity ;  but  a  practical  knowledge 
of  them,  we  must  regard  as  one  of  the  most  dangerous  and  dispa- 
raging acquirements  which  a  young  man  can  possibly  make.  If  a 
perusal  of  the  present  work  has  not  suggested  many  sources  of 
amusement,  equally  recreative,  and  incomparably  more  laudable  than 
any  of  these  games,  then  has  the  labor  here  bestowed  fallen  far 
short  of  the  writer's  object ;  the  moral  as  well  as  intellectual  profit 
of  all  his  readers. 


APPENDIX. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

A  SELECT  CATALOGUE  OF  BOOKS  ON  ALL  THE   BRANCHES  OF  HUMAN  KNOWLEDGE. 

IN  the  following  list,  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  aid  the  purchaser  and  reader 
in  the  choice  of  books.  Their  number  is  so  great,  and  their  merits  are,  in  many 
cases,  so  nearly  equal,  that  to  make  a  selection  would  be  difficult,  even  for  a  per- 
son well  acquainted  with  them  all.  The  writer  can,  therefore,  only  hope  that  this 
catalogue  will  be  found  to  contain  a  large  proportion  of  valuable  works ;  and  that 
its  gi'eatest  faults  may  be  remedied  hereafter,  should  a  new  edition  be  called  for. 
In  order  to  give  some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  works  enumerated,  the  number  of 
volumes  is  generally  designated  by  the  letter  v. ;  and  the  size  of  each  is  marked 
by  a  numerical  abbreviation  of  the  words  folio,  (2io.;)  quarto,  (4to. ;)  octavo,  (8vo.;) 
duodecimo,  (12mo.;)  and  octodecimo,  (18mo.;) — the  reference  being  generally  to 
the  American,  or  to  the  later  foreign  editions.  The  present  work  is  of  the  common 
octavo  size,  as  explained,  p.  521.  The  order  of  subjects  here  adopted  is  the  same 
as  in  the  preceding  part  of  the  work.  (p.  37.)  The  writer  is  happy  to  acknow- 
ledge his  obligations  to  Judah  Dobson,  Esq.,  of  Philadelphia,  for  the  names  of 
several  recent  and  valuable  works,  which  would  otherwise  have  been  inadvertently 
omitted  in  the  following  list.  Mr.  Dobson's  extensive  agencies  in  the  procurement 
of  foreign  as  well  as  domestic  publications,  have  afforded  him  peculiar  facilities 
in  bibliographical  researches,  which  none  could  have  more  successfully  pursued. 

PANTOLOGY. 

Wilbur's  Lexicon  of  Useful   Knowledge,  for  Schools,  1  v.  ]2mo.;    Enfield's 


Knowledge,  in  numbers,  8vo. ;  Harper's  Family  Library,  in  numbers,  18mo.  The 
Transactions  and  Memoirs  of  Learned  Societies,  (p.  22,)  are  important  and  exten- 
sive sources  of  general  information.  Of  Periodicals,  relating  to  knowledge  in 
general,  we  can  only  name  the  Edinburgh,  Quarterly,  Foreign  Quarterly,  and 
Westminster  Reviews,  Jamieson's  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Journal,  and  the  Lon- 
don and  Edinburgh  Philosophical  Magazine ;  and,  in  our  own  country,  the  North 
American  and  New  York  Reviews,  the  Southern  Literary  Messenger,  the  Journal 
of  the  Franklin  Institute,  and  Silliman's  Journal  of  Science. 

GENERAL  BIBLIOGRAPHY* 

Home's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Bibliography,  2  v.  8vo.;  Taylor's  Transmis- 
sion of  Ancient  Books  to  Modem  Times,  1  v.  8vo.;  Eschenbcrg's  Manual  of  Clas- 
sical Literature,  1  v.  8vo. ;  SchoeWs  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque,  8  v.  8vo., 
or  4  v.  I2mo.;  Schoelt's  Abregee  de  la  Litterature  Romaine,  4  v.  8vo.,  and  abridged 
in  1  v.  8vo.;  Dunlop's  Roman  Literature,  to  the  Augustan  Age,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Hal. 

*  Relating  to  books  on  all  subjects. 
69 


542  APPENDIX. 

lam's  Introduction  to  the  Literature  of  Europe,  2  v.  8vo,;  Barreiti's  Italian  Li- 
brary, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Anaya's  Essay  on  Spanish  Literature,  1  v.  I2mo.;  Bouterwek's 


Manual,  4  v.  8vo.;  Goodburgh's  Library  Manual,  1  v.  8vo. ;   Waff's  Bibliotheca 
Britannica,  4  v.  4to.     See  also  Catalogues  of  Libraries ,  (p.  25). 

FIRST  PROVINCE— PSYCHONOMY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Kames'  Sketches  of  the  History  of  Man,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Cud- 
worth's  Intellectual' System  of  the  Universe,  2  v.  8vo.;  Kay's  Synopsis  of  Philoso- 
phical, Political,  and  Theological  Systems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Aristotle's,  Plato's,  and 
Cicero's  Philosophical  Works. 

I.   DEPARTMENT — GLOSSOLOGY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Priestley's  Theory  of  Language  and  Universal  Grammar, 
1  v.  I2mo. ;  Harris'  Hermes,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Jamieson's  Hermes  Scythicus,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Beattie's  Theory  of  Language,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Tooke's  Epea  Pteroenta,  or  Diversions 
of  Purley,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Arnold  el  Launcelol's  (Port  Royal)  Grammaire  Generate  et 
Raisonnee,  8vo.;  (De  Brosse's)  Formation  Mechanique  des  Langues,  2  v.  8vo.; 
Murray's  History  of  European  Languages,  2  v.  8vo.;  Hervas,  (see  p.  41);  Ade- 
lung  and  Voter's  Mithridates,  (see  do.) ;  Fry's  Pantographia,  (on  alphabetic  cha- 
racters,) 1  v.  8vo.;  Barnard's  Polyglot  Grammar,  1  v.  8vo. 

ORIENTAL  LANGUAGES. — Calepinus'  Lexicon  XI.  Linguarum,  1  v.  2io. ;  Cham- 
pollion,  Wilkinson,  and  Young,  on  the  Coptic,  and  Hieroglyphics;  Hottinger's 
Grammatica  Chald.  Syriac.  Hebr.  et  Arabica,  1  v.  4to.;  Schindler's  Lexicon  Pen- 
taglotton,  1  v.  2io.,  and  CasteWs  Lexicon  Heptaglotton,  2  v.  2io.,  both  on  the 
Shemitic  Languages ;  Nordheimer's  Hebrew  Grammar,  2  v.  8vo.,  and  Stuart's, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Gesenius'  Hebrew  Lexicon,  tr.  by  Robinson,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Prey's  Hebrew 
Grammar,  1  v.  8vo.,  and  Dictionary,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Erpenius'  Grammatica  Syriaca, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Erpenius'  or  Paulus'  Grammatica  Arabica,  1  v.  4to.  or  8vo.;  De  Sacy's 
Grammaire  Arabc,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Richardson's  Persian  and  Arabic  Dictionary,  2  v.  4to. ; 
Wilmet's  Lexicon  Ling.  Arabicse,  1  v.  4to. ;  Frey  tag's  Lexicon  Arabico-Latinum, 
4  v.  4to.;  Ludolf's  Ethiopic  Grammar,  and  Dictionary,  each  1  v.  2io.;  Meninski's 
Thesaurus  Ling.  Arab.  Pers.  et  Turcicae,  2  v.  2io.;  Sir  W.  Jones'  Persian  Gram- 
mar, 1  v.  4to.;  David's  Grammar  of  the  Turkish  Language,  1  v.  4to.;  Wilkins' 
Grammar  of  the  Sanscrit,  1  v.  4to ;  Wilkins'  Sanscrit  Dictionary,  1  v.  4to. ;  Ca- 
rey's Grammar  of  the  Bengalee,  1  v.  8vo.,  and  Beng.  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Roc- 
buck's  Hindostannee  Grammar,  &c,,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Taylor  and  Hunter's  Hindostannee 
Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Morrison's  Chinese  Grammar,  1  v.  4to.,  arid  Chinese  Dic- 
tionary, 2  v.  2io.;  De  Guignes'  Dictionnaire  Chinois,  1  v.  2io.;  Taberd's  Dictiori- 
narium  Anamitico-Latinum,  2  v.  4to.;  Duponceau  on  the  Cochin  Chinese  Language, 
1  v.  8vo. 

EUROPEAN  LANGUAGES.  Pelasgic  or  Southern. — Hachenberg,  Goodrich,  Fisk, 
Anthon,  and  Wylie's  Greek  Grammars ;  Stuart's  New  Testament  Greek  Gram- 
mar, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Buttman's  Greek  Grammar,  tr.  by  Everett,  and  by  Robinson, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Stephanus'  Thesaurus  Graecoe  Linguce,  4  or  10  v.  2io. ;  Schrevelius' 
Lexicon-Graecco  Latinum,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Donnegan's  Greek  and  English  Dictionary, 

1  v.  8vo. ;  Robinson's  New  Testament  Greek  and  English  Lexicon,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Adams'  Latin  Grammar,  ed.  by  Gould  and  by  Fiske,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Andrews  and 
Stoddard's  do.,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Facciolati  and  Forcellini's  Lexicon  Totius  Latini- 
tatis,  ed.  by  Bailey,  2  v.  4to. ;  Ainsworth's  Latin  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Leverett's 
do.,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bachi's  Italian  Grammar,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Baretti's  Italian  Dictionary, 

2  v.  8vo. ;  Petronj  and  Davenport's  do.,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Diccionario  della  Crusca,  4  v.  2io. ; 
Cubi's  Spanish  Grammar,  1  v.  12mo;  Newman  and  Barretti's  Spanish  Dictionary, 
2  v.  8vo. ;  Dictionary  of  the  Spanish  Academy,  1  v.  2io.;  Castro's  Portuguese 
Grammar,    1   v.  8vo. ;    Vieyra's   Portuguese   Dictionary,   2   v.  8vo. ;   Lemzac's 
French  Grammar,  1  v.  12mo.;  Berard's  French  Grammar,  1  v.  8vo.;  Boniface's 
French  Dictionary,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Boiste's  Dictionnaire,  1  v.  4to. ;  Dictionnaire  de 
1'Academic  Franchise,  2  v.  4to. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  543 

Gothic  and  Northern  Languages. — Webster's,  Coil's,  and  Emerson's  Spelling 
Books;  Kirkham's,  Comly's,  Greenleaf's  Brace's,  and  Smith's  Grammars  for 
Schools;*  Murray's  English  Grammar,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Johnson's  Dictionary,  2  v.  4to., 
and  1  v.  8vo. ;  Webster's  Dictionary,  2  v.  4to.,  and  1  v.  8vo. ;  Worcester's  Johnson' 
Walker,  and  Todd,  combined,  1  v.  8vo.;  Worcester's  Dictionary,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Crabb's  English  Synonyms,  1  v.  8vo;  Bosworth's  Anglo-Saxon  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo.; 
Jamieson's  Dictionary  of  the  Scottish  Dialect,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Evans'  Welsh  Vocabu- 
lary,  1  v.  12mo.;  Irish  Dictionary,  Paris,  1768,  1  v.  4to;  Janson's  Dutch  Gram- 
mar, 1  v.  12mo. ;  Bailey's  Dutch  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Fallen's,  Schade's,  or  Ber- 
nay's  German  Grammar,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Ehrenfreid's  German  Phrases,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Flugel  and  Sporscfiil's  German  Dictionary,  2  v.  8vo.;  German  Dictionary,  pub. 
by  Mentz,  of  Philadelphia,  1834,  2  v.  8vo.;  Adelung's  Worterbuch,  7  v.  4to.; 
Lange's  Danische  Sprachlehre,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Wolff  and  Berthelson's  Danish  Die- 
tionary,  1  v.  4to.;  Sahlstedt's  Schwedische  Grammatik,  1  v.  12mo.;  Sahlstedt's 
Dictionarium  Suecicum.  1  v.  4to. ;  Maudru's  Elemens  do  la  Langue  Russe, 
2  v.  8vo. ;  Weisman's  Lexicon,  German,  Latin,  Russian,  with  a  Russian  Gram- 
mar,  1  v.  4to. :  Bandtke's  Polish  Grammar,  and  Polish  Dictionary,  each  1  v.  8vo. 

BARBAROUS  LANGUAGES. — Roger  Williams'  Key  to  the  Language  of  the  Indians 
of  New  England,  (Mass.  Hist.  Coll.,  vol.  3) ;  Eliot's  Grammar  of  the  Mass.  Indian 
Language,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Gallatin's  Indian  Vocabulary,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Pickering  on  the 
Orthog.  of  the  Indian  Languages,  (Mem.  Am.  Acad.  Sciences);  Duponceau's  Re- 
port  on  the  Languages  of  the  Am.  Indians,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Say's  Vocabularies  of  In- 
dian Languages,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Zeisberger's  Delaware  Indian  Spelling  Book,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
the  Yaloff  (African)  Vocabulary,  1  v.  8vo.  For  other  Barbarous  Languages,  see 
the  Publications  of  the  Roman  Propaganda. 

II.    DEPARTMENT PSYCHOLOGY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Baxter's  Inquiry  into  the  Nature  of  the  Human  Soul,  2  v.  8vo.; 
Kirwan's  Metaphysical  Essays,  1  v.  8vo.;  Bentham's  Table  of  the  Springs  of  Ac- 
tion, 1  v.  8vo.;  Scott's  Letters  on  Demonology  and  Witchcraft,  1  v.  12mo.;  Kames' 
Elements  of  Criticism,  1  v.  8vo.,  and  Frost's  School  edition,  1  v.  12mo. 

RHETORIC. — Newman's,  or  Lacy's  Rhetoric,  for  Schools ;  Comstock's,  or  Lacy's 
Elocution,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Jamieson's  Rhetoric,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Walker's  Grammar  of 
Rhetoric,  1  v.  8vo.;  Aristotle's  Rhetoric,  1  v.  12mo.;  Cicero  De  Oratore,  tr.  by 
Guthrie,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Quintilian's  Institutes,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Longinus  on  the  Sublime, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Campbell's  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Blair's  Lectures  on 
Rhetoric  and  Belles  Lettres,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Whateley's  Elements  of  Rhetoric, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Alison's  Essays  on  the  Nature  and  Principles  of  Taste,  8vo. ;  Burke's 
Inquiry  into  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Rush  on  the  Voice,  1  v.  8vo. 

LOGIC. — Jamieson's,  or  Hedge's  Logic,  for  Schools;  Hinds'  Logic,  1  v.  12mo.; 
Aristotle,  Excerpta  ex  Organo,  8vo. ;  Bacon's  Novum  Organon  Scientiarum,  tr.  by 
Shaw,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Woljius'  Logic,  from  the  German,  8vo. ;  Watts'  Logic,  or  the 
Right  Use  of  Reason,  2  v.  8vo.,  and  his  Improvement  of  the  Mind,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Bentham's  Book  of  Fallacies,  8vo. ;  Whateley's  Elements  of  Logic,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Malebranche's  Search  after  Truth,  2io. 

PHRENICS. — Blaisdale's  First  Lessons  in  Intellectual  Philosophy,  for  Schools, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Upham's  Mental  Philosophy,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Aristotle.,  De  Anima,  12mo.; 
Plato's  Dialogue  on  the  Immortality  of  the  Soul,  8vo. ;  Locke's  Essay  concerning 
Human  Understanding,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Stewart's  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Reid's  Essays  on  the  Intellectual  Powers,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Brown's  Lectures 
on  the  Philosophy  of  the  Human  Mind,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Abercrornbie's  Inquiries  concern- 
ing the  Intellectual  Powers,  1  v.  12rno.;  Spurzheim's  Phrenology,  2  v.  8vo. ; 
Combe's  Constitution  of  Man,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Edwards'  Freedom  of  the  Will,  1  v.  8vo.; 
Kant's  Critic  and  Investigation  of  pure  Reason,  1  v.  8vo.;  Cousin's  Psychology, 
or  Examination  of  Locke,  1  v.  12mo.;  Ranch's  Psychology,  1  v.  8vo.;  Combe's 
Phrenology,  1  v.  8vo. 

*  We  object  to  the  phrase  you  was,  found  in  at  least  one  of  the  above  grammars,  as 
being  incorrect.  If  the  plural  pronoun  you  is  addressed  to  a  single  person,  by  way  of 
compliment,  the  plural  form  of  the  verb  should  be  retained,  for  the  same  reason  ;  and  it 
should  be  you  were,  in  both  numbers. 


544  APPENDIX. 

ETHICS.— Sullivan's  Moral  Class  Book,  or  Lacy's  Moral  Science,  for  Schools; 
Aristotle's  Ethics,  (and  Politics,)  2  v.  8vo. ;  Cicero  De  Ofticiis,  and  De  Senectute, 
(on  Duties,  and  Old  Age,)  various  translations;  Seneca's  Morals,  by  Estrange, 
1  v.  12mo.;  Beattie's  Elements  of  Moral  Science,  2  v.  8vo.;  Smith's  Theory  of  the 
Moral  Sentiments,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bentham's  Introduction  to  Morals  and  Legislation, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Paley's  Moral  and  Political  Philosophy,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Abercrombie's  Phi. 
losophy  of  the  Moral  Feelings,  1  v.  12mo.;  Wayland's  Elements  of  Moral  Science, 
]  v.  12mo. ;  Oliver's  Hints  on  the  Pursuit  of  Happiness,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Wardlaw's 
Christian  Ethics,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Mackintosh's  Progress  of  Ethical  Philosophy,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Jonffnnj's  Philosophic  Morale,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bp.  Butler's  Sermons  at  the  Chapel  of 
the  Rolls,  1  v.  8vo. 

EDUCATION. — Cousin's  Report  on  Public  Instruction  in  Prussia,  1  v.  12mo.; 
Bache's  Report  on  Education  in  Europe,  I  v.  8vo. ;  Lectures  before  the  Am.  Insti- 
tute of  Instruction,  Boston,  continued  annually,  Svo. ;  Wines'  Hints  on  Popular 
Education,  1  v.  12mo.;  Taylor's  District  School,  1  v.  I2mo. ;  Goodrich' s  Fire  Side 
Education,  (author  of  Peter  Parley's  Tales,)  1  v.  12mo. ;  Totld's  Student's  Manual, 

1  v.  12mo.;  Abbott's  Teacher,  1  v.  12mo.;  JW.  and  R.  L.  Edgeworth's  Practical 
Education,  2  v.  8vo.  or  1  v.  12mo. ;  Shepherd,  Joyce,  and  Carpenter's  Systematic 
Education,  2  v.  8vo. ;   Winslow's  Young  Man's  Aid;   Muzzey's  Young  Man's 
Friend ;  Alcott's  Young  Man's  Guide ;  and  Cobbett's  Advice  to  Young  Men ;  Mrs. 
Sigourney's  Letters  to  Young  Ladies ;  Mrs.  Farrar's  Young  Ladies'  Friend;  and 
Miss  Coxe's  Young  Lady's  Companion ;  Butler's  American  Gentleman,  and  his 
American  Lady,  each  1  v.  18mo. ;  Miss  H.  More's  Strictures  on  Female  Education, 

2  v.  12mo.;  Salzmann's  Gymnastics  for  Youth,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Jardine's  Philosophical 
(Collegiate)  Education,  1  v.  8vo. 

III.    DEPARTMENT NOMOLOGY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Hoffman's  Course  of  Legal  Study,  2  v.  8vo.;  Bouvier's  New 
American  Law  Dictionary,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Taylor's  Law  Glossary,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Kent's 
Commentaries  on  American  Law,  4  v.  Svo. ;  Walker's  Outlines  of  American  Law, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Conkling's  Young  Citizen's  Manual,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Sullivan's  Political 
Class  Book,  for  Schools,  1  v.  12mo. 

POLITICAL  PHILOSOPHY. — (See  Ethics.)  Burlamaqui's  Principles  of  Natural  and 
Political  Law,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Montesquieu's  Spirit  of  Laws,  2  v.  Svo.;  Cataneo's 
Source,  Strength,  and  True  Spirit  of  Laws,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Ferguson's  History  of  Civil 
Society,  1  v.  Svo.;  Lieber's  Legal  and  Political  Hermeneutics,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Suther- 
land's Congressional  Manual,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Jefferson's  Manual  of  Parliamentary 
Practice,  with  a  copious  Index,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Branche's  Priricipia  Legis  et  Equita- 
tis,  1  v.  Svo.;  Beccaria  on  Crimes  and  Punishments,  1  v.  I2mo. ;  De  Tocqueville's 
Democracy  in  America,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Coleridge's  Statesman's  Manual,  1  v.  I2mo. ; 
Story's  Commentary  on  the  Conflict  of  Laws,  1  v.  Svo. 

INTERNATIONAL  LAW. — Grotiuson  the  Rights  of  War  and  Peace,  1  v.  2io. ;  Puf- 
fendorf  on  the  Law  of  Nature  and  of  Nations,  1  v.  2io;  VatteVs  Law  of  Nations, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Marten's  Compendium  of  the  Law  of  Nations,  1  v.  Svo.;  Chilly's  Law 
of  Nations,  1  v.  Svo.;  Mackintosh's  Introductory  Lecture,  1  v.  Svo.;  Duponceau's 
translation  of  Bynkershoek  on  the  Law  of  War,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Kent's  Commentaries, 
already  named;  Schlegel  on  Neutral  Vessels,  I  v.  Svo.;  Azuni  on  the  Maritime 
Law  of  Europe,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Brown's  Civil  Law,  and  Law  of  the  Admiralty,  2  v.  8vo.; 
Jacobson's  Laws  of  the  Sea,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Wfieaton's  Digest  on  Maritime  Captures 
and  Prizes,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Belts'  Summary  of  Admiralty  Practice  in  Southern  New 
York,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Elliot's  American  Diplomatic  Code,  2  v.  Svo. 

CONSTITUTIONAL  LAW. — De  Lolme  on  the  Constitution  of  England,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Conversations  on  the 
English  Constitution,  1  v.  12mo.,  (London,  1828);  Constitutions  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  Individual  States,  1  v.  I2mo. ;  The  Federalist,  by  Hamilton, 
Madison,  and  Jay,  1  v.  >-vo.;  Rawle  on  the  Constitution  of  the  U.  S.,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Kent's  Commentaries,  (before  named) ;  Story's  Commentaries  on  the  Constitution 
of  the  U.  S.,  3  v.  8vo.,  and  1  v.  Svo. ;  Sergeant's  Constitutional  Law,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Duponceau  on  the  Constitution,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Du ponceau  on  the  Jurisdiction  of  the 
U.  S.  Courts,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Reports  of  Cases  in  the  U.  S.  Courts ;  Cross'  Military 
Laws  of  the  U.  S.,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Mordecai's  Digest  of  Military  Laws,  1  v.  12mo. ; 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  545 

Mansfield's  Political  Grammar,  or  Bayard's  Brief  Exposition  of  the  Constitution, 
1  v.  12mo. 

MUNICIPAL  LAW. — Cooper's  Institutes  of  Justinian,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Schomberg's  View 
of  the  Roman  Law,  Svo.;  Corpus  Juris  Civilis,  1  v.  2io. ;  Ellis'  Summary  of  Tay- 
lor's Elements  of  the  Civil  Law,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Domat's  Civil  Law,  1  v.  2io. ;  Brown's 
View  of  the  Civil  Law,  (see  International  Law) ;  Burke's  Historical  Essay  on  the 
Laws,  &.c.,  of  Rome,  Svo.;  Reeve's  History  of  the  English  Law,  5  v.  8vo. ;  Black- 
stone's  Commentaries  on  the  Laws  of  England,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Ant/ion's  Analysis  of 
Blackstone,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Bacon's  Abridgment  of  English  Law,  8  v.  8vo. ;  Dalrym- 
ple  on  Feudal  Property,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Littleton's  Tenures,  1  v.  Svo.  ;  Coke's  Commen- 
tary on  Littleton,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Cruise's  Digest  of  the  Real  Law,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Phillips' 
Law  of  Evidence,  4  v.  Svo. ;  Gould  on  Pleading,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Ver plank  on  Con- 
tracts, 1  v.  Svo. ;  Story  on  Bailments,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Abbott's  Law  of  Merchant  Ships 
arid  Seamen,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Chilly  on  Bills  of  Exchange  and  Promissory  Notes, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Livermore's  Law  of  Principal  and  Agent,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Phillips  on  Insu- 
rance, 2  v.  Svo. ;  Collyer  on  Partnership,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Story  on  Equity  Jurisprudence, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Hoffman's  Practice  of  the  Court  of  Chancery,  (N.  Y.,)  3  v.  Svo. ;  Ben- 
thorn's  Rationales  of  Punishment  and  of  Reward,  2  v.  Svo.;  Russell  on  Crimes 
and  Misdemeanors,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Livingston's  System  of  Penal  Law,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Beck's 
Elements  of  Medical  Jurisprudence,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Dane's  Abridgment  of  American 
Law,  9  v.  8vo.  The  numerous  Laws  of  the  individual  States  we  can  only  notice 
in  general  terms.  (For  a  List  of  Law  Reports,  see  Hoffman's  Legal  Study.) 

POLITICAL  ECONOMY. — Smith's  Wealth  of  Nations,  2  v.  Svo.,  or  Joyce's  Abridg- 
ment ;  Ricardo's  Political  Economy  and  Taxation,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Say's  Political  Eco- 
cal  Economy,  1  v.  Svo.;  APCulloch's  Principles  of  Political  Economy,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Malt/ius  on  Population,  and  on  Political  Economy,  3  v.  8  vo. ;  Ganilh's  Economic 
Politique,  1  v.  8  vo. ;  Starch's  Economic  Politique,  6  v.  Svo. ;  Vethake's  Political 
Economy,  1  v.  Svo.;  Tucker's  Theory  of  Money  and  Banks,  1  v.  12mo.;  Raguet 
on  Currency  and  Banking,  1  v.  12mo.,;  Carey  on  Wealth,  and  on  Wages,  each 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Gouge's  History  of  Paper  Money  and  Banking  in  the  U.  S.,  12mo. ; 
Newman's  Political  Economy,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Mrs.  Murcet's  Conversations  on  Politu 
cal  Economy,  1  v.  12mo.;  Wayland's  Political  Economy,  1  v.  12mo. 

IV.    DEPARTMENT THEOLOGY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — The  Encyclopaedia  of  Religious  Knowledge,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Buck's  Theological  Dictionary,  1  v.  Svo.;  Hannah  Adams'  View  of  Religions, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  R.  Adams'  Religious  World  Displayed,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Evans'  Denominations 
of  the  Christian  World,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Taylor's  Physical  Theory  of  Another  Life, 
1  v.  12mo. 

PAGANISM. — Miss  Robin's  Elements  of  Mythology,  1  v.  ISmo. ;  Calmet's  Die- 
tionary  of  the  Bible,  5  v.  4to.,  and  his  Dissertations,  3  v.  4to. ;  Christmas'  Uni- 
versal Mythology,  1  v.  12mo.;  Faber's  Origin  of  Idolatry,  3  v.  4to. ;  Bryant's  An- 
cient Mythology,  6  v.  Svo. ;  Richardson's  Dissertations,  (in  reply  to  Bryant,) 
1  v.  Svo.;  Prichard's  Egyptian  Mythology,  1  v.  Svo.;  Champollion's  Antiquities 
de  1'Egypte,  2io.,  in  progress;  Bell's  Pantheon,  2  v.  4to. ;  Tooke's  Pantheon, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Coleman's  Mythology  of  the  Hindus,  1  v.  4to. ;  Transactions  of  the 
Asiatic  Society,  and  Sir  Wm.  Jones'  Works ;  Du  Perron's  Systeme  Theol.  des 
Perses,  2  v.  4to.,  (Acad.  des  Inscriptions) ;  Schedius  De  Diis  Germanis,  1  v.  12mo,; 
Higgins'  Celtic  Druids,  1  v.  4to.;  Keightley's  Fairy  Mythology,  2  v.  12mo.;  Jar- 
vis'  Religion  of  the  N.  American  Indians,  (N.  Y.  Hist.  Coll.) 

MOHAMEDAMSM. — Sale's  Translation  of  the  Koran,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Maracci's  Refuta- 
tio  Korani,  published  with  the  Arabic  Koran,  1  v.  2io.;  Bobovius  on  the  Turkish 
Liturgy,  Svo.;  Prideaux'  Life  of  Mahomet,  1  v.  Svo.;  Bush's  Life  of  Mohammed, 
1  v.  18mo.,  (Fam.  Library ;)  Mill's  History  of  Muhammedanism,  8vo. ;  Taylor's 
History  of  Mohammedanism,  12mo. ;  Forsler's  Mahometanism  Unveiled,  2  v.  Svo. 

JUDAISM. — Biblia  Hebrsea,  Michaelis,  Vanderhooght's,  or  Hahn's  edition ;  Tal- 
mud Babylonicum,  12  v.2io.;  (see  p.  144);  Warburton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses, 
4  v.  Svo. ;  Lightfoot's  Horce  Hebraicos,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Reland's  Antiquitates  Sacrae  Vet. 
Hebrteorum,  4to. ;  Lewis'  Origines  Hebraese,  4  v.  Svo. ;  Josephus'  Jewish  Antiqui- 
ties and  Wars,  1  or  2  v.  Svo. ;  Jenning's  Jewish  Antiquities,  2  v.  Svo. ;  John's 


546  APPENDIX. 

Hebrew  Commonwealth,  and  his  Biblical  Archaeology,  each  1  v.  8vo. ;  Prideaux's 
Connection  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  2  v.  8vo.;  Turner's  Sacred  History, 
and  Mi/man's  History  of  the  Jews,  3  v.  18mo.,  (Family  Library;)  Isaac's 
Ceremonies,  &c.,  of  the  Jews,  8vo. ;  Levi's  Ceremonies,  and  Account  of  the  Mish- 
na,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Jettison's  Instruction  in  the  Mosaic  Religion,  8vo. ;  Levies  Prayers 
used  by  the  Polish  and  German  Jews,  6  v.  8vo. ;  Pinto' s  Prayers  of  the  Spanish 
and  Portuguese  Jews,  2  v.  4to.;  Allen  on  Modern  Judaism,  1  v.  8vo. 

CHRISTIANITY.  General  History. — Jeremy  Taylor's  Life  of  our  Saviour,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Blunt' s  Lectures  on  the  History  of  our  Saviour,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Cave's  Lives  of  the 
Apostles,  1  v.  8vo.,  and  his  Lives  of  the  Fathers,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Eusebius'  Ecclesiasti- 
cal History,  (to  the  time  of  Constantine,)  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bingham's  Origines  Ecclesi- 
astic®, 8  v.  8vo. ;  Cave's  Primitive  Christianity,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Burton's  History  of  the 
(early)  Church,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Walch's  History  of  the  Popes,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bowers'  do., 
6  v.  4to. ;  Ranks' s  do.,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Prideaux's  Synopsis  of  Councils,  (Introduction 
to  Histories,)  4to. ;  Burnet's  History  of  the  Reformation,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Blunt's  do., 

1  v.  8vo. ;  Af'Crie's  Reformation  in  Italy,  and  in  Spain,  each  1  v.  8vo. ;  Fox's  Acts 
and  Monuments,  or  Book  of  Martyrs,  3  v.  2io. ;  Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical  History, 

2  v.  8vo.;  Milner's  History  of  the  Church  of  Christ,  2  v.  8vo.;  Palmer's  Ecclesi- 
astical History,  1  v.  8vo. 

Biblical  Divinity. — The  Bible.  (See  Marsh's  History  of  Translations  of  the 
Scriptures,  4  v.  8vo.) ;  De  Rossi's  Variae  Lectiones  Veteris  Testamenti,  5  v.  4to. ; 
Patrick,  Arnald,  Lowth,  Whitby,  and  Lowman's  Critical  Commentary,  6  v.  4to. ; 
Scott's,  Henry's,  or  Clark's  Commentary;  Jenks'  Comprehensive  Commentary, 
(chiefly  Henry's,)  5  v.  8vo.;  D'Oyly  and  Mant's  Commentary,  Hobart's  edition, 
2  v.  4to.;  Critici  Sacri,  5  v.  2io.;  Poll  Synopsis,  5  v.  2io. ;  Calmet's  Dictionary  of 
the  Bible,  5  v.  4to.,  or  Robinson's  Abridgment,  1  v.  8vo.;  Gaston's  Collections  of 
Pertinent  Texts,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Home's  Introduction  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  4  or  2  v. 
8vo.;  Harris'  Natural  History  of  the  Bible,  1  v.  8vo.;  Brown's,  Butter  worth's,  or 
Cruden's  Concordance;  Ernesti's  Elements  of  Interpretation,  1  v.  12mo.;  Newton 
on  the  Prophecies,  2  v.  8vo.;  Lowth' s  Sacred  Poetry  of  the  Hebrews,  2  v.  8vo.; 
Doddridge's  Family  Expositor  of  the  New  Testament,  6  or  1  v.  8vo.;  Bloomfteld's 
Notes,  2  v.  12mo.;  Barnes  on  the  Gospels,  2  v.  12mo.;  Hodge  on  Romans,  1  v.  8vo.; 
Stuart  on  Hebrews,  1  v.  8vo.;  Macknight  on  the  Epistles,  1  v.  8vo.* 

Apologetic  The ology. — Paley's  Natural  Theology,  1  v.  12mo.;  Butler's  Analogy 
of  Religion,  Natural  and  Revealed,  1  v.  8vo.  or  12mo.;  the  Bridge  water  Treatises, 
12mo.  or  8vo.;  Poley's  Evidences  of  Christianity,  1  v.  8vo.;  Leslie's  Short  and 
Easy  Method  with  the  Deists,  1  v.  8vo.;  Lardner's  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  His- 
tory, 10  v.  8vo.;  Watson's  Apology  for  the  Bible,  1  v.  18mo.,  and  for  Christianity, 

1  v.  12mo.;   Sumners'  Evidence  of  Christianity  from  its   Nature,  1  v.  12mo.; 
Soame  Jenyn's  Internal  Evidence,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Keith's  Demonstration,  and  Evidence 
from  Prophecy,  each  1  v.  12mo.;  Campbell  on  Miracles,  1  v.  12mo.;  Paley's  Horse 
Paulina,  1  v.  8vo.;  Dick  on  Inspiration,  1  v.  12mo.;   Verplanck's  Essays  on  the 
Evidences,  1  v.  8vo. ;   Wilson's  Evidences,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Leland's  View  of  Deistical 
Writers,  2  v.  8vo. 

Practical  Theology.— Seeker's  Works,  6  v.  8vo.;  Sherlock's  Works,  4  v.  8vo.; 
Bp.  Hall's  Works,  2  v.  8vo.;  Leighton's  Works,  2  v.  8vo.;  M'-llvaine's  Sermons, 

2  v.  8vo.;  Owen  on  Temptation,  and  on  Spiritual  Mindedness,  each  1  v.  12mo.; 
Chalmers  on  the  Application  of  Christianity,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bethune's  Fruits  of  the 
Spirit,  1  v.  8vo.;  Miss  Hannah  More's  Works,  2  v.  8vo.;  Taylor's  Holy  Living  and 
Dying,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Law's  Serious  Call,  1  v.  8vo.;  Doddridge's  Rise  and  Progress, 
1  v.  12mo.;  Baxter's  Saints'  Rest,  1  v.  12mo.;    Bunyan's   Pilgrim's   Progress, 
1  v.  12mo.  or  8vo.;  Reach's  Travels  of  True  Godliness,  1  v.  18mo.;  Bickersteth  on 
Prayer,  and  on  the  Lord's  Supper,  each  1  v.  18mo.;  Brownell's  Religion  of  the 
Heart  and  Life,  5  v.  12mo. 

Sectarian  Polity.—" Orthodox  Confession"  of  the  Greek  Church;  Smith  on  the 
Greek  Church,  1  v.  8vo.;  Platow's  (Plato's)  Greek  Church  in  Russia,  1  v.  12mo. 

*  In  Patristic  Theology,  we  can  only  mention  Wake's  Apostolical  Fathers,  1  v.  8vo.  ; 
Reeves'  Apologies,  2  v.  8vo. ;  and  the  Library  of  the  Fathers,  now  in  progress.  (See 
p.  149.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  54? 

The  Roman  Breviary  and  Missal,  each  1  v.  12mo.  or  18mo.;  Concilii  Tri- 
dentini  Decreta,  1  v.  12mo.;  Father  Paul's  (Sarpi's)  Council  of  Trent,  2  v.4to.;  Mil- 


of  Popery,  1  v.  8vo.;  and  Bossuct's  Histoire  des  Variantes,  4  v.  8vo.;  Essays  on  Ro- 
manism, 1  v.  12mo Scott's  Luther  and  the  Lutheran  Reformation,  2  v.  12mo. 

The  Book  of  Common  Prayer  of  the  Pr.  Episcopal  Church ;  Homilies  to  be 

read  in  Churches,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Collier's  Eccl.  History  of  Great  Britain,  9  v.  8vo. ;  Jew- 
eWs  Apology,  1  v.  12mo.;  and  HobarVs  Apology,  1  v.  8vo.;  Southey's  Book  of  the 
Church,  1  v.  8vo.;  Hooker's  Eccl.  Polity,  3  v.  8vo.;  Potter  on  Church  Govern- 
ment, 1  v.  8vo.;  White's  Comparative  View,  2  v.  8vo Bogue  and  Bennett's 

History  of  Dissenters,  4  v.  8vo Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Presbyterian 

Church  in  the  U.  S.,  1  v.  18mo.;  Calvin's  Institutes,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Knox's  Reforma- 
tion in  Scotland,  1  v.  8vo. ;  History  of  the  Westminster  Assembly,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Dick's  Lectures  on  Theology,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Ridgeley's  Body  of  Divinity,  1  v.  8vo. ; 

Miller  on  the  Ministry,  1  v.  8vo The  Cambridge  and  Saybrook  Platforms, 

1  v.  12mo.;  Neat's  History  of  the  Puritans,  5  v.  8vo.;  Dwight's  Theology,  5  v.  8vo. 

The  Baptist  Confession  of  Faith,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Hinton's  History  of  Baptism, 

1  v.  12mo.;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  1  v.  8vo.;  R.  Hall's  Works,  3  v.  8vo. ;  A.  Ful- 
ler's Works,  2  v.  8vo The  Doctrines  and  Discipline  of  the  Methodist 

Episcopal  Church,  1  v.  18mo.;  Bangs'  History,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Watson's  Theological 
Institutes,  2  v.  8vo.;  Wesley's  Works,  7  v.  8vo.;  J.  Fletcher's  Works,  4  v.  8vo. 

Channing's  Writings  on  Unitarianism ;   Unitarian  Tracts,  8  v.  12mo. ; 

Priestley's  Writings;  and  Bp.  Horsley's  Tracts,  in  reply Ballou's  Wri- 
tings on  Universalism ;  TJniversalism  as  it  is,  1  v.  8vo Barclay's  Apology 

for  the  Quakers,  1  v.  8vo Stcedenborg's  Writings. 

SECOND  PROVINCE.— ETHNOLOGY. 

Collier's  Historical,  Geographical,  Genealogical,  and  Poetical  Dictionary,  4  v. 
2io.  (London,  1727;)  Bi gland's  Geographical  and  Historical  View  of  the  World, 
5  v.  8vo.;  Lavoisne's  Complete  Genealogical,  Hist.  Chronol.  and  Geographical 
Atlas,  1  v.  2io.  (Phil.  1820,)  and  the  American  Supplement,  1  v.  2io;  Alcedo's 
Dictionary  of  Geography,  History,  &c.  5  v.  4to. ;  McCulloch's  Geograph.  Statist, 
and  Historical  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Lempriere's,  or  Anthon's  Classical  Dic- 
tionary, each  1  v.  8vo. 

V.    DEPARTMENT. GEOGRAPHY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Olney,  Mitchell,  Smith,  Woodbridge,  and  Worcester's  Geo- 
graphies for  Schools ;  Mitchell's  Geographical  Reader,  Iv.  12mo. ;  Emerson's  Out- 
lines of  Geography  and  History,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Malte  Brun's  Universal  Geography, 
4to.  or  6  v.  8vo. ;  Goodrich' s  Pictorial  Geography,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Murray's  Encyclo- 
paedia of  Geography,  3  v.  8vo. ;  The  London  Gazetteer,  1  v.  8vo. ;  or  Edinburgh 
do.  6  v.  8vo. ;  Brooke's  Universal  Gazetteer,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Williams''  Universal  Gazet- 
teer, 12mo. ;  Blair's  History  of  Geography,  12mo.  (London,  1784;)  D'Anvillc's 
Ancient  Geography,  2  v.  8vo.  and  Atlas,  2io. ;  Strabo's  Rerum  Geographicarum, 

1  v.  2io. ;  Orbis  Antiquae  Tabulae   Geo.  secundum  Cl.  Ptolemaeum,  1  v.  2io. ; 
Butler's  Geographia  Classica,  and  Atlas  of  Ancient  Geography,  each  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Rennel's  Works  on  Ancient  Geography ;  Arrowsmith's  General  Atlas,  1  v.  4to. ; 
Tanner's  New  American  Atlas,  1  v.  4to. ;  Hall's  General  Atlas,  1  v.  2io. ;   Vander- 
meelen's  Atlas  Universelle,  400  maps ;  Atlas  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Useful  Knowledge,  2io.  in  progress. 

GENERAL  VOYAGES  AND  TRAVELS. — Hackluyts'  Navigations,  2  v.  2io. ;  Purchas' 
Pilgrims,  5  v.  2io.;  Pinkerton's  Collection,  17  v.  4to.;  Circumnavigation  of  the 
Globe,  1  v.  18mo.  (Fam.  Lib).;  HnwTtesworth' s  Account  of  Voyages, 3  v.  4to.;  An- 

'  '        ' 

son  s  Voyage, 

Voyages,  4  v. 

North  Pacific, ...... 

the  Pacific,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Stewart's  Visit  to  the  South  Seas,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Reynolds  and 
Ruschenberger's  Voyages  around  the  World,  each  1  v.  8vo. ;  Voyage  of  the  Beagle, 

2  v.  8vo. ;  Clarke's  Travels,  11  v.  8vo. 


548  APPENDIX. 

ASIATIC  AND  AUSTRALIAN  GEOGRAPHY. — Murray's  Account  of  Discoveries  and 
Travels  in  Asia,  '2  v.  8vo. ;  Urquhart's  Spirit  of  the  East,  (chiefly  on  Asiatic  Tur- 
key,) 2  v.  12mo. ;  Volney's  Travels  through  Syria  and  Egypt,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Burck- 
hardt's  Travels  in  Syria  and  the  Holy  Land,  1  v.  4to. ;  Stephens'  Incidents,  in 
Egypt,  Arabia,  and  the  Holy  Land,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Arundel's  Discoveries  in  Asia 
Minor,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Suutfigate's  Tour  through  Armenia  and  Persia,  2  v.  12mo. ; 
Niebuhr's  Travels  through  Arabia,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Kej)ple's  Travels  in  Babylonia,  &c. 

1  v.  8vo. ;  Chardin's  Travels  in  Persia,  &c.  2io. ;  Porter's  Travels  in  Persia,  &,c. 

2  v.  4to. ;  Morier's  do.  2  v.  4to. ;  Burnes'  Travels  in  Bokhara,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Elphin- 
stone's  Embassy  from  Delhi  to  India,  1  v.  4to. ;  Heber's  Journeys  through  India, 

2  v.  8vo. ;  Malcolm's  Missionary  Travels  in  S.  E.  Asia,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Synies'  Embassy 
to  Ava,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Staunton's  Account  of  Macartney's  Embassy  to  China,  2  v.  8vo.; 
Ellis' s  Proceedings  of  Amherst's   Embassy,  1  v.  8vo. ;    Davis' s  Description  of 
China,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Bell's  Travels  from  Petersburgh  to  Pekin,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Oxley's 
Expeditions  into  New  South  Wales,  1  v.  4to. ;  Mitchell's  do.  1  v.  8vo. 

EUROPEAN  GEOGRAPHY. — Addison's  Journey  from  Malta  to  Greece,  Constanti- 
nople, &c.  2  v.  8vo. ;  Chateaubriand's  Travels  in  Greece,  Palestine  and  Egypt,  2  v. 
8vo. ;  Stephens'  Incidents  in  Greece,  Turkey,  Russia,  and  Poland,  2  v.  12mo. ; 
Eustace's  Classical  Tour  in  Italy,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Swinburne's  Travels  in  Naples  and 
Sicily,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Townsend's  Journey  in  Spain,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Sli dell's  Year  in  Spain, 

3  v.  12mo. ;  Gushing' s  Reminiscences  of  Spain,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Moore's  Views  of  So- 
ciety,  8vo.  and  his  Journal  in  France,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Carter's  Letters  from  Europe,  on 
France,  Great  Britain,  &c.  2  v.  8vo. ;  Humphreys'  Great  Britain,  France  and  Bel- 
gium, 2  v.  12mo. ;  Mnvor's  British  Tourist,  5  v.  12mo. ;  SiUimr,n's  Travels  in  Eng- 
land, &c.  2  v.  8vo. ;  Cooper's  Sketches  of  Switzerland,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Russell's  Tour 
in  Germany  and  Austria,  1  v.  8vo. ;  D wight's  Travels  in  Germany,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Me.  De  Stael's  Germany,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Coxe's  Travels  in  Poland,  Russia,  Sweden, 
and  Denmark,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Laing's  Residence  in  Norway,  2  v.  8vo. ;  and  his  Tour  in 
Sweden,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Discoveries  in  the  Polar  Seas  and  Regions,  (Fam.  Lib.) 

AFRICAN  GEOGRAPHY. — Discovery  and  Adventure  in  Africa ;  and  Lander's 
Africa,  (Fam.  Lib.) ;  The  French  Expedition  in  Egypt,  23  v.  8vo.  and  13  v.  2io. 
plates,  &c. ;  Russell's  Egypt,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Lane's  Modern  Egyptians,  2  v.  8vo. ; 
Travels  of  AH  Bey  (or  Badia)  in  Morocco,  Egypt,  &c.  2  v.  8vo. ;  Bruce' s  Travels 
in  Egypt,  Nubia,  and  Abyssinia,  6  v.  8vo. ;  Norden's  Travels  in  Nubia,  &c.  1  v. 
2io. ;  Russell's  Nubia  and  Abyssinia,  (Fam.  Lib.) ;  Park's  Travels  into  the  In- 
terior of  Africa,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Denham's,  Clapperton's  and  Lander's  Travels  in  Cen- 
tral Africa,  each  1  v.  8vo. ;  Laird  and  Old  field's  Voyage  up  the  Niger,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Vaillant's  Travels  in  S.  Africa,  5  v.  8vo. ;  Campbell's  Travels  in  S.  Africa,  1  v. 
8vo. ;  Alexander's  Expedition  into  S.  Africa,  2  v.  12mo. 

AMERICAN  GEOGRAPHY. — Davenport's  Gazetteer  of  North  America,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Prince  Maximilian's  Travels,  in  progress ;  Discoveries  on  the  Northern  Coasts  of 
America  ;  and  Discovery  and  Adventures  in  the  Polar  Seas,  (Fam.  Lib.) ;  Voy- 
ages and  Discoveries  of  the  Northmen,  (Danish,)  1  v.  4to. ;  Hear  ne's  Journal  to  the 
Northern  Ocean,  1  v.  4to. ;  Mackenzie's  Voyages  to  the  Frozen  and  Pacific  Oceans, 
2  v.  8vo. ;  Franklin's  Journeys  to  the  Polar  Sea,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Ross  and  Parry's  Voy- 
ages, respectively,  to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  each  1  v.  8vo. ;  Scoresby's  Voyages,  2  v. 
8vo. ;  Mackenzie's  Iceland,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Charlevoix's  History  and  Description  of  New 
France,  (Canada,)  2  v.  8vo. ;  Boucheltt's  British  Dominions  in  North  America,  2  v. 
4to. ;  Smith's  Description  of  New  England,  in  1684,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Carver's  Travels, 
Intr.  of  N.  A.  1  v.  8vo. ;  Lewis  and  Clark's  Expedition  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  2  v. 
8vo. ;  Pike's  Expedition,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Long's  Expeditions,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Schoolcraft's 
Travels,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Parker's  Tour  to  the  Rocky  Mountains,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Irving's 
Astoria,  2  v.  8vo. ;  and  his  Rocky  Mountains,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Murray's  Travels  in  N. 
America,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Dwight's  Travels  in  New  England,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Stuart's  Three 
Years  in  the  United  States,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Flint's  Valley  of  the  Mississippi,  2  v.  8vo.; 
Judge  Hall's  Notes  on  the  West,  1  v.  12rno. ;  Foole's  Texas  and  the  Texians,  2  v. 
12mo. ;  Humboldl's  New  Spain  and  Equinoctial  Regions,  4  v.  8vo. ;  and  his  Per- 
sonal Narrative,  7  v.  8vo. ;  Poinsetl's  Mexico,  1  v.  %o. ;  Thompson's  Off.  Visit  to 
Guatimala,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Dunn's  Residence  in  Central  America,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Ulloa's 
Voyages  to  South  America,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Ternaux  Compans'  Collection  de  Voyages, 
&c.  Ineditcs,  8vo.  in  progress ;  Terry's  Equatorial  Regions,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Duane's 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  549 

Visit  to  Columbia,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Walsh's  Notices  of  Brazil,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Von  Spix  and 
Mfirtius'  Travels  in  Brazil,  in  progress ;  Head's  Notes  of  the  Pampas,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Mier's  Travels  in  Chili  and  La  Plata,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Robertson's  Four  Years  in  Para- 
guay, 2  v.  12mo. ;  and  Letters  on  Paraguay,  2  v.  12mo. 

VI.    DEPARTMENT. CHRONOGRAPHY. 

Tytler's,  Lardner's,  Willard's,  Goodrich's,  (Parley's,)  and  Worcester's  General 
Histories  for  Schools ;  Durivage's  Cyclopaedia  of  History,  1  v.  8vo. ;  The  Great 
Universal  History,  69  v.  8vo. ;  Manor's  Universal  History,  25  v.  12mo. ;  Anquetil's 
Universal  History,  9  v.  8vo. ;  Ramsay's  Universal  History,  12  v.  8vo. ;  Midler's 
Universal  History,  4  v.  12mo. ;  Priestley's  Lectures  on  History,  (Analytical,)  2  v. 
8vo. ;  Schlegel's  Philosophy  of  History,  2  v.  8vo.  ;*  Bossuet's  Introduction  to  Uni- 
versal History,  2  v.  18mo.;  Neioton's  Chronology,  1  v.4to.or  8vo.;  Hales'  Analysis 
of  Chronology,  3  v.  4to. ;  Strauss'  Stream  (or  Chart)  of  History,  ed.  by  Hitchcock ; 
Darbey's  Mnemonika,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Pinkerton's  Essay  on  Medals,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Tresor 
de  Numismatique,  <fcc.  20  v.  2io. 

EUCLASSIC  CHRONOGRAPHY. — Rollin's  Ancient  History,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Heeren's  States 
of  Antiquity,  1  or  3  v.  8vo. ;  Wilkinson's  Manners,  &c.  of  the  Ancient  Egyptians, 
3  v.  8vo. ;  (see  Judaism) ;  Herodotus,  tr.  by  Beloe,  1  v.  8  vo. ;  Thucydides'  Pelo- 
ponnesian  War,  tr.  by  Smith,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Xenophon's  Affairs  of  Greece,  tr.  by 
Smith;  and  Expedition  of  Cyrus,  tr.  by  Spelman,  2  v.  8vo.;  Polybius'  General 
History,  tr.  by  Hampton,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Gillies'  History  of  Ancient  Greece,  4  v.  8vo. ; 
Mitford's  do.  6  v.  8vo. ;  Goldsmith's  &o.  abridged,  and  Russell's  Greece,  for 
Schools,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Potter's  or  Robinson's  Archaeologia  Graeca,  (Grecian  Anti- 
quities,) 8vo. ;  Gronovius'  Antiquitates  Graecorum,  13  v.  2io. ;  Clinton's  Fasti  Hel- 
lenici,  2  v.  4to. ;  Hooke's  Roman  History,  4  v.  4to;  Calrou  and  Rouelle's  do.  6  v. 
2io. ;  Rollin's  History  of  Rome,  16  v.  8vo. ;  Ferguson's  Roman  Republic,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Gibbons'  Decline  and  Fall  of  the  Roman  Empire,  4v.  8vo. ;  Sismondi's  Fall  of  do. 
1  v.  8vo.;  Niebuhr's  History  of  Rome,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Sallust's  Histories,  tr.  by  Rose, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Livy's  History  of  Rome,  tr.  by  Baker,  6  v.  8vo. ;  Caesar's  Wars  in 
Gaul,  tr.  by  Duncan,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Tacitus'  Works,  tr.  by  Murphy,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Diony- 
sius  of  Halicarnassus'  Roman  Antiquities,  tr.  by  Spelman,  4  v.  4to. ;  Adams'  or 
Kennel's  Roman  Antiquities,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Gr&vius'  Antiquitates  Romanorum,  12  v. 
2io. ;  Goldsmith's  Rome  abridged,  and  Russell's  Rome,  for  Schools. 

ORIENTAL  CHRONOGRAPHY. — Crichton's  History  of  Arabia,  (Fam.  Lib.) ;  Russell's 
Ancient  and  Modern  Egypt,  (Fam.  Lib.) ;  Greenhoio's  History  of  Tripoli,  1  v. 
8vo.;  Shaler's  Sketches  of  Algiers,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Jackson's  Account  of  Morocco,  1  v. 
12mo. ;  Benezet's  History  of  Guinea,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Ellis's  Madagascar,  2  v.  12mo. ; 
Manor's  History  of  the  Ottoman  Empire  in  Asia,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Russell's  History  of 
Palestine,  (Fam.  Lib.);  Fraser's  Account  of  Persia,  1  v.  12mo.;  Malcolm's  History 
of  Persia,  2  v.  4to. ;  Robertson's  Disquisition  concerning  Ancient  India,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Gleig's  British  Empire  in  India,  1  v.  12mo.;  Maurice's  History  of  Hindostan,  5  v. 
4to. ;  and  his  Ind.  Antiquities,  6  v.  8vo.;  Raynal's  Settlements  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies,  5  v.  8vo.;  Mills'  British  India,  6  v.  8vo.;  Marsden's  Sumatra,  1  v.  4to.; 
Raffle's  Java,  2  v.  4to. ;  Davis'  History  of  the  Chinese,  (Fam.  Lib.) ;  Gulzlaff's 
Chinese  History,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Medhurst's  China,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Kaempfer's  Japan,  2  v. 
2io. ;  Siebold's  Japan,  in  progress. 

EUROPEAN  CHRONOGRAPHY. — Hallam's  View  of  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Russell's  History  of  Modern  Europe,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Alison's  Recent  History 
of  Europe,  10  v.  8vo. ;  Guizot's  History  of  Civilization  in  Europe,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Howe's  Greek  Revolution,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Percival's  History  of  Italy,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Sismon- 
di's Republiques  Italiennes,  16  v.  8vo. ;  or  the  abridged  translation;  Machiavelli's 


Conquest  of  Granada,  2  v.  12mo. ;   Prescott's  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  3  v.  8vo. ; 
Robertson's  Reign  of  Charles  V.,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Southey's  Peninsular  War,  3  v.  8vo. ; 

*  We  regret  to  see  that  Von  Rotteck's  General  History  of  the  World,  4  v.  8vo.,  re- 
cently published,  though  in  some  respects  valuable,  rejects  the  Mosaic  Scriptures  as 
fabulous. 

70 


550  APPENDIX. 

Napier's  do.  6  v.  8vo. ;  Henault's  Abridgement  of  the  History  of  France,  2  v.  8vo. ; 
Sisrnondi's  Histoire  des  Francais,  25  v.  8vo. ;  Thuanus  (De  Thau's}  Own  Times, 

3  v.  2io. ;  Davila's  Civil  Wars  in  France,  2  v.  4to. ;  Sally's  Memoirs,  5  v.  1 2mo.  ; 
Voltaire's  Louis  XIV.  2  v.  12mo. ;  Thiers'  French  Revolution,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Jomini's 
Vie  Politique  et  Militaire  de  Napoleon,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Russell's  France,  for  Schools ; 
Keightley's  History  of  England,  3  v.  8vo. ;   Turner's  Anglo  Saxons,  2  v.  8vo. ; 
Hume,  Smollett  and  Bissett's  History  of  England,  15  v.  8vo. ;  Rapin  and  Tindal's 
do.  5  v.  2io. ;  Henry's  do.  12  v.  8vo. ;  Hallam's  Constitutional  History  of  England, 

4  v.  8vo. ;  Clarendon's  Rebellion,  6  v.  8vo. ;  Godwin's  Commonwealth,  4  v.  8vo. ; 
Southey's  Naval  History  of  England,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Mackintosh's  England,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Tytler's  Scotland,  7  v.  8vo. ;  Moore's  Ireland,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Russell'*  England,  for 
Schools;  Grattan's  Netherlands,  and  his  Switzerland,  each  I  v.  12mo. ;  Dunham's 
Germanic  Empire,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Pfister's  Histoire  de  PAllemagne,  10  v.  8vo. ;  Schil- 
ler's Thirty  Years'  War,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Coxe's  House  of  Austria,  5  v.  8vo. ;  Frederick 
the  Great's  Own  Times,  1  v.  8vo. ;  and  his  Seven  Years'  War,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Wheaton's 
History  of  the  Northmen,  I  v.  8vo. ;  Dunham's  Denmark,  Sweden,  and  Poland, 
12mo.  (Cab.  Cycl.) ;  Vertot's  Revolutions  in  Sweden,  1  v.  8vo. ;   Voltaire's  Charles 
XII.  1  v.  12mo. ;  Tooke's  Russia,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Coxe's  Russian  Discoveries,  and  Con- 
quest of  Siberia,  1  v.  4to. ;  Mallet's  Northern  Antiquities,  2  v.  8vo. 

AMERICAN  CHRONOGRAPHY. — Irving's  Life  and  Voyages  of  Columbus,  3  v.  8vo.; 
Robertson's  History  of  America,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Herr  era's  General  History  of  America, 
(to  1725,)  6  v.  8vo.;  Delafield's  Antiquities  of  America,  1  v.  4to.;  Ranking's  Re- 
searches on  the  Mongol  Conquests  in  America,  1  v.  4to.;  Bouchette's  History  and 
Topography  of  Canada,  3  v.  4to.;  Haliburton's  Nova  Scotia,  2  v.  8vo.;  Burke's 
European  Settlements  in  America,  2  v.  8vo.;  Grahame's  History  of  the  United 
States,  4  v.  8vo.;  Ramsay's  United  States,  3  v.  8vo.,  and  his  Am.  Revolution, 

2  v.  8vo.;  Bancroft's  History  of  the  United  States,  3  v.  8vo.;  Pitkin's  History 
of  the  United  States,  2  v.  8vo.;  Marshall's  Life  of  Washington,  5  v.  8vo.,  and 
plates,  or  2  v.  8vo.;  Botta's  War  of  Independence,  3  v.  8vo.;  the  Madison  Papers, 

3  v.  8vo. ;  Brackenridge's  Late  War,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Morton's  New  England's  Memo- 
rial, 1  v.  12mo.;  Cooper's  History  of  the  U.  S.  Navy,  2  v.  8vo.;  Hole's,  Frost's, 
and  Russell's  United  States,  for  Schools;  Barbaroux's  Histoire  des  Etats  Unis, 
1  v.  18mo.;  Castillo's  Conquest  of  Mexico,  or  New  Spain,  2  v.  8vo.;  Munoz's  New 
World,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Clavigero's  Mexico,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Mills'  History  of  Mexico,  2  v.  8vo. ; 
Forbes'  California,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Dupaix's  Palenque,  &c.,  3  v.  2io.;  Lord  Kingsbo- 
rough's  Antiquities  of  Mexico,  7  v.  2io. ;  Juarros'  Guatemala,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Edwards' 
British  West  Indies,  2  v.  8vo.;    Brown's  St.  Domingo,  2  v.  12mo.;   Colombia, 
2v.  8vo.,  (London,  1822);  Simon's  Conquistas  de  Tierra  Firme,  1  v.  4to.;  Oviedo's 
Conquista  de  Venezuela,  1  v.  2io. ;  Alcedo's  and  Garcilaso's  Peru,  1  v.  2io.,  (Spa- 
nish) ;  Pazo's  and  Nunes'  United  Provinces  of  La  Plata,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Molina's  His- 
tory of  Chili,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Southey's  History  of  Brazil,  3  v.  4to.     (The  Histories  of 
the  different  States  of  our  Union,  we  have  no  room  to  name.) 


VII.  DEPARTMENT BIOGRAPHY. 


Universelle  de  Biographie,  52  v.  8vo.;  and  Supplement,  in  progress;  Mrs.  Hays' 
Female  Biography,  6  v.  12mo.;  Martin's  Biog.  Phil.,  or  Lives  of  Philosophers, 
2  v.  8vo.;  Milizia's  Lives  of  Architects,  2  v.  8vo.;  Cunningham's  Lives  of  Eminent 
Painters  and  Sculptors,  2  v.  12mo.;  Strull's  Biographical  Dictionary  of  En- 
gravers, 2  v.  4to. ;  Barrett's  Alchemystical  Philosophers,  8vo. ;  Godwin's  Necro- 
mancers, 1  v.  12mo.;  Macgillivray's  Zoologists,  (to  Linnseus,)  12mo.;  Celebrated 
Travellers,  3  v.  12mo.,  (Fam.  Lib.);  Clark's  Introduction  to  Heraldry,  1  v.  12mo.; 
and  History  of  Knighthood,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Porny's  Heraldry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Edmondson's 
Complete  Body  of  Heraldry,  1  v.  2io.;  Guillim's  Heraldry,  1  v.  2io. 

EUCLASSIC  BIOGRAPHY. — Lempriere's  Classical  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo.;  Cormack's 
Ancient  Philosophers,  2  v.  12mo.;  Diogenes  Laertius'  Ancient  Philosophers, 
2  v.  8vo. ;  Noel's  Dictionnaire  des  Personnages  de  1'Antiquite,  1  v.  8vo.;  Rennet's 
Grecian  Poets,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Crusius'  Roman  Poets,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Plutarch's  Lives, 
6  v.  8vo.;  Cornelius  Ncpos'  Excellent  Commanders,  (chiefly  Grecian,)  1  v.  8vo.; 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  551 

Quintus  Curtius'  Alexander  the  Great,  2  v.  12mo.;   Williams'  do.,  1  v.  12mo., 
(Fam.  Lib.);  De  La  Tour's  Histoire  d'Epaminondas,  1  v.  12mo.;  Dacier's  Vie  de 


Elton's  Roman  Emperors,  3  v.  12mo.;  Coote's  Life  of  Julius  Caesar,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Dacier's  Marcus  Antoninus,  1  v.  8vo.;  Herodian's  Commodus,  1  v.  12mo.;  Fle- 
chier's  Theodosius,  1  v.  8vo.;  Mahon's  Belisarius,  1  v.  12mo.;  Sc/iomberg's  Maece- 
nas, 1  v.  12mo.  (See  Christianity,  Gen.  Hist). 

ORIENTAL  BIOGRAPHY. — Boulainvilier's  Life  of  Mahomet,  1  v.  8vo.;  (see  Mo- 
hamedanism) ;  History  of  Seyd  Said,  Sultan  of  Muscat,  1  v.  Svo. ;  De  La  Croix's 
History  of  Genghiscan,  (Jenghis  Khan,)  1  v.  Svo. ;  Memoirs  of  Baber,  (Muham- 
med,)  Emperor  of  Hindostan,  1  v.  4to.;  Memoirs  of  Abdulkurreem,  1  v.  8vo.;  Me- 
moirs  of  Ameerood,  (Ameer  Khan,)  1  v.  8vo.;  Scott's  Memoirs  of  Eradut  Khan, 
1  v.  4to.;  Elliot's  Life  of  Hafiz,  (Remut  Khan,)  1  v.  8vo.;  Bdfour's  Life  of  Kazan, 
(Mohammed  Ali,)  8vo.;  History  of  Hyder  All,  2  v.  12mo.;  Eraser's  History  of 
Naider  Shah,  and  the  Moghol  Emperors,  1  v.  8vo.;  Davenport's  Ali  Pasha,  1  v.  Svo, 

EUROPEAN    BIOGRAPHY. — Dover's    Eminent   Sovereigns   of    Modern    Europe, 

1  v.  12mo.;  Mrs.  Jameson's  Female  Sovereigns,  2  v.  12mo.;  James'  Foreign  States- 
men, 1  v.  12mo.,  (Cab.  Cycl.) ;  Roscoe's  Italian,  Spanish,  and  German  Novelists, 
3  v.  12mo.;  Litta's  Celebrated  Families  of  Italy,  2  v.  Svo.;  (see  Christianity,  Gen. 
Hist.) ;  Roscoe's  Leo  X.  4  v.  8vo.,  and  his  Lorenzo  de  Medici,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Campbell's 
Petrarch,  1  v.  Svo.;  Northcote's  Titian,  2  v.  Svo.;  Duppa's  Raffael,  1  v.  Svo.,  and 
his  Michael  Angelo,  1  v.  4to.;  Farneworth's  Machiavel,  2  v.  4to.;  Quintana's  Cele- 
brated Spaniards,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Roscoe's  Cervantes,  1  v.  Svo.;  Holland's  Lope  de 
Vega,  2  v.  12mo.;    Turpin's   France    Illustre,  6  v.  4to.;   James'   Charlemagne, 

2  v.  18mo.  (Fam.  Lib.);  Norvin's  Histoire  de  Napoleon,  4  v.  8vo.;  Memoirs  of 
Sully,  5  v.  Svo.,  and  De  Retz,  3  v.  Svo.;  Life  of  De  Thou,  (Thuanus,)  1  v.  Svo.; 
Condorcet's  Life  of  Turgot,  1  v.  Svo.;  Memoirs  of  Talleyrand,  2  v.  Svo.;  Butler's 
Fenelon,  1  v.  12mo.;  Standisli's  Voltaire,  1  v.  8vo.;  Wain's  La  Fayette,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Camden's  Biographia  Britannica,  5  v.  2io.;   Burke 's  British  Peerage,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
British  Lawyers,  Military  and  Naval  Commanders,  Statesmen,  Poets,  &c.,  12mo., 
(in  the  Cab.  Cycl.)  ;  Meadley's  Algernon  Sydney,  1  v.  Svo. ;  (Russell's  Cromwell, 
2  v.  18mo.,  (Fam.  Lib.);  Coxe's  Duke  of  Marlborough,  2  v,  4to.;   Wellington's 
Despatches,  5  v.  Svo. ;  Soutkey's  Nelson,  1  v.  12mo. ;   Wilberforce's  Life  and  Cor- 
respondence, by  his  Sons,  5  v.  Svo. ;  Prior's  Burke,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Brougham's  Eminent 
Statesmen,  2  v.  12mo.;  Teignmouth's  Sir  William  Jones,  1  v.  Svo.;  Burnet's  Lord 
Hale,  1  v.  I2mo.;  Montague's  Lord  Bacon,  1  v.  Svo.;  Gilpin's  Latimer,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Scott's  Life  of  T.  Scott,  1  v.  12mo.;  Heber's  Life  and  Journal,  by  his  Widow, 
2  v.  Svo.;  Gillies'  Whitefield,  1  v.  12mo.;  Hulchinson's  Biog.  Medica,  (English,) 
2  v.  Svo. ;  Boswell's  Johnson,  2  v,  Svo.,  or  12  v.  12mo.;  Prior's  Goldsmith,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Lockhart's  Scott,  2  v.  Svo.,  and  his  Burns,  1   v.   12mo.;   Brewster's   Newton, 
1  v.  ISmo.,  (Fam.  Lib.);  Davy's  Life,  by  his  Brother,  2  v,  Svo.;  Dover's  Frederick 
II.  of  Prussia,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Memoirs  of  Prince  Eugene,  1  v.  Svo. ;  History  of  Maurice, 
Count  Saxe,  2  v.  I2mo ;  Life  of  Blucher,  1  v.  Svo.;  Bowers'  Life  of  Luther,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Waterman's  Life  of  Calvin,  1  v.  Svo.;  Butler's  Erasmus,  1  v.  Svo.,  and  his  Grotius, 

1  v.  Svo.;  Memoirs  of  Goethe,  2  v.  Svo.;  Life  of  Schiller,  1  v.  12mo.;  Boerhaave's 
Life,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Brown's  Northern  Courts,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Harte's  Gustavus  Adolphus, 

2  v.  Svo.;  Meredith's  Bernadotte,  1  v,  Svo.;  Stoever's  Linnaeus,  1  v.  4to.;  Palmer's 
Sobieski,  1  v.  Svo. ;  History  of  Stanislaus,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Toulmin's  Socinus,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Life  of  Peter  the  Great,  1  v.  ISmo.,  (Fam.  Lib.) ;  Tooke's  Catharine  II.,  3  v.  Svo.; 
De  La   Verne's  Souvarof.,  (Suwarow,)  1   v.  Svo.;   Memoirs  of  Baron  De  Tott, 
2  v.  Svo. 

AMERICAN  BIOGRAPHY. — Belknap's  American  Biography,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Allen's  Am. 
Biographical  and  Historical  Dictionary,  1  v^  Svo.;  Elliot's  Biographical  Diction- 


lependence, 

of  Washington;  Sparks'  Writings  of  Washington,  12  v.  Svo.;  Clarkson's  William 
Penn,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Wirt's  Patrick  Henry,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Tudor's  James  Otis,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Sparks'  Life  of  Franklin,  2  v.  Svo.,  and  Writings,  8  v.  Svo. ;  Jay's  Life,  by  his 


552  APPENDIX. 

Son,  2  v.  8vo.;  Tucker's  Jefferson,  2  v.  8vo.;  Randolph's  Correspondence  of  Jefter- 
son,  4  v.  8vo.,  and  Lee's  Remarks,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Sparks'  Morris,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Austin's 
Gerry,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Quincy's  Life,  by  his  Son,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Sedgewick's  Livingston, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Lee's  Lives  of  A.  and  R.  H.  Lee,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Whealon's  Pinkney,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Johnson's  Life  of  Greene,  2  v.  4to. ;  Hamilton's  Life,  by  his  Son,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Hum- 
phrey's  Putnam,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Horry's  and  Weems'  Marion,  each  1  v.  12mo. ;  Ames' 
Works  and  Life,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hosack's  De  Witt  Clinton,  1  v.  4to. ;  Wilkinson's  Me- 


Memoirs  of  Bolivar,  2  v.  12mo.;  Memoirs  of  Gen.  Miller,  in  Peru,  2  v.  8vo. 

VIII.    DEPARTMENT CALLOGRAPHY. 

Laharpe's  Cours  de  Litterature,  16  v.  8vo.;  D'Hautpoul's  Cours  de  Litterature, 
2  v.  12mo.;  Sismondi's  Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe,  4  v.  8vo.;  F.  Schlegel's 
History  of  Literature,  Ancient  and  Modern,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Dunlop's  History  of  Fic- 
tion, 3  v.  I2mo. 

EUCLASSIC  CALLOGRAPHY. —  Valpy's  Family  Classical  Library,  52  v.  12mo.,  or 
Harpers'  Reprints;  Homer's  Iliad,  and  his  Odyssey,  both  tr.  by  Pope,  and  by 
Cowper ;  Hesiod's  Works,  tr.  by  Cooke,  1  v.  12mo. ;  JEschylus'  Tragedies,  tr.  by 
Potter,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Sophocles'  Tragedies,  tr.  by  Francklin,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Euripides' 
Tragedies,  tr.  by  Potter,  3  v.  12mo. ;  West's  Pindar,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Fawkes'  Theocri- 
tus, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Xenophon's  Cyropsedia,  tr.  by  Astley,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Demosthenes'  Ora- 
tions, tr.  by  Leland,  2  v.  12mo.;  Collectanea  Grseca  Minora,  1  v.  8vo.,  and  Ma- 
jora,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Virgil's  JEneid,  tr.  by  Dryden ;  and  his  Georgics,  tr.  by  Sotheby ; 
Lucan's  Pharsalia,  tr.  by  Rowe,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Horace's  Poems,  tr.  by  Dr.  Francis, 
2  v.  18mo. ;  Ovid's  Metamorphoses,  tr.  by  Dryden,  2  v.  12mo.;  Juvenal's  Satires,  tr. 
by  Gifford,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Terence's  Comedies,  tr.  by  Colman,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Cicero's  Ora- 
tions and  Epistles,  tr.  by  Guthrie,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Pliny's  Epistles,  tr.  by  Melmoth, 
2  v.  12mo. 

ORIENTAL  CALLOGRAPHY. — The  Moallakat,  (Arabian  Poems,)  see  Sir  W.  Jones' 
Works,  4to. ;  the  Arabian  Nights'  Entertainments,  tr.  by  Lane,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Sady's 
Gulistan,  tr.  by  Gladwin,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Ferdosi's  Poems,  tr.  by  Champion,  1  v.  4to. ; 
D'oollah's  Bahar  Danuch,  tr.  by  Scott,  1  v.  12mo. ;  the  Tooti  Nameh,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Bakhtier  Nameh,  1  v.  12mo.;  Morrell's  Tales  of  the  Genii,  1  v.  12mo.;  Weber's 
Tales  of  the  East,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Nizami's  Laila  and  Majnoon,  1  v.  8v. ;  the  Bhagvat 
Geeta,  tr.  by  Wilkins,  1  v.  4to. ;  Vishnu  Sarman's  Hitopadesa,  and  Catidas'  Sacon- 
tala,  tr.  by  Jones,  1  v.  4to. ;  Kinder sley's  Hindoo  Literature,  2  v.  8vo. ;  the  Fortunate 
Union,  1  v.  12mo. ;  the  Orphan  of  China,  1  v.  12mo. 

EUROPEAN  CALLOGRAPHY. — Sismondi's  Literature  of  the  South  of  Europe, 
4  v.  8vo. ;  Dante's  Divina  Commedia,  tr.  by  Gary,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Tasso's  Jerusalem 
Delivered,  tr.  by  Wiffen,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Tasso's  Aminta,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Guarini's  Pas- 
tor Fido,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Ariosto's  Orlando  Furioso,  tr.  by  Rose,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Petrarch's 
Rime,  2  v.  8vo.,  and  his  Triumphs,  tr.  by  Boyd,  12mo. ;  the  Chronicle  of  the 
Cid,  tr.  by  Southey,  1  v.  4to. ;  Cervantes'  Don  Quixotte,  tr.  by  Smollett,  4  v.  12mo. ; 
Camoens'  Lusiad,  tr.  by  Mickle,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Villemain's  Cours  de  Litterature 
Franchise,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Voltaire's  Henriad,  tr.  by  Smollett,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Racine,  Cor- 
neille,  and  Moliere ;  Dulard,  Le  Brun,  and  Lamartine ;  Fenelon's  Telemachus, 


Paradise  Lost,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Pope's  Poetical  Works,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Thomson's  Seasons, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Young's  Night  Thoughts,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Cowpers  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Campbell's  Poems,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Rogers'  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Burns'  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Wordsworth's  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Scott's  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Byron's  Select  Poems, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Southey's  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Shakspeare;  Richardson's  Clarissa, 
7  v.  12mo.;  Johnson's  Rassclas,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Goldsmith's  Vicar  of  Wakefield, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Mackenzie's  Man  of  Feeling,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Mrs.  Radcliffe's  Mysteries  of 
Udolpho,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Miss  Edgeworth's  Novels,  10  v.  12mo. ;  Miss  Porter's  Scottish 
Chiefs,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Sir  Walter  Scott's  Novels,  27  v.  12mo.,  or  5  v.  8vo. ;  Bulwer's 
Rienzi,  Pompeii,  and  Athens,  each  2  v.  12mo. ;  James'  Novels,  12mo. ;  The  Specta- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  553 

tor,  8  v.  12mo.,  or  2  v.  8vo.;  The  Taller,  6  v.  12mo.;  The  Rambler,  3  v.  12mo.; 
The  Guardian,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Brown's  British  Cicero,  or  Selections  of  Speeches, 
3  v.  8vo. ;  Klopstock's  Messiah,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Goethe's  Herman  and  Dorothea, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Schiller's  Wallenstein,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Goethe's  Faust,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Pesta- 
lozzi's  Lienhardt  and  Gertrude,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Edwards  and  Park's  Selections  from 
German  Literature,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Mentzel's  German  Literature,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Taylor's 
German  Poetry,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Bowring's  Specimens  of  Russian  Poets,  2  v.  12mo. 

AMERICAN  CALLOGRAPHY. — The  Poets  of  America  Illustrated,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Bar- 
low's Columbiad,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Dwight's  Conquest  of  Canaan,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Trumbull's 
Me  Fingal,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Percival's  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  HaUeck's  Poems,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Bryant's  Poems,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Mrs.  Sigourney's  Poems,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Willis'  Poems, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  HiWtouse's  Tragedies,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Sprague's  Writings,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Dana's  Buccaneer,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Pierponl's  Airs  of  Palestine,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Long, 
fellow's  Voices  of  the  Night,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Brown's  Wieland ;  and  his  Ormond, 
each  2  v.  12mo. ;  Cooper's  Novels,  12mo. ;  Bird's  Novels,  12mo. ;  Kennedy's 
Novels,  12mo. ;  Irving's  Works,  12mo.  or  8vo. ;  Miss  Sedgewick's  Writings, 
12mo. ;  Webster's  Speeches,  1  v.  8vo. ;  E.  Everett's  Speeches,  ]  v.  8vo. ;  Dr. 
Channing's  Discourses  and  Reviews,  8vo. ;  Wttliiton's  Eloquence  of  the  United 
States,  5  v.  8vo. 

THIRD  PROVINCE.— PHYSICONOMY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Hutton's  Mathematical  and  Philosophical  Dictionary,  2  v. 
4to. ;  Mrs.  Somerville's  Connexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Young's 
Essay  on  the  Powers  and  Mechanism  of  Nature,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Gregory's  Economy  of 
Nature,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Delafond's  Dictionary  of  the  Wonders  of  Nature,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Whewell's  History  of  the  Inductive  Sciences,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Reports  of  the  British  As- 
sociation, 10  v.  8vo. 

IX.    DEPARTMENT. MATHEMATICS. 

Monlucla's  Histoire  des  Mathematiques,  4  v.  4to. ;  Bossut's  History  of  Mathe- 
matics, 1  v.  8vo. :  Dupin's  Mathematics  Practically  Applied,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hutton's 
Mathematics,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Dames'  Mathematical  Works,  8vo. ;  Lacroix's  Mathe- 
matical Works,  8vo. ;  Bourdon's  Works,  8vo. ;  Young's  Mathematics,  8vo. ;  Gre- 
gory's Mathematics  for  Practical  Men,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Barrow's  Mathematical  Lectures, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Simms  on  Mathematical  Instruments,  1  v.  8vo. 

ARITHMETIC. — Colburn's,  Smith's,  Keith's,  Green's,  and"Davies'  Arithmetics, 
and  Emerson's  First,  Second,  and  Third  Parts,  for  Schools  ;  Leslie's  Philosophy 
of  Arithmetic,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Legendre's  Theorie  des  Nombres,  1  v.  4to. ;  Bezout's 
Arithmetique,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bonny  castle's  Arithmetic,  1  v.  8vo. ;  White's  Mental  Arith- 
metic, 1  v.  8vo.;  Hassler's  Arithmetic,  1  v.  12mo.;  Barlow's  Theory  of  Numbers, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Butler's  Arithmetical  Questions,  1  v.  12mo.;  Burritt's  Multiplier,  or  In- 
terest Tables,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Rowlet's  Interest  Tables,  1  v.  4to. ;  Crelle's  Rechentafeln, 
(Multiplication  and  Division  Tables,)  2  v.  8vo. 

ALGEBRA. — Bailey's,  Colburn's,  Harney's,  Bridge's,  and  Davies'  Algebras  for 
Schools ;  Newton's  Arithmetica  Universalis,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Clairaut's  Elemens  d'Al- 
gebre,  1  v.  8vo.;  Madaurin's  Algebra,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Simpson's  Algebra,  1  v.  8vo.; 
Euler's  Elements  of  Algebra,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Lacroix's  Algebra,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Davies' 
Bourdon's  Algebra,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Day's  Algebra,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Young's  Algebra,  edited 
bv  Ward,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Meier  Hersch's  Algebraic  Problems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Brigg's  Arith- 

•/  .  _7  .      ,  ,        „*      .  ,        •  T»       -  .  •  1  Aj-_        .  m^-.J *_        T     ,-«« 

Loga- 
Tables 
'sLo- 
;  La- 
Probabilities, 

1  v.  12mo. 

GEOMETRY.— Walker's,  Grund's  and  Bonny  castle's  Geometries  for  Schools ;  Eu- 
clid's Elements,  ed.  by  Playfair  or  Simson,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Descartes'  Geometria,  1  v. 
4to. ;  Legendre's  Geometry,  by  Davies,  and  others,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Cowley's  Solid 
Geometry,  1  v.  4to. ;  Blond's  Geometrical  Problems,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hassler's  Geometry, 


554  APPENDIX. 

1  v.  I2mo. ;  Pierces  Plane  and  Solid  Geometry,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Gregory's  Practical 
Geometry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Young's  Elements  of  Geometry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hutton's  Mensura- 
tion, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Dullard's  Gauging  Unmasked,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hawney's  Mensuration, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Manges'  Geometric  Descriptive,  1  v.  4to. ;  Crozet's  Descriptive  Geome- 
try, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Dames'  Descriptive  Geometry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Dames'1  Perspective,  Shades 
and  Shadows,  1  v.  8vo.;  Jopling's  Isoperimetrical  Perspective,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Adams' 
Geometrical  and  Graphical  Essays,  1  v.  8vo.  and  plates. 

ANCYLOMETRY. — Biot's  Analytic  Geometry,  ed.  by  Davies,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Farrar's 
Analytical  Geometry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Young's  Analytical  Geometry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Leslie's 
Geometrical  Analysis,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Simpson's  Geometry,  and  Construction  of  Pro- 
blems, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Simpson's  Trigonometry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Legendre's  Trigonometry,  (in 
Davies'  Geom.)  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hassler's  Trigonometry,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Gregory's  Trigo- 
nometry, 12mo.  (London) ;  Peirce's  Trigonometry,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Kelly's  Spherics,  1  v. 
8vo. ;  Simpson's  Conic  Sections,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Robertson's  Conic  Sections,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Peacock's  Conic  Sections,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bridge's  Conic  Sections,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Lacroix's 
Application  de  1'Algebre  a  Geometric,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Gummere's  Surveying,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Davies'  Surveying,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Flint's  Surveying,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Jamieson's  Treatise  on 
the  Construction  of  Maps,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Eastman's  Topography,  1  v.  8vo. 

RHEOMETRY. — Newton's  Method  of  Fluxions,  1  v.  4to. ;  Simpson's  Treatise  on 
Fluxions,  I  v.  8vo. ;  Maclaurin's  Treatise  of  Fluxions,  2  v.  4to. ;  Landen's  Residual 
Analysis,  1  v.  4to. ;  Saunderson's  Method  of  Fluxions,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Cousin's  Lecons 
de  Calcul  Diff.  et  Integral,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Waring' s  Meditationes  Analyticae,  1  v.  4to.; 
Vinct's  Principles  of  Fluxions,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Lacroix  Traite  du  Calcul,  &c.  3  v.  4to. ; 
and  Traite  Elementaire,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Legendre's  Exercises  sur  le  Calcul  Integral,  3  v. 
4to. ;  Lagrange's  Lemons  sur  le  Calcul  des  Fonctions,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Lagrange's 
Theorie  des  Fonctions  Analytiques,  1  v.  4to. ;  Eulers'  Introduction  a  1' Analyse  In- 
finitesimal, 2  v.  4to. ;  Carnot's  Reflexions  sur  la  Metaphysique  du  Calcul  Infini- 
tesimal, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Woodhouse  on  Isoperimetrical  Problems  and  the  Calculus  of 
Variations,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Boucharlat's  Calcul  Diff.  et  Int.  1  v.  8vo. ;  Farrar's  Diff. 
and  Integral  Calculus,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Davies'  Calculus,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Young's  Diffe- 
rential Calculus,  and  his  Integral  Calculus,  each  1  v.  8vo. ;  Meier  Hersch's 
Tables,  1  v.  8vo. 

X.   DEPARTMENT. ACROPHYSICS. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Newton's  Philosophise  Naturalis  Principia  Mathematica, 
edited  by  Leseur  and  Jacquier,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Herschell's  Discourse  on  the  Study  of 
Natural  Philosophy,  4  v.  12mo. ;  Arnott's  Elements  of  Physics,  general  and  medi- 
cal, 2  v.  8vo. ;  Biot's  Traite  de  Physique,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Pouillet's  Elements  de  Physique 
et  de  Meteorologie,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Person's  Physique,  8vo.  in  progress ;  Euler's  Let- 
ters on  Natural  Philosophy,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Robison's  System  of  Mechanical  Philoso- 
phy, 4  v.  8vo. ;  Gregory's  Natural  Philosophy,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Cavallo's  Elements  of 
Nat.  or  Experimental  Philosophy,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Adams'  Lectures  on  Nat.  Philosophy, 
5  v.  8vo. ;  Farrar's  Course,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Olmsted's  Natural  Philosophy,  2  v.  8vo. ; 
Young's  Natural  Philosophy,  2  v.  4to.  or  I  v.  8vo. ;  Johnson's  Scientific  Class 
Book,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Mrs.  Marcel's  Conversations  on  Natural  Philosophy,  edited  by 
Blake  and  Jones ;  and  Grund's,  Comslock's,  Blair's,  and  Olmsted's  for  Schools. 


MECHANICS. —  Wallis'   Mechanica,  1  v.   4to. ;    Euler's  Mechanica,  2  v.   4to. ; 


Young's 

Mechanics,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Millington's  Mechanics,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Boucharlat's  Mechanics, 
tr.  by  Courtenay,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Francoeur's  Trait6  Elementaire  de  Mecanique,  1 
v.  8vo. ;  Prony's  Le5ons  de  Mecanique  Analytique,  2  v.  4to. ;  Lagra,nge's  Meca- 
nique Analytique,  2  v.  4to. ;  Poisson's  Traite  de  Mecanique,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Rater's 
Mechanics,  and  Lardner's  Hydrostatics  and  Pneumatics,  each  1  v.  12mo.,  (Cab. 
Cycl.) ;  Jameson's  Mechanics  of  Fluids,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Pierce' s  Acoustics,  1  v.  8vo. 

ASTRONOMY. — Blake's,  Grund's,  and  Olmsted's  Astronomies  for  Schools ; 
Burritt's  Geography  of  the  Heavens,  (for  Schools,)  1  v.  12mo.  and  Atlas ;  Mrs. 
Somerville's  Mechanism  of  the  Heavens,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Bailly's  Histoire  de  1'Astro- 
nomie  Ancienne  et  Moderne,  4  v.  4to.;  Ptolmey's  Magna  Constructio,  (Alma- 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  555 

gest.)  2  v.  2io. ;  Newton's  System  of  the  World,  1  v.  Svo. ;  D.  Gregory's  Elements 
of  Astronomy,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Ferguson's  Astronomy  made  easy,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Bonny- 
castle's  Introduction,  1  v.  Svo. ;  O.  Gregory's  Treatise  on  Astronomy,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Vince's  Astronomy,  3  v.  4to. ;  Woodfiouse's  Astronomy,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Delambre's 
Astronomic,  3  v.  4to. ;  La  Lande's  Astronomic,  3  v.  4to. ;  Francoeur's  Uranogra- 
phie,  1  v.  Svo. ;  and  Astronomic  Pratique,  1  v.  Svo. ;  La  Place's  Systeme  du 
Monde,  5  v.  4to ;  and  his  Mecanique  Celeste,  tr.  by  Bowditch,  4  v.  4to. ;  Her- 
schell's  Astronomy,  1  v.  12mo.;  Brinckley's  Astronomy,  1  v.  Svo.;  Gummere's, 
Norton's,  and  Olmsted's  Astronomies,  1  v.  Svo.  for  Colleges ;  Pearson's  Practical 
Astronomy,  3  v.  4to. ;  Mason's  Practical  Astronomy,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Santini's  Element! 
di  Astronomia,  2  v.  4to. ;  Mayer's  and  Maskelyne's  Tables  and  Catalogues ;  The 
Nautical  Almanac ;  the  Yahrbuck,  and  the  Connaissance  des  Temps,  each  Svo. 
(continued  annually) ;  Bessel's  Tabulae  Regiomoritanse,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Beer  and 
Maedler's  Selenographia,  1  v.  4to.  with  Map ;  Bode's  Uranographia,  2  v.  2io. ; 
London  Astron.  Society's  Transactions;  Littrow's  Astronomical  Works,  and 
Shumacher's  do. 

OPTICS. — De  Dominis  de  Radiis  Visus  et  Lusis,  1  v.  2io. ;  Kepler's  Dioptrica, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Baptista  Porta's  Magia  Naturalis,  1  v.  2io. ;  Kircher's  Ars  Magna 
Lucis  et  Umbrae,  1  v.  2io. ;  Newton's  Optics,  1  v.  4to. ;  Bouguer's  Traite 
d'Optique,  1  v.  4to. ;  Smith's  Complete  System  of  Optics,  2  v.  4to. ;  Priestly  on 
Vision,  Light,  and  Colours,  1  v.  4to. ;  Adams  on  the  Microscope,  1  v.  Svo.  and 
Atlas  ;  and  on  Vision,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Macvicar's  Inquiries  concerning  Light,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Farrar's  Optics,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Brewster's  Optics,  edited  by  Bache,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Bartlett's  Optics,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Coddington's  Optics,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Lloyd  on  Light  and 
Vision,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Herschell's  Treatise  on  Light,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Young's  Optics,  1 
v.  Svo. ;  Delezenne's  Notes  sur  la  Polarization,  1  v.  Svo. 

CERAUNICS. — Franklin's  Experiments  and  Observations  on  Electricity,  1  v.  4to. ; 
Priestley's  History  of  Electricity,  1  v.  4to. ;  Beccaria  on  Artificial  Electricity, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Cavallo  on  Electricity,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Cuthbertson's  Practical  Electricity 
and  Galvanism,  ]  v.  Svo. ;  Singer's  Elements,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Thompson's  Outline  of 
Electricity  and  Heat,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Farraday's  Experimental  Researches,  1  v.  8vo. ; 


Gauss'  De  Magnete,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Roget  on  Electro-Magnetism,  (Lib.  of  Use.  Knowl.) ; 
Sturgeon's  Electro-Magnetism,  1  v.  Svo. ;  and  his  Annals,  (periodical) ;  Leslie's 
Experimental  Inquiry  on  Heat,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Lardner's  Treatise  on  Heat,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Redfield  on  American  Storms,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Reid's  Law  of  Storms,  1  v.  4to. ;  Dalton's 
Meteorological  Essays,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Daniels'  Meteorology,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Forster's  Dic- 
tionary of  do.,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Espy's  Philosophy  of  Storms,  1  v.  Svo. 

CHEMISTRY. — Comstock's,  Lincoln's,  Jones'  (New  Conversations,)  Grnnd's,  and 
Gale's,  for  Schools ;  Boerhaave's  Chemistry,  1  v.  4to. ;  Lavoisier's  Elements, 
2  v.  Svo. :  Davy's  Chemical  Philosophy,  and  his  Agricultural  Chemistry,  each 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Brande's  Manual  of  Chemistry,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Thomson's  History  of  Chemis- 
try, 2  v.  12mo.;  and  Chemistry  of  Organic  Bodies,  2  v.  Svo.;  Turner's  Chemistry, 
1  v.  Svo.  or  12mo. ;  Faraday's  Chem.  Manipulation,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Berzelius'  Traite  de 
Chimie,  8  v.  Svo. ;  including  Use  of  the  Blowpipe,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Griffin  on  the  Blow- 
pipe, 1  v.  18mo. ;  Dumas'  Chimie,  5  v.  Svo. ;  Rose's  Analytical  Chemistry,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Berthier's  Analyse  par  la  voie  seche,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Ure's  Dictionary  of  Chemistry  and 
Mineralogy,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Hare's  Elements,  I  v.  Svo. ;  Silliman's  Elements,  2  v.  Svo. ; 
Webster's  Chemistry,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Beck's  Manual,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Renwick's  Elements, 
1  v.  12mo.;  Liebig's  Organic  Chemistry,  1  v.  Svo. 

XI.   DEPARTMENT 1DIOPHYSICS. 

Good's  Book  of  Nature,  1  v.  Svo.;  White's  Natural  History  of  Selborne, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Aikin's  Natural  History  of  the  Year,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Blumenbach's  Ele- 
ments of  Natural  History,  1  v.  Svo ;  Goldsmith's  History  of  the  Earth  and  Ani- 
mated Nature,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Buffon's  Natural  History,  12  v.  Svo. ;  or  abridged  in  5  v. 
or  2  v. ;  Linnaeus'  System  of  Nature,  tr.  by  Turton,  7  v.  Svo. ;  Mudie's  Popular 
Guide,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Smellie's  Philosophy  of  Natural  History,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Brown's 


556  APPENDIX. 

Taxidermy,  (on  preparing  specimens,)  1  v.  I2mo. ;  Dictionnaire  des  Sciences  Na- 
tureUes,  60  v.  8vo. 

BOTANY.— Lincoln's,  Blake's,  and  Comslock's,  for  Schools ;  Wildenow's  Linnaei 
Species  Plantarum,  9  v.  8vo. ;  and  Introduction  to  Botany,  1  v.  8vo. ;  De  Cundolle's 
Elements  of  the  Philosophy  of  Plants,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Jussieu's  Genera  Plantarum, 

2  v.  8vo. ;  Lindlcy's  Introduction  to  the  Natural  System,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Reid's  Science 
of  Botany,  1  v.  12mo.;  Gray's  Botany,  1  v.  12mo.;  NullaWs  Botany,  1  v.  12mo.; 
Lee's  Botany,  1  v.  8vo. ;  London's  Encyclopaedia  of  Plants,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Eaton's 
Manual  of  Botany,  1  v.  12mo.;  De  Candolle's  Prodromus  Systematis  Naturalis,  (in 
progress) ;  Endlicher's  Genera  Plantarum  sec.  Ord.  Nat.  2  v.  8vo. ;  Michaux'  North 
American  Sylva,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Browne's  Sylva  Americana,  or  Forest  Trees  of  the 
U.  States,  1  v.  8vo.;  Barton's  Botany,  1  v.  8vo. ;  and  his  Flora  Americana,  3  v.4to.; 
Ealon  and   Wright's  North  American  Botany,  1  v.  8vo.;    Nuttall's    Genera  of 
North  American  Plants,  2  v.  12mo. ;   Torrey's  and  Gray's  Flora  of  the  Northern 
and  Middle  States,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Bigelow's  American  Medical  Botany,  3  v.  4to. ;  Bar- 
ton's do.,  2  v.  4to. ;  Elliott's  Botany  of  the  Southern  States,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Michaux' 
Flora  Americana,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Pursch's  do.,  2  v.  8vo. 

ZOOLOGY. —  Trimmer's  Natural  History,  for  Schools;  Binglcy's  Animal  Biogra- 
phy, 3  v.  8vo. ;  Shaw's  General  Zoology,  6  v.  8vo. ;  Fleming's  Philosophy  of  Zoolo- 
gy, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Cuvier's  Animal  Kingdom,  (M'Murtrie's  translation,)  4  v.  8vo. ; 
Cuvier's  Re'gne  Animal,  illustrated,  in  progress  ;  and  his  Ossemens  Fossiles, 
10  v.  8vo. ;  Goldfuss'  Petrefacten,  (Ger.,)  2  v.  2io. ;  Parkinson's  Organic  Remains, 

3  v.  4to. ;  Buckland  on  Organic  Remains.  1  v.  4to. ;  Conrad's  Fossils  of  the  Medial 
Tertiary  of  the  U.  S.,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society,  2  v.  8vo. ; 
Bewick's  General  History  of  Quadrupeds,  2  v.  8vo. ;  or  Pennant's  do.,  2  v.  4to. ; 
Godman's  American  Natural  History,  3  v.  8vo. ;    Marian's  Fauna   Americana, 
(American  Quadrupeds,)  1  v.  8vo. ;  Montagu's  Ornithological  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo.; 
Lesson's  Ornithologie,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Latham's  General  Synopsis  of  Birds,  10  v.  4to. ; 
Wilson's  American  Ornithology,  9  v.  2io. ;  and  Bonaparte's  Supplement,  4  v.  2io. ; 
Goodrich,' s  Abridgment  of  Wilson,  1  v.  12mo. ;   Aud aborts  Birds  of  America, 

4  v.  2io. ;  and  Ornithological  Biography,  5  v.  8vo. ;  Nuttall's  Ornithology  of  the 
U.  States,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Temminck's  Ornithologie,  (Fr.,)  in  progress ;  Donovan's  Natural 
History  of  British  Fishes,  5  v.  8vo.;  Block's  Ichthiology,  9  v.  2io.,  (Ger.) ;  Agassiz* 
Poissons  Fossiles,  in  progress,  2io. ;   Cuvier  and    Valencienne's   Hist.  Nat.  des 
Poissons,  20  v,  8vo. ;  Agassiz'  Poissons  d'Eau  Douce,  1  v.  2io. ;  Smith's  Fishes  of 
Massachusetts,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Holbrook's  North  American  Herpetology,  5  v.  4to. ; 
Crouch's  Introduction  to  Lamarck's  Conchology,  1  v.  4to. ;  Lamarck's  Animaux 
sans   Vertebres,    10   v.  8vo. ;    Wyatt's  Manual  of  Conchology,  1  v.  8vo. ;    Con- 
rad's Unionidse,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Haldcman's  Limniades,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Geqffroy's  Histoire 
des  Insectes,  2  v.  4to. ;  Fahricius'  Entomology,  (German,)  5  v.  8vo. ;  Kirhy  and 
Spence's  History  of  Insects,  4  v.  8vo. ;  Say's  Entomology,  3  v.  8vo. ;   Westwood's 
Entomology,  1  v.  8vo. 

MINERALOGY. — Conversations  on  Mineralogy,  and  Comstock's  Mineralogy,  for 
Schools  ;  Mohs'  Treatise  of  Mineralogy,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Haity's  Traite  de  Mineralo- 
gie,  5  v.  8vo. ;  Werner  on  Fossils,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Kirwan's  Elements  of  Mineralogy, 
2  v.  8vo. ;  Jameson's  System  of  Mineralogy,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Philips'  Introduction,  and 
his  Outline  of  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  each  1  v.  12mo. ;  Thomson's  Outline  of 
Geology,  Mineralogy,  and  Chemical  Analysis,  2  v.  8  vo. ;  Ure's  Dictionary,  see 
under  Chemistry  ;  Cleaveland's  Treatise  on  Mineralogy  and  Geology,  2  v.  8vo. 
Shepard's  Descriptive  Mineralogy,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Dana's  Mineralogy,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Sowerby's  British  Mineralogy,  5  v.  8vo. ;  Robinson's  Catalogue  of  Am.  Minerals, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Pinkerton's  Petralogy,  a  Treatise  on  Rocks,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Allan's  Mine- 
ralogy, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Beudant's  Mineralogie,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Breithaupt's  Mineralogy, 
(Ger.)  2  v.  8vo. ;  Del  Rio's  Orictognosia,  (Span.)  2  v.  8vo. 

GEOLOGY.— Comstock's,  Mather's,  or  Hitchcock's  Geology,  for  Schools ;  Lyell's 
Elementary  Geology,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Mutton's  Theory  of  the  Earth,  2  v.  8vo.;  Play, 
fair's  Geology,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Humboldt's  Geognostical  Essay  on  the  Superposition  of 
Rocks,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Cuvier's  Essay  on  the  Theory  of  the  Earth,  1  v.  8vo. ;  and  his 
Discourse  on  the  Revolutions,  «fcc.,  1  v.  12mo.;  BakewelVs  Introduction  to  Geolo- 
gy, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Buckland' s  Geology  and  Mineralogy,  2  v.  8vo. ;  De  La  Beche's 
Geological  Manual,  1  v.  8vo. ;  his  How  to  observe  Geology,  1  v.  12mo. ;  and  his 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  557 

Geological  Essays,  1  v.  8vo. ;  LyeWs  Principles  of  Geology,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Mantell's 
Wonders  of  Geology,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Maculloch's  System  of  Geology,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Phil- 
lips1 Geology,  2  v.  12mo. ;  De  Beaumont'1  s  Description  Geol.  de  la  France,  2  v.  8vo.; 
Conybeare  and  Phillips'  Geology  of  England  and  Wales,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Murchison's 
Silurian  System,  2  v.  4to. ;  Hitchcock's  Survey  of  Massachusetts,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Jack. 
son's,  Rogers',  and  other  Surveys ;  Maclure's  Observations,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Daubeny's 
Description  of  Volcanoes,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Boose's  Primary  Geology,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bronn's 
Lethea  Geognostica,  2  v.  4to. 


XII.    DEPARTMENT AN'DROPHYSICS. 


GENERAL  WORKS. — Forbes  and  Conolly's  Medical  Dictionary,  4  v.  Svo. ;  Reaper 
toire  des  Sciences  Medicales,  in  progress ;  Hooper's  Medical  Dictionary,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Dunglison's  Medical  Lexicon,  or  Dictionary,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Black's  Historical  Sketch 
of  Medicine  and  Surgery,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Sprengel's  Histoire  de  Medicine,  7  v.  Svo.; 
Cabani's  Revolutions  of  Medical  Science,  1  v.  Svo.;  Prichard's  Researches  into 
the  Physical  History  of  Man,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Combe's  Constitution  of  Man,  1  v.  1 2mo. ; 
Hosack's  Lecture  on  Medical  Education,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Beck's  Medical  Jurisprudence, 
2  v.  Svo. ;  Orfila's  Medicine  Legalo,  2  v.  Svo. 

ANDRONOMY. — Alcott's  House  I  live  in,  Griscom's  Animal  Mechanism,  and 
Smith's  Class  Book  of  Anatomy,  for  Schools ;  Hayward's,  Coates\  or  Comstock's 
Physiology,  for  Schools ;  Bell's  Anatomy,  2  v.  8vo.,  and  Engravings ;  Wistar's 
System  of  Anatomy,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Homer's  Special  Anatomy,  2  v.  Svo.,  and  Practical 
Anatomy,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Paxton's  Anatomy,  2  v.  Svo. ;  the  London  Dissector,  or  Guide 
to  Anatomy,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Cloquet's  Anatomic  de  I'Homme,  5  v.  2io, ;  Monro's 

Anatnm-17  and   Phv<sinlnrrir     3  v    Rvn    •    JlirJifil'a    ATintrvm-ir  anrl  PViveinlnnru-    A.  v    ftvn  • 


1  v.  Svo. ;  Barclay's  Inquiry  concerning  Life  and  Organization,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Dar- 
win's Zoonomia,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Combe's  Physiology,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Muller's  Physiology, 

2  v.  Svo. ;  Bailey's  Morbid  Anatomy,  1  v.  2io. ;  Bell  on  the  Brain,  1  v.  4to. ;  Gall 
and  Spurzheim's  Anatomic  du  Cerveau,  &c.,  4  v.  4to.,  and  plates ;  Mackenzie  on 
the  Eye,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Kramer  on  the  Ear,  1  v.  Svo. ;    Goddard  on  the  Nerves, 

1  v.  4to. ;  Laennec  on  the  Chest,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Douglas  on  the  Muscles,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Goddard  on  the  Arteries,  1  v.  4to. ;   Williams  on  the  Lungs,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Hope  on 
the  Heart,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Hunter  on  the  Blood,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Boyer  on  the  Bones,  1  v.  Svo. ; 
Brodie  on  the  Joints,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Rush  on  the  Voice,  1  v.  Svo. 

PHARMACOLOGY. — Paris'  Pharmacologia,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Cullen's  Materia  Medica, 

2  v.  Svo. ;  Woodville's  Medical  Botany,  4  v.  4to. ;  (see  Botany ;)  Bigelow's  Materia 
Medica,  1  v.  Svo.;  Barton's  Lectures  on  Materia  Medica  and  Botany,  2  v.  12mo. ; 
Chapman's  Materia  Medica  and  Therapeutics,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Eberle's  Materia  Medi- 
ca and  Therapeutics,  2  v.  Svo. ;  the  London,  Edinburgh,  and  Dublin  Dispensa- 
tories, Svo. ;  Eclectic  Dispensatory,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Wood  and  Bache's  Dispensatory, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  the  Pharmacopeia  of  the  U.  S.,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Dunglison's  Therapeutics, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Orfila  on  Poisons,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Christison  on  Poisons,  1  v.  Svo.;  Willich  on 
Diet  and  Regimen,  1  v.  Svo.;  Bell  on  Baths,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Brande  on  Mineral  Wa- 
ters, 1  v.  Svo. ;  Hamilton  on  Purgatives,  1  v.  Svo.;  Maculloch  on  Malaria,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Druggist's  Manual,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Merat  and  De  Lens'  Dictionnaire  dc  Matiere  Medi- 
cale,  5  v.  Svo. ;  Dictionnaire  des  Drogues,  3  v.  Svo. 

THEREOLOGY. — Buchan's  Domestic  Medicine,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Coates1  Domestic  Medi- 
cine, 1  v.  Svo. ;  Dunglison  on  Hygiene,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Kitcftiner's  Art  of  Prolonging 
Life,  1  v.  12mo.;  Hippocrates'  Aphorisms,  and  his  Prognostics,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Syden- 
ham's  Medical  Works,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Cullen's  First  Lines,  2  v.  8vo.,  and  his  Nosology, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Brown's  Elements  of  Medicine,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Good's  Study  of  Medicine, 
5  and  2  v.  Svo. ;  Ebcrle's  Practice  of  Medicine,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Thomas'  Modern  Prac- 
tice of  Physic,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Gregory's  General  Practice  of  Physic,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Rush's 
Medical  Inquiries,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Jackson's  Principles  of  Medicine,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Hosack's 
Nosology  and  Practice,  1  v.  8vo.;  Mackintosh's  Practice  of  Medicine,  2  v.  Svo. ; 
Stokes  do.,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Graves'  do.,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Broussais'  Pathology,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Bi- 
chat's  Pathology,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Cruveilhier's  Anatomic  Pathologique,  2io.,  in  pro- 
gress; Hall  on  Diagnosis,  1  v.  Svo.;  Ellis'  Medical  Formulary,  1  v.  Svo.;  Gallup' s 
Institutes  of  Medicine,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Armstrong  on  Fevers,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Louis  on  Yel- 

71 


558  APPENDIX. 

low  Fever,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Thompson  on  Inflammation,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Clarke  on  Consumption, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Johnson  on  Liver  Complaints,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Raycr's  Maladie  des  Reins,  2io., 
in  progress;  Bell  and  Condie  on  the  Cholera,  1  v.  Svo.;  Hancock  on  Pestilence, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Gallup  on  Epidemics,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Bale-man  on  Cutaneous  Diseases, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Cheyne  on  Dropsy,  1  v.  12mo.;  Scudamore  on  Gout  and  Rheumatism, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Esquirol  on  Insanity,  2  v.  Svo.;  Detcees  on  Females,  1  v.  Svo.,  and  on 
Children,  1  v.  Svo. 

CHIRURGERY. — Cooper's  Surgical  Dictionary,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Cooper's  First  Lines  of 
Surgery,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Abernethy's  Surgical  Works,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Bell's  System  of  Sur- 
gery, 4  v.  Svo.;  Desault's  Surgery,  2  v.  Svo.;  Liston's  Practical  Surgery,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Gibson's  Surgery,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Bougeray's  Minor  Surgery,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Edwards'  Sur- 
gical Anatomy,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Tavernier's  Operative  Surgery,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Bourgery 
and  Jacob's  Anatomic  Chirurgicale,  2io.,  in  progress ;  Boyer's  CEuvres  Chirurgi- 
cales,  11  v.  Svo.;  A.  Cooper's  Lectures,  ed.  by  Lee,  3  v.  Svo.;  Bell  on  Wounds, 


1  v.  Svo. ;  Velpeau's  Midwifery,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Meigs'  Philadelphia  Practice,  1  v.  12mo. 

FOURTH  PROVINCE— TECHNOLOGY. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Hazen's  Panorama  of  Professions  and  Trades,  for  Schools ; 
Bigelow's  Technology,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Crabbe's  Universal  Technological  Dictionary, 

2  v.  4to. ;  Martin's  Circle  of  the  Mechanical  Arts,  1  v.  4to. ;  Imison's  School  of 
Arts,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Lewis'  Phil.  Commerce  of  Arts,  1  v.  4to. ;  Smith's  Mechanic,  or 
Practical  Inventions,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute ;  Mackenzie's 

;  Rollin  on  the 
Inventions  arid 
Dumas'  Chimie 

Appliquee  aux  Arts,  5  v.  Svo. ;  Dictionnaire  Technologique,  22  v.  Svo. ;  Diction- 
naire  de  PIndustrie  Manufacturiere,  10  v.  Svo. ;  Prechtl's  Woerterbuch,  14  v.  Svo. ; 
Jacobson's  Technologisches  Woerterbuch,  6  v.  4to. ;  Encyclopedic  des  Arts  et  Me- 
tiers, 15  v.2io. 

XIII.    DEPARTMENT ARCHITECIINICS. 

Rondelcl's  Art  de  Batir,  5  v.  4to. ;  Borgnis'  Mecanique  Appliquee  aux  Arts, 
8  v.  4to. ;  Christian's  Traite  de  Mecanique  Industrielle,  4  v.  4to. ;  Douliot's  Cours 
Elementaire  dc  Construction,  2  v.  4to. ;  Sganzin's  Cours  de  Construction,  4to.,  and 
plates,  in  progress. 

HYLURGY. —  Tredgold  on  the  Strength  of, Cast  Iron,  1  v.  Svo.;  Duleau's  Essai 
sur  le  Resistance  du  Fer  Forge,  1  v.  4to. ;  Pelouze's  Art  du  Maitre  de  Forges, 

2  v.  12mo. ;  Bonnot's  Detail  General  des  Fers,  Fontes,  Serrurerie,  &c.,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Cot- 
tingham's  Smith  and  Founder's  Director,  1  v.  2io. ;   Williams'  Mineral  Kingdom, 
(on  Mining,)  2  v.  Svo. ;  Heron  de  Villefosse  de  la  Richesse  Minerale,  3  v.  4to.,  and 
plates ;  Karsfen's  Allgemeine  Hilttenkunde,  5  v.  Svo.,  with   plates,  (on  Metal- 
lurgy) ;  Brard's  Exploitation  des  Mines,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Dclius  do.,  2  v.  4to. ;  Prony 
sur  la  Poussee  des  Terres,  1  v.  4to. ;  MaynieVs  Poussee  des  Terres,  &c.,  1  v.  4to.; 
Shaw's  Operative  Masonry,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Pelouze's  Art  du  Briquetier,  Chaufournier 
et  Charbonnicr,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Nicholson's  Treatise  on  Stone  Cutting,  1  v.  Svo. ;  De 
Nuelle's  Trait6  Particulier  de  Magonnerie,  1  v.  4to. ;   Vallee's  Trait6  de  la  Coupe 
des  Pierres,  1  v.  4to. ;  Treussart  sur  les  Mortiers,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Totten  on  Mortars, 
1  v.  Svo. ;  Barlow  on  the  Strength  and  Stress  of  Timber,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Chapman  on 
the  Preservation  of  Timber,  1  v.  Svo.;   Tredgold's  Elementary  Principles  of  Car- 
pentry,  1  v.  4to. ;  Nicholson's  Carpenter's  New  Guide,  1  v.  4to. ;  Benjamin's  Prac- 
tical House  Carpenter,  1  v.  4to. ;  Segur  on  Tanning,  1  v.  Svo. 

MACHINERY. — Nicholson's  Operative  Mechanic,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Gregory's  Mechanics, 

3  v.  Svo. ;  Babbage  on  Machinery,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Leupold's  Theatrum  Machinarum, 
5  v.  2io. ;  Enc.  Metropolitana,  Art.  Manufactures,  1  v.  4to. ;  Hachette's  Traite  des 
Machines,  1  v.  4to. ;  Lanz  ct  Betancourt's  Composition  des  Machines,  1  v.  4to. ; 
Coulomb's  Machines  Simples,  1  v.  4to. ;  Evans'  Millwright's  Guide,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Banks  on  Mills,  1  v.  Svo.;  Buchanan  on  Mill  Work,  3  v.  Svo.;  Smeaton  on  the 
Powers  of  Wind  and  Water  to  turn  Mills,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Poncclel's  Traite  des  Roues 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  559 

Hydrauliques,  1  v.  4to.;  Partington's  Account  of  the  Steam  Engine,  1  v.  8vo.; 


ARCHITECTURE. — Wilkins'  Civil  Architecture  of  Vitruvius,  2  v.  4to.;  Ware's 
Palladio's  Architecture,  1  v.  2io. ;  Chambers'  Civil  Architecture,  1  v.  4to.;  Stuart's 
Dictionary  of  Architecture,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Nicholson's  Dictionary  of  Architecture, 
2  v.  4to.;  Stuart  and  Revett's  Antiquities  of  Athens,  5  v.  2io. ;  Ram  Raz  on  the 
Architecture  of  the  Hindus,  1  v.  4to. ;  Durand's  Parallel  of  Ancient  and  Modern 
Edifices,  1  v.2io.;  Pugin's  Gothic  Architecture,  2  v.  4to.;  Kendall's  Gothic  Archi- 
tecture, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Elmes'  Lectures  on  Architecture,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Bitlington's  Archi- 
tectural Director,  1  v.  2io. ;  Atkinson's  Gothic  Ornaments,  1  v.  2io. ;  Nicholson's 
Principles  of  Architecture,  3  v.  8vo.;  Shaw's  Architect,  1  v.  4to.;  Benjamin's  Am. 
Builder's  Companion,  1  v.  4to.;  Havilond's  Builder's  Assistant,  3  v.  8vo. ;  Lou- 
don's  Encyclopaedia  of  Cottage,  Farm,  and  Villa  Architecture,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Tred- 
gold's  Principles  of  Warming  and  Ventilating  Public  Buildings,  1  v.  8vo. 

VIATECTURE. — {For  Surveying,  see  Ancylometry,  p.  554).  Mahan's  Civil  Engi- 
neering, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Millington's  Civil  Engineering,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Delaistre's  Encyclo- 
pedic de  1'Ingenieur,  4  v.  8vo. ;  and  Science  de  1'Ingenieur  des  Ponts  et  Chausses, 

2  v.  4to.;  Smealon's  Reports  on  Civil  Engineering,  4  v.  4to. ;  Beaut emps-Beau- 
pres'  Topography  and  Hydrography,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Blunt  and  Stevenson's  Civil  En- 
gineer, 2io.,  in  progress;  Cordier  sur  la  Construction  des  Routes  et  Canaux, 

1  v.  8vo. ;  Peronnet  sur  les  Ponts  et  Canaux,  1  v.  4to.,  with  plates ;  JIP  Adam  on 
Road  Making,  1  v.  8vo.;  Girard  sur  les  Grandes  Routes,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Parnell's 
Treatise  on  Roads,  1  v.  8vo. ;    Gauthey's   Traite  de  la  Construction  de   Ponts, 

3  v.  4to. ;  Drewry  on  Suspension  Bridges,  1  v.  4to. ;  Gwilt  on  the  Equilibrium 
of  Arches,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Gordon  on  Locomotion,  1  v.  8vo. ;   Wood's  Practical  Trea- 
tise on  Rail-Roads,  1  v.  8vo.;  Pambour  on  Locomotive  Engines,  1  v.  8vo.;  Gary's 
Inland  Navigation  of  Great  Britain,  1  v.  4to.;  Andrcossi's  Canal  de  Languedoc, 

2  v.  4to. ;  Prony's  Architecture  Hydraulique,  2  v.  4to. ;  Belidor's  Architecture 
Hydraulique,  2  v.  4to. ;  Storrow  on  Water  Works,  1  v.  12mo.;  Decessart's  Travaux 
Hydrauliques,  2  v.  4to.;  Public  Works  of  Great  Britain,  1  v.  2io.;  Stevenson's 
Civil  Engineering  of  North  America,  1  v.  2io. ;   Tanner's  Canals  and  Rail-Roads 
of  the  TJ.  States,  1  v.  8vo.;  Chevalier's  Voies  de  Communication  aux  Etats  Unis, 
2  v.  4to. ;  Public  Works  of  the  United  States,  2io.,  in  progress. 

NAVITECTURE. — CharnocJc's  History  of  Marine  Architecture,  3  v.  4to.;  Dupin's 
Architecture  Navale,  1  v.  4to.;  Moreau's  Ingenieur  des  Constructions  Navales, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Gicquel-Destouches'  Dimensions  des  Batimens  de  Guerre,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Montgery  sur  les  Navires  en  Fer,  1  v.  8vo.;  Sutherland's  Ship  Builder's  Assistant, 
1  v.  4to.;  Annesley's  New  System  of  Naval  Architecture,  1  v.  4to. ;  Blackburne  on 
the  Science  of  Ship  Building,  1  v.  4to.;  Stalkartt's  Naval  Architecture,  1  v.  2io.; 
Crewze's  do.,  1  v.  4to. ;  Steele's  Ship  Builder's  Assistant,  1  v.  2io. ;  Seppings  on 
Ship  Building,  1  v.  8vo.;  Beaufoy's  Nautical  Experiments,  2  v.  4to.;  Euler's 
Theory  of  the  Construction  and  Properties  of  Vessels,  tr.  by  Watson,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Bouguer's  Traite  du  Navire,  1  v.  4to.;  Gordon's  Principles  of  Naval  Architecture, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Heathcote  on  Stay  Sails,  1  v.  8vo.;  Packenham  on  a  Substitute  for  Lost 
Rudders,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Forfail  de  la  Mature  des  Vaisseaux,  1  v.  4to. 

NAVIGATION. — Falconer's  Marine  Dictionary,  4to. ;  Btzoul's  Traite  de  Naviga- 
tion, 1  v.  8vo.;  Dubourguet's  do.,  1  v.  4to.;  Darcy  Liver's  Seamanship,  ed.  by  No- 
rie,  1  v.  8vo.;  Blunt's  Theory  and  Practice  of  Seamanship  and  Naval  Tactics, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Robinson's  Navigation,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Norie's  Practical  Navigation,  1  v.  8vo.; 
Day's  Math.  Principles  of  Navigation,  1  v.  8vo.;  Bowditch's  Practical  Navigator, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Maury's  Navigation,  1  v.  8vo.;  Prony  sur  le  Calcul  des  Longitudes  et 
Latitudes  1  v.  4to.;  Mackay  on  Longitude,  2  v.  8vo.;  Bagay's  Tables  Astrono- 
miques  et  Hydrographiques,  1  v.  4to.;  Mendoza  Rios'  Nautical  Tables,  1  v.  4to. ; 
the  Nautical  Almanac,  8vo.;  Blunt's  Am.  Coast  Pilot,  1  v.  8vo.;  Parker's  Tele- 
graphic Signals,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Belcher's  Nautical  Surveying,  1  v.  8vo. 

XIV.    DEPARTMENT CIIREOTECHNICS. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Pine's  Microcosm,  or  Picturesque  Delineation  of  the  Arts, 
Agriculture,  Manufactures,  &o.,  of  Great  Britain,  2  v.  2io. ;  Bat  low  on  the  Manu- 


560  APPENDIX. 

factures  and  Machinery  of  Great  Britain,  4to.;  Ure's  Philosophy  of  Manufactures, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Cutbush's  American  Artist's  Manual,  2  v.  8vo. 

AGRICULTURE. — London's  Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,  1  v.  8vo.;  Columella's 
Husbandry,  1  v.  4to. ;  Adams'  New  System  of  Agriculture,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Brown's 
Treatise  on  Agriculture  and  Rural  Affairs,  2  v.  8vo.;  Hunter's  Georgical  Essays, 
6  v.  8vo.;  Parkinson's  Experienced  Farmer,  1  v.  8vo.;  Logan's  Fourteen  Experi- 
ments on  Rotation  of  Crops,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Sinclair's  Code  of  Agriculture,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Taylor's  Arator,  or  Agricultural  Essays,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Rvffin  on  Calcareous  Ma- 
nures, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Williamson's  Agricultural  Mechanism,  1  v.  8vo.;  Davy's  Agri- 

"   r.  8vo. ;  The 
Bud's 
Wiggin's 

American  Farmer's  Instructor,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Cruickshank's  Practical  Planter,  on 
Wood  Plantations,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Dacre  on  Salt  as  a  Manure,  1  v.  8vo.;  John- 
stone  on  Draining  Land,  1  v.  8vo.;  Bakewell  on  Wool,  1  v.  8vo.;  Livingston  on 
Sheep,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Lawrence  on  Cattle,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Flint  on  Horses  and  Farriery, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Dennis'  Silk  Manual,  1  v.  12mo. ;  D'Homergue's  do.,  1  v.  12mo.;  Dan- 
dolo  on  Silk,  1  v.  8vo. 

HORTICULTURE. — Loudon's  Encyclopaedia  of  Gardening,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hayward's 
Science  of  Horticulture,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Nicoll's  Villa  Garden  Directory,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Walpole  on  Modern  Gardening  and  Pleasure  Grounds,  1  v.  4to. ;  Prince  on  Hor- 
ticulture, 1  v.  12mo.,  and  on  the  Vine,  1  v.  8vo. ;  M'Mahon's  Gardener,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Fessenden's  American  Gardener,  1  v.  12mo.;  Sayer's  American  Fruit  and  Flower 
Garden  Companion,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Bridgeman's  Gardener's  Assistant,  1  v.  I2mo. ; 
Buist's  American  Flower  Garden  Directory,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Gilpin's  Hints  on  Land- 
scape Gardening,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Forsythe  on  Fruit  Trees,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Harrison  on  the 
Culture  and  Management  of  Fruit  Trees,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Coxe  on  Fruit  Trees  and  Ci- 
der, 1  v.  8vo. ;  Fessenden's  American  Orehardist,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Hoffy's  Orchardist's 
Companion,  4to.,  in  progress. 

DOMICULTURE. — Bradley's  British  Housewife,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Kitchenor's  House- 
keeper's Manual,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Carter's  Frugal  Housewife,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Leslie's 
Young  Housekeeper,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Davies'  Innkeeper's  Guide,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Bucha- 
nan on  the  Economy  of  Fuel,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Kitchenor's  Cook's  Oracle,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Ude's  French  Cook,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Dalgairns'  Picture  of  Cookery,  1  v.  12mo.;  Nutts' 
Imperial  Cook,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Viart's  Cuisinier  Royal,  1  v.  8vo. ;  the  Cook's  Own 
Book,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Raffle's  Cookery,  1  v.  12mo.;  Leslie's  Cookery,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Accum's  Culinary  Chemistry,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Edlin  on  Bread  Making,  1  v.  12mo. ; 
Nutts'  Complete  Confectioner,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Maculloch  on  Making  Wine,  12mo. ; 
Accum  on  Brewing,  12mo. ;  Domestic  Cookery,  1  v.  12mo. 

VESTITURE. — Baines'  History  of  the  Cotton  Manufacture  in  Great  Britain, 
1  -v.  8vo. ;  Guest  on  the  British  Cotton  Manufactures,  8vo. ;  Ure's  Philosophy  of 
Manufactures,  1  v.  8vo.;  the  Carding  and  Spinning  Master's  Assistant,  Glasgow, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Gray  on  Spinning  Machinery,  1  v.  8vo.;  Duncan  on  the  Art  of  Weaving, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Branson's  Family  Directory  for  Weaving  and  Dyeing,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Ber- 
thollet  on  Bleaching,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Bert/toilet  on  Dyeing,  ed.  by  Ure,  2  v.  8vo.;  Du- 
mas sur  le  Teinture,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Bancroft  on  Permanent  Colours,  2  v.  8vo.;  Cooper 
on  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Manuel  du  Fabricant  d'Etoffes  Impri- 
me"es,  1  v.  18mo. ;  et  du  Fabricant  d'Indiennes,  1  v.  18mo.,  et  du  Fabr.  de  Draps, 
1  v.  18mo.,  et  du  Fabr.  de  Chapeaux,  1  v.  18mo. ;  a  Treatise  on  the  Silk  Manufac- 
ture, Philadelphia,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Rees'  Principles  and  Practice  of  Boot  and  Shoe 
Making,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Manuel  du  Bottier  et  du  Cordonnier,  par  Morin,  1  v.  18mo. ; 
Manuel  du  Bonnetier,  1  v.  18mo. 

FURNITURE. — Manuel  du  Porcelainier,  &c.,  2  v.  18mo.;  Kunckel's  Glassmacher- 
kunst,  1  v.  2io. ;  L'Art  de  la  Verrerie,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Lardner's  Cab.  Cyclopaedia  on 
the  Manufacture  of  Porcelain  and  Glass,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Nicol's  Lapidary,  or  History 
of  Precious  Stones,  1  v.  8vo.;  Cummings'  Elements  of  Clock  and  Watch  Work, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Reid  on  Clock  and  Watch  Making,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Harrison  on  Bells, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Bramah  on  the  Construction  of  Locks,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Fry  on  the  Construc- 
tion of  Wheel  Carriages,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Cottingham's  Smith's  Director,  or  Patterns  for 
Ornamental  Iron  and  Brass  Work,  1  v.  4to. ;  Chippendale's  Cabinet  Maker's 
Director,  I  v,  2io. ;  Hall's  Cabinet  Maker's  Assistant,  1  v.  4to. ;  King's  Cabinet 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  561 

Maker's  Sketcli  Book,  2  v.  4to. ;  Hope's  Designs  of  Furniture,  1  v.  2io. ;  Smith's 
Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Guide,  1  v.  4to. ;  Manuel  du  Tapisier,  1  v.  1 8mo. 
COMMERCE. — The  Book  of  Commerce,  for  Schools;  Anderson's  Origin  of  Com- 
merce,  6  v.  8vo. ;  Dearborn  on  the  Commerce  of  the  Black  Sea,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Mac- 
pherson's  History  of  Commerce,  4  v.  4to. ;  M'Konnochie's  Commerce  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Martin's  Trade  of  England,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Pitkin's  Commerce  of  the 
United  States,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Tibbits  on  a  Home  Market,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Rordansz'  Euro- 
pean  Commerce,  comprising  Tables  of  Money,  Weights,  &c.,  1  v.  8vo.;  Kelly's 
Universal  Cambist,  on  Coins,  Weights,  Measures,  &c.,  2  v.  4to. ;  Adams'  Report 
on  Weights  and  Measures,  1  v.  8vo.;  Foster's  Merchant's  Manual,  1  v.  8vo.; 
M'Culloch's  Commercial  Dictionary,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Bentham's  Defence  of  Usury, 
1  v.  12mo. ;  Bennet's  Book-Keeping,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Marsh's  Book-Keeping,  1  v.  8vo. 

XV.    DEPARTMENT MACHETECNICS. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Duane's  Military  Dictionary,  1  v.  8vo.;  Cooper's  Military 
Cabinet,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Vegetius  de  Re  Militari,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Chambray's  Philosophic 
de  la  Guerre,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Daisy's  Essay  de  Bibliologie  Militaire,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Mor- 
decai's  Military  Laws  of  the  U.  S.,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Macomb  on  Courts  Martial,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Macarthur  on  Military  and  Naval  Courts  Martial,  2  v.  Svo. ;  Machiavel's  Art  of 
War,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Rogniat's  Considerations  sur  1'Art  de  la  Guerre,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Mut- 
ter's Art  of  War,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Jomini's  Art  de  la  Guerre,  3  v.  Svo. ;  La  Rocheay- 
mon's  Art  de  la  Guerre,  4  v.  Svo. ;  Carrion  Nisas  sur  1'Histoire  Generate  de  1'Art 
Militaire,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Dupin's  View  of  the  Military  Force  of  G.  Britain,  2  v.  Svo. ; 
Sainte-Chapelle's  Histoire  des  Institutions  Militaires  de  France,  3  v.  Svo. 

HOPLISTICS. — Grose's  Treatise  on  Ancient  Armour  and  Weapons,  2  v.  4to.; 
Meyrick's  Ancient  Armour,  3  v.  4to. ;  Lolooz'  Antiquites  Militaires,  1  v.  4to. ; 
Peretzdorf  de  Pyrotechnic  Militaire,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Morel's  Traite  des  Feux  d' Artifice, 
1  v.  8vo.;  Cutbush's  Pyrotechny,  1  v.  Svo.;  Thompson  on  Gunpowder,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Braddock  on  do.,  1  v.  8vo.;  Renaud  sur  la  Fabrication  de  la  Poudre  a  Canon, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Cotty  sur  la  Fabrication  des  Armes  Portatives,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Dartein  sur  la 
Fabrication  des  Bouches  a  Feu,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Monge's  Description  de  1'Art  de  Fabri- 
quer  les  Canons,  1  v.  4to. ;  Preval  du  Service  des  Armees  en  Campagne,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Jackson  on  the  Formation,  Discipline,  and  Economy  of  Armies,  1  v.  4to. ;  Lemiere 
de  Corvey  des  Partisans  et  des  Corps  Irreguliers,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Labaume's  Manuel  de 
1'Officier  d'Etat  Major,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Goupil's  Manuel  de  PHabillement,  1  v.  Svo. 

GEOTACTICS. — Elian's  Tactics  and  Military  System  of  the  Grecians,  1  v.  4to. ; 
Folard's  Notes  on  Polybius,  1  v.  2io. ;  Mitchell's  Essay  on  Tactics,  1  v.  1 2mo. ; 
Scott's  Infantry  Tactics,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Cooper's  Instructions  for  Militia  and  Volun- 
teers, 1  v.  12mo.;  Lelouterel's  Manuel  de  POfficier  d'Infanterie,  Paris,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Torrens'  Field  Exercises,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Montmorency's  Lance  Exercise,  1  v.  4to. ; 
Lallemand's  Artillery,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Anderson's  Instruction  for  Field  Artillery, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Gassendi's  Aide-memoire  d'Artillerie,  2  v.  8vo.;  Lamy's  Trait6  des 
Batteries,  1  v.  Svo.;  Ponmet  sur  1'Art  de  Pointer,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Adye's  Pocket 
Gunner,  1  v.  18mo.;  Whitting ham's  Cavalry  Manreuvres,  1  v.  Svo.;  Merries'  In- 
structions for  Cavalry,  1  v.  Svo.;  Laroche-Aymon's  Traite  de  la  Cavalerie,  1  v.  Svo.; 
Cavalry  Tactics,  printed  by  order  of  the  War  Department,  3  v.  12mo.;  Campbell's 
Instructions  for  Light  Infantry  and  Riflemen,  1  v.  ISmo. ;  Beauval's  Service  des 
Tirailleurs,  1  v.  Svo. 

FORTIFICATION. — Gay  de  Yemen's  Science  of  War  and  Fortification,  2  v.  Svo. ; 
Mahan's  Field  Fortification,  1  v.  Svo, ;  Vauban's  Attaque  et  Defense  des  Places, 
3  v.  Svo.;  Bousmard's  Essai  General  de  Fortification,  3  v.  4to.;  Belidor's  Science 
des  Ingenieurs,  1  v.  4to. ;  Carnot  de  la  Defense  des  Places  Fortes,  1  v.  4to. ;  Chau- 
mara's  Memoires  sur  la  Fortification,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Memorial  de  1'Omcier  du  Genie, 
10  v.  Svo. ;  Pasley's  Military  Instruction,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Tielke's  Field  Engineer,  2  v. 
Svo. ;  Montalembert's  Fortification  Perpendiculaire,  7  v.  4to. ;  Mouzc's  Traite  de 
Fortification  Souterraine,  1  v.  4to.;  Landmann  on  Mines,  1  v.  Svo.;  Douglass  on 
Military  Bridges,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Instruction  sur  les  Campemens,  Paris,  1  v.  Svo. 

STRATEGY. — Bulow's  Systeme  de  Guerre  Moderne,  1  v.  Svo. ;  Prince  Charles' 
Principesde  la  Strategic,  3  v.  Svo. ;  Duchaleau  sur  les  Manoeuvres  Strategiques,  1  v. 
Svo. ;  Garsaults  Parfait  Marechal,  1  v.  4to. ;  Grimaret's  Fonctions  des  Generaux, 
1  v.  Svo.;  Jominis'  Traite  des  Grandes  Operations  Militaires,  1  v.  Svo.;  Leblanc 


562  APPENDIX. 

(TEguilly  conccrnant  les  Attaques  Nocturnes,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Jarry  on  the  Marches 
and   Movements  of  Armies,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Lloyd1  s  Memoires   Militaires,  1  v.  8vo. ; 


War,  6  v.  8vo. 

NAVITACTICS. — James''  Naval  History,  6  v.  8vo. ;  Charnock's  History  of  Marine 
Architecture  and  Naval  History,  3  v.  4to. ;  Campbell's  Lives  of  the  Admirals,  4  v. 
8vo. ;  Blunt  on  Seamanship  and  Naval  Tactics,  1  v.  8vo. ;  A  System  of  Naval 
Tactics,  London,  1  v.  8vo.;  Clerk1  s  Essay  on  Naval  Tactics,  1  v.  8vo.;  and  Douglass1 
Naval  Evolutions,  in  reply,  1  v.  8vo. ;  White's  Naval  Researches,  on  the  Actions 
of  Grenada,  Chesapeake,  &c.,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Skin's  Naval  Battles,  1  v.  4to. ;  Inman's 
Naval  Gunnery,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Douglass1  do.,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Congreve  on  Mounting1 
Naval  Ordinance,  1  v.  4to. ;  Fulton's  Torpedo  War,  1  v.  4to. ;  Delafon  on  Naval 
Courts  Martial,  1  v.  8vo.;  Truxton's  Duties  of  Officers  of  Ships  of  War,  1  v.  2io. ; 
Blackburne  on  Ship  Building  and  the  British  Navy,  1  v.  4to.;  Edyeon  the  Equip- 
ment, &c.,  of  Ships  of  War,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Tolten's  Naval  Text-Book,  1  v.  8vo. 

XVI.    DEPARTMENT CALLOTECHNICS. 

GENERAL  WORKS. — Bromley's  Philosophical  and  Critical  History  of  the  Fine 
Arts,  2  v.  4to. ;  Dullaway's  Anecdotes  of  the  Arts  in  England,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hod- 
son's  Cabinet  of  the  Arts,  1  v.  4to. ;  Memes1  History  of  Sculpture,  Painting,  and 
Architecture,  3  v.  12mo. ;  Dunlap's  Arts  of  Design  in  the  U.  S.,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Win- 
Arc/man's  Histoire  de  1'Art  Ancien,  2  v.  4to.;  Raczinski's  Histoire  de  1'Art  Moderne 
en  Allemagne,  2  v.  4to,  and  plates ;  The  Artist's  Repository,  or  Encyclopaedia  of 
the  Fine  Arts,  4  v.  8vo. ;  CEuvres  de  Visconti,  15  v.  8vo. 

PRINTING. — Astle's  Origin  and  Progress  of  Writing,  1  v.  2io. ;  Deane's  Penman- 
ship, 1  v.  4to. ;  Peal^s  Graphics,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Gould's  Stenography  or  Short- 
Hand  Writing,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Mcerman  and  Middleton's  Origin  of  Printing  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Palmers  General  History  of  Printing,  1  v.  4to. ;  Thomas1  History  of  Printing  in 
America,  2  v.  8vo.;  Van  Winkled  Printer's  Guide,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Johnson's  Typo- 
graphia,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Adams  on  Typography,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Saunders'  Author's  Print- 
ing and  Publishing  Assistant,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Savage  on  Decorative  Printing,  1  v. 
4to. ;  Brightly  on  Founding  Stereotype,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Arnett's  Bibliopegia,  or  Book- 
binding, 1  v.  12mo. ;  Otlley  on  the  Early  History  of  Engraving,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Per- 
rot's  Manuel  du  Graveur,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Landsecr's  Lectures  on  Engraving,  1  v.  8vo.; 
Johnson  on  Wood  Engraving,  1  v.  8vo.;  Senej "elder's  Lithography,  1  v.  4to.; 
Hullmandel's  Lithography  1  v.  4to. ;  Tudot's  do.,  1  v.  18mo. 

PAINTING. — Bowen's  U.  S.  Drawing  Book,  and  J.  R.  Smith's  Elementary 
Drawing  Book,  1  v.  2io.,  for  Schools ;  Brown's  Practical  Perspective,  1  v. 
4to. ;  Taylor's  Linear  Perspective,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Edward's  Perspective,  1  v.  4to. ; 
Thenol's  Perspective,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Camper  on  the  Connection  between  Anatomy  and 
Painting,  &c.,  1  v.  4to. ;  Craig's  Lectures  on  Drawing,  Painting,  and  Engraving, 
1  v.  8vo. ;  Fuselis1  Lectures  on  Painting,  1  v.  4to. ;  James1  Schools  of  Painting,  (two 
works,)  each  1  v.  8vo. ;  Orme  on  Coloring  and  Landscape  Painting,  1  v.  4to. ;  Orme 
on  Transparencies,  1  v.  4to. ;  Reynolds1  Discourses  on  Painting,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Leo- 
nardo da  Vinci's  Treatise  of  Painting,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Pilkingtorfs  Dictionary  of  Pain- 
ters, 2  v.  8vo. ;  Grose's  Rules  for  Drawing  Caricatures,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hassell's  Spe- 
culum, or  Drawing  in  Water  Colours,  1  v.  8vo.;  Andrews  on  Flower  Painting, 
1  v.  4to. ;  Hogarth's  Analysis  of  Beauty,  1  v.  8vo.,  and  plates  ;  Musee  Francais,  5 
v.  2io. ;  The  Orleans  Gallery,  2  v.  2io. ;  Anger  stein's  Collections,  3  v.  4to. ;  The 
British  Gallery,  2  v.  4to. ;  The  Dulwich  Gallery,  2  v.  2io. ;  The  Dresden  Gallery, 
(German,)  2io.,  in  progress. 

SCULPTURE. — Dallaway's  Statuary  and  Sculpture  among  the  Ancients,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Flfixman's  Lectures  on  Sculpture,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Calcografia  delle  piu'  belle  Statue 
Antiche  in  Roma,  1  v.  4to. ;  Hervey's  Illustrations  of  Modern  Sculpture,  1  v.  2io. ; 
Burrow  on  the  Elgin  Marbles,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hamilton's  Engravings  from  Ancient 
Vases,  4  v.  2io.;  Tassie's  Catalogue  of  Ancient  and  Modern  Engraved  Gems,  2  v. 
4to. ;  Worlidge's  Antique  Gems,  1  v.  4to. ;  Deuchar's  Gems,  3  v.  2io. ;  Canova's 
Works,  2  v.  2io. ;  Thorwaldsen's  Works,  (German,)  2  v.  4to.;  Musee  Francais, 
(sec  Painting.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  563 

Music. — Burney's  General  History  of  Music,  3  v.  4to. ;  Busby's  Dictionary  of 
Music,  2  v.  8vo. ;  and  his  General  History  of  Music,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Beethoven's  Traite 
d'  Harmonic  et  de  Composition,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Fitis  sur  la  Musique,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Essai 
sur  la  Musique,  4  v.  4to. ;  CalcotCs  Musical  Grammar,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Charon's 
Principes  de  Composition,  1  v.  4to. ;  Shield's  Introduction  to  Harmony,  and 
Supplement,  1  v.  2io.;  Burroughs'1  Thorough  Bass  Primer,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Martini 
di  Contrappunto,  1  v.  4to. ;  Sharp's  Introduction  to  Vocal  Music,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Stanhope  on  Tuning,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Dubourg  on  the  Violin,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Bollard  on 
Guitar  Playing,  1  v.  4to.;  Young  on  the  Phenomena  of  Sounds,  1  v.  8vo. ; 
Avison  on  Musical  Expression,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Handel's  Works,  2io.  (numerous) ;  Hay- 
den's  Works,  4to. ;  Mozart's  do.,  4to. ;  Beethoven's  Works,  4to.  (numerous ;)  Ros- 
sini's Works,  2io.,  (numerous)  ;  Cherubini's  Works,  2io. 

ARGICS. — John's  Gymnastics,  tr.  by  Beck,  1  v.  8vo.;  Sallzman's  Gymnastics  for 
Youth,  1  v.  8vo.;  Walker's  Manly  Exercises,  1  v.  12mo. ;  the  Boy's  Own  Book, 

1  v.  12mo.;  Berenger's  History  and  Art  of  Horsemanship,  2  v.  4to.;   Daniel's 
Rural  Sports,  2  v.  8vo.;  Blaines'  Encyclopedia  of  Rural  Sports,  1  v.  8vo.;  M' Ar- 
thur on  Fencing,  1  v.  4to. ;  Moseley's  Essay  on  Archery,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Frost's  Art  of 
Swimming,  1  v.  8vo. ;   Walton's  Complete  Angler,  2  v.  12mo. ;  Davy's  Salmonia, 
or  Days  of  Fly  Fishing,  1  v.  12mo. ;  Gallini's  Art  of  Dancing,  I  v.  8vo. ;  Blasis* 
Art  of  Dancing,  1  v.  8vo. ;  Hoyle's  Games,  1  v.  18mo. ;  Philidor's  Studies  of  Chess, 

2  v.  8vo. ;  Sarratt  on  the  Game  of  Chess,  2  v.  8vo. ;  Lewis  on  Chess,  1  v.  8vo.  ;  the 
Girl's  Own  Book,  1  v.  12mo.;  the  Young  Lady's  Book,  1  v.  12mo. 


INDEX. 


AARON,  248. 
Abacus,  445. 
Abassides,  211. 
Abattis,  495. 
Abbas,  213,  256. 
Abdomen,  410. 
Abelard,  263. 
Aberration,  360. 
Abijah,  249. 
Abo,  178. 

Abraham,  140,  248. 
Abscesses,  428. 
Abscissa,  335. 
Absorbent  Vessels,  410. 
Absorption,  360. 
Abubekir,  137,  210,  255. 
Abulfaragius,  255. 
Abyssinia,  180,  216. 
Academic  School,  21. 
Acalepha,  383. 
Acanthopterygii,  380. 
Accent,  44. 
Accidence,  45. 
Accipitres,  379. 
Account  Book,  484. 
Acephala,  381. 
Achaia,  173. 
Achaean  League,  207. 
Achilles,  206,  251. 
Achmet,  213. 
Achromatic  Lens,  360. 
Acid,  369. 

Acotyledonous  Plants,  389. 
Acrophysics,  34,  342. 
Acrosofia,  30. 
Acrostic,  281. 
Action,  121. 
Actinology,  383. 
Adalbert,  148. 
Adam,  248. 
Adams,  273. 
Adams  and  Liberty,  310. 
Addison,  266. 
Addition,  317. 
Address,  282. 
Adelinea,394. 
Adelung,  41. 
Aderiology,  410. 
Adjective,  45. 
Adjective  colours,  475. 
Adjutant,  499. 
Adjutant-General,  505. 
Administrators,  119. 
Admiral,  512. 


Admiralty  Courts,  108. 
Admiralty  Law,  105. 
Adolphus  Frederick,  231. 
Adowa,  181. 
Adrian,  253. 
Adverb,  46. 
Advocate,  103. 
AdynamioB,  423. 
.Eneid,  286. 
^Eolic  Dialect,  56. 
Aerial  Perspective,  525. 
^Eschines,  251. 
^Eschylus,  251. 
^Esculapius,  418,  425. 
^Esop,  251. 
^Esthetics,  73. 
Affinity,  369. 
Afghanistan,  168. 
Africa,  178,  216. 
African  Association,  217. 
African  Geography,  178. 
African  History,  211,  216. 
African  Islands,  183. 
African  Languages,  67. 
AgathodtEmon,  161. 
Ages,  in  Literature,  280. 
Agesilaus,  251. 
Agincourt,  223. 
Agriculture,  17,  459,  461. 
Agricultural  Implements,  462. 
Agrippa,  252. 
Ahab,  249. 
Ahaz,  249. 
Ahaziah,  249. 
Ahmed  Abdallah,  214. 
Alaric,  209. 
Alaska,  185. 
Albategnius,  255. 
Alberoni,  260. 
Albert,  228,  269. 
Albigenses,  154. 
Albucasis,  255. 
Albugo,  429. 
Albumen,  372. 
Albuquerque,  214,  261. 
Alchemy,  367. 
Alcibiades,  251. 
Alcohol,  414. 
Alcoran,  138. 
Ale,  472. 

Alemannic  Dialect,  63. 
Alembert,  262. 
Alexander  Balas,  250. 
Alexander,  of  Russia,  232,  272. 
72 


I  Alexander  III.,  Pope,  219. 
Alexander  the  Great,  217. 
Alexander's  Feast,  302. 
Alexandria,  179. 
Alexandrian  Library,  211. 
Alfaden,  136. 

Alfred  the  Great,  171,  224. 
Algebra,  322. 
Algebraic  Division,  323. 
Algebraic  Multiplication,  323. 
Algiers,  180,  211. 
Algorithm,  317. 
Alhazen,  255. 
Ali,  137,210,  255. 
AH  Bey,  211. 
Aliments,  420. 
Alkali,  369. 
Allegheny,  Mts.,  186. 
Allegory,  72. 
Allegation,  321. 
Alluvial  Formation,  400. 
Almagest,  161. 
Almagro,  189,  261,  277. 
Al  Mamun,  255. 
Al  Mansor,  211,  213,  255. 
Alphonso  I.,  222. 
Aloes,  415. 
Alp  Arselan,  213. 
Alps,  174,  176. 
Altitude,  355. 
Altona,  177. 
Alum,  371. 
Aluminium,  370. 
Alvarez,  260. 
Amadis,  295. 
Amadis  de  Gaul,  298. 
Amalfitan  Table,  109. 
Amazon,  189. 
Amazonia,  189. 
Ambassadors,  104. 
Amber,  362. 
Ambrose,  150. 
Amend,  130. 
America,  183. 

American  Callography,  310. 
American  Chronography,  233. 
American  Desert,  188. 
American  Flag,  310. 
American  History,  233. 
American  Language,  66. 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  233. 
Ames,  Fisher,  273. 
Amhara,  181. 
Amharic  Language,  68. 


566 


INDEX. 


Aminta,  295. 
Ammonia,  370,  414. 
Ammunition,  490. 
Amputation,  427. 
Ampere's  Classification,  31,  33, 
Amphibia,  376,  379. 
Amphictyonic  Council,!  06,206. 
Amroo,  255. 
Amsterdam,  176. 
Amurath,  212. 
Amusement,  74. 
Amygdaloid,  397. 
Ana,  282. 
Anacreon,  251. 
Anagram,  282. 
Analogous  Term,  78. 
Analogy,  81. 
Analysis,  Exhaustive. 
Analytic  Chemistry,  372. 
Analytic  Geometry,  332. 
Analytic  Method,  82. 
Anam,  169. 
Anapest,  48. 
Anatomy,  404. 
Anaximander,  251. 
Anchors,  456. 
Ancient  History,  201. 
Ancient  Writings,  516. 
Ancylometry,  332, 
Andes  Mts.,  190. 
Andhuras,  214. 
Andrade,  166. 
Andrew,  145. 
Andronomy,  404. 
Androphysics,  34,  402. 
Aneurism,  428. 
Angas,  133. 
Angiology,  409. 
Angle,  328. 
Angola,  182. 
Animal,  375. 
Animal  Magnetism,  420. 
Anne  of  England,  225,  265. 
Annulata,  382. 
Anson,  193. 
Antara's  Life,  290. 
Anthony,  208,  253. 
Anthracinss,  395. 
Anthropology,  36. 
Antidotarium,  41 3. 
Antidote,  417. 
Anticlimax,  73. 
Anticlinal  Axis,  398. 
Antimony,  371,  417. 
Antiochus,  250. 
Antiphonal  Singing,  532. 
Antiquary,  305. 
Antisthenes,  21. 
Antithesis,  72. 
Antoninus,  253. 
Anubis,  131. 
Anwar  Soheili,  291. 
Aorta,  409. 
Apelles,  252. 
Aphelion,  352. 


Apis,  131. 

Apollo,  132. 

Apologetic  Theology,  150. 

Apostrophe,  73. 

Apothecaries'  Weight,  416. 

Apothecary,  412. 

Apothegm,  282. 

Apennine,  J  73. 

Apocenoses,  424. 

Apoplexy,  423. 

Apron  in  Architecture,  446. 

Apsides,  352. 

Aquarium,  469. 

Aquatinta,  520. 

Aqueducts,  450. 

Aqueous  Humour,  361. 

Aquinas,  263. 

Aquitania,  174. 

Arabesque,  445. 

Arabia,  167. 

Arabians,  210. 

Arabian  Biography,  255. 

Arabian  Callography,  289, 

Arabian  Nights,  290. 

Arabic  Alphabet,  52. 

Arabic  Language,  51. 

Arachnides,  382. 

Aramaean  Mythology,  131. 

Araucanian  Language,  67. 

Araucanians,  240. 

Arbitrary  Law,  98. 

Arbours,  468. 

Arc,  329. 

Arc,  Joan  of,  262. 

Arcadia,  173. 

Arcadia,  Sidney's,  305. 

Arcadius,  209. 

Archaeology,  145,  197. 

Archangel,  178. 

Archery,  537. 

Archeus,  403. 

Archimedes,  252,  327. 

Architechnics,  34,  431. 

Architecture,  443. 

Architrave,  444. 

Aremaic,  50. 

Areopagus,  116.     , 

Argand  Lamp,  479. 

Argent,  245. 

Argentine  Republic,  191,  240. 

Argics,  536. 

Argillite,  397. 

Argolis,  172. 

Argonautic  Expedition,  206. 

Argonautics,  284. 

Argos,  206. 

Argument,  79. 

Arimanes,  131. 

Ariosto,  259. 

Aristides,  251. 

Aristippus,  21. 

Aristocracy,  101. 

Aristotle,  21,  404. 

Arithmetic,  316. 

Arithmetical  Progression,  321 


Arithmetical  Proportion,  320. 

Arius,  147, 150. 

Arkansas,  186. 

Arkwright,  267. 

Armada,  222,  225. 

Armenia,  166. 

Arminianism,  155. 

Arminius,  268. 

Armoric  Language,  65. 

Armory,  244. 

Arms,  244. 

Arms  of  an  army,  505, 

Arnold,  228. 

Arracan,  169, 

Arsenic,  371,  417. 

Arson,  120. 

Artaxerxes,  205,  250. 

Arte  Magna,  322. 

Arteries,  410. 

Arthrology,  382. 

Article,  45. 

Articulata,  382. 

Artigas,  241. 

Artillery,  499. 

Artillery  Tactics,  501. 

Arts  of  War,  485. 

Aryabhatta,  322. 

Asa,  249. 

Asclepiades,  418. 

Ashantee,  181. 

Ashur,  204. 

Asia,  165. 

Asia  Minor,  166,  206. 

Asiatic  Geography,  165. 

Asiatic  History,  210,  212. 

Asiatic  Turkey,  166. 

Aspramonte,  295. 

Assumption,  191. 

Assumpsit,  121. 

Assyria,  166. 

Astarte,  131, 

Asthma,  424. 

Astracan,  171. 

Astral  Lamp,  479. 

Astringents,  414. 

Astrology,  351. 

Astronomical  Navigation,  458. 

Astronomy,  350. 

Atacama,  101. 

Atahualpa,  240. 

Athanasius,  150. 

Athens,  173,  206. 

Athlete,  537. 

Atlas,  Mts.  180. 

Atmosphere,  349. 

Atomic  theory,  343. 

Attachis,  104. 

Attack  of  Places,  497. 

Attelane  Fables,  287. 

Attica,  173. 

Attic  Dialect,  56. 

Attila,  209. 

Attorney,  103. 

Audumbla,  135. 

Aureng  Zebe,  214,  257. 


INDEX. 


5C7 


Auricle,  409. 

Aurist,  429. 

Ausgarius,  148. 

Australasia,  194. 

Australia,  1 94. 

Austria,  177. 

Austrian  Succession,  224,  228 

Autobiography,  243. 

Autographies,  198,  247. 

Autos  Sacramentales,  296. 

Avenzoar,  255. 

Average,  109. 

Averroes,  255. 

Aves,  376. 

Avicenna,  255. 

Azimuth,  355. 

Azores,  183. 

Aztec  Language,  67. 

Azuni,  108. 

Baal,  131. 

Babel,  200. 

Baber,  214,  257. 

Babylon,  204. 

Babylonia,  166. 

Babylonian  Biography,  250. 

Babylonian  Captivity,  202. 

Babylonian  Histories,  285. 

Bacchus,  133. 

Bacharia,  170. 

Back  ground,  525. 

Bacon,  Francis,  344. 

Bacon  Roger,  267. 

Bactriana,  170. 

Baden,  176. 

Baffin,  Capt.  184. 

Bagdad,  167. 

Baggage  Train,  506. 

Bahar  Danuch,  291. 

Bainbridge,  William,  274. 

Bajazet,  256. 

Baki,  256. 

Balance  of  Trade,  122. 

Balbec,  167. 

Balboa,  184. 

Baldwin,  209. 

Bali  language,  53. 

Balista,  488. 

Balize,  188. 

Balloons,  455. 

Balsam,  415. 

Baltimore,  186. 

Bambarra,  181. 

Banda,  Oriental,  241. 

Band  wheels,  440. 

Bank  notes,  124. 

Bankok,  169. 

Bank  of  oars,  508. 

Banks,  125, 

Banquette,  494. 

Baptism,  150. 

Baptists,  157. 

Barak,  249. 

Barbarous  languages,  66. 

Barbarossa,  212. 


Barbary,  180. 

Barbary  States,  211. 

Barber  of  Seville,  300. 

Bards,  242. 

Barium,  370. 

Barlow,  Joel,  276. 

Barometer,  350. 

Barouche,  480. 

Bars  in  music,  534. 

Barthelemy,  263. 

Bartholomew,  146. 

Bartolomeo,  260. 

Barton,  B.  S.,  276. 

Bartram,  John,  276. 

Barytinea,  394. 

Basalt,  397. 

Basil,  John,  232.  [506 

Basis  of  operations,  (in  war,) 

Basle,  176. 

Basque  language,  61. 

Bastions,  494,  495. 

Batrachia,  380. 

Batrachomyomachy,  284. 

Battalion,  499. 

Battering-ram,  493. 

Battery,  495. 

Battle,  507. 

Battle-axe,  488. 

Battlements,  494. 

Bavaria,  176. 

Bayard,  262,  299. 

Bayle,  263. 

Bayonet,  489. 

Beauty,  74. 

Beelzebub,  132. 

Beethoven,  271. 

Behring,  166. 

Belfagor,  295. 

Belgica,  174. 

Belgium,  175,  227. 

Belisarius,  209,  254. 

Belisarius,  Goldoni's,  295. 

Bell,  Dr.,  93. 

Bell,  Sir  Charles,  406. 

Belles  Lettres,  37. 

Beloochistan,  1 68. 

Belshazzar,  204. 

Benalcazar,  239. 

Benares,  168. 

Benedict,  258. 

Benevolence,  90. 

Bengalee  language,  53. 

Benguela,  182. 

Benin,  181. 

Berber  language,  67. 

Bergmann,  271. 

Berkeley,  83. 

Berlin,  177. 

Berme,  494. 

Berne,  176. 

Bernouilli,  264,  338. 

Berosus,  250. 

Berthollet,  264. 

Berzelius,  271. 

Beton,  449. 


Beverages,  471. 

Beys,  211. 

Beza,  Theodore,  263. 

Biafra,  182. 

Bible,  148,  149. 

Biblical  Criticism,  148. 

Biblical  Divinity,  148. 

Biblical  Exegetics,  149. 

Biblical  Hermeneutics,  149. 

Bibliography,  24. 

Bile,  411. 

Biledulgerid,  180. 

Billets,  246. 

Billiards,  538. 

Bill  of  exchange,  110,  483. 

Bill  of  lading,  109. 

Bill  of  Rights,  111. 

Bimana,  378. 

Binomial  theorem,  325. 

Biography,  18,  34,  242. 

Biography,  Ancient,  248. 

Biography,  Oriental,  254. 

Biography,  European,  257. 

Biography,  American,  272. 

Biorn,  183. 

Birmah,  215, 

Birman  Empire,  169. 

Birmingham,  175. 

BirsNimrood,201. 

Bismuth,  371. 

Bissextile,  200. 

Black,  Jos.,  267. 

Black  Knights,  308. 

Blackstone,  265. 

Blake,  Robert,  265. 

Blazon,  244. 

Bleaching,  475. 

Bleeding,  423. 

Blenheim,  226. 

Blockade,  107. 

Block  printing,  517. 

Blood-letting,  426. 

Blood-vessels,  409. 

Blowpipe,  392. 

Blucher,  269. 

Blumenbach,  270. 

Boarding  a  vessel,  512. 

Bodleian  Library,  25. 

Body  Plan,  452. 

Bogota,  190. 

Bohemia,  177. 

Bohemian  language,  65. 

Boileau,  263. 

Boiler,  442. 

Boleslas,  231. 

Bolingbroke,  265. 

Bolivar,  239,  277. 

Bolivia,  191,  240. 

Bombay,  168. 

Bonaparte,  Joseph,  222. 

Bonaparte,  Napoleon,  224, 262. 

Bones,  406. 

Bongola,  180. 

Boniface,  258. 

Bonnet,  495. 


568 


INDEX- 


Bononian  Institute,  22.             ii 

British  Association,  23. 

Book  binding,  520. 
Book  keeping,  484. 

British  Callography,  301. 
British  Provinces. 

Boodhism,  135. 

British  Spy,  312. 

Boom,  453. 

Broad-side,  511. 

Borax,  371,  415. 

Broad-sword  Exercise,  539. 

Bordeaux,  174. 

Brocade,  476. 

Borelli,  405. 

Brokerage,  321. 

Borneo,  192,  194. 

Bromine,  370. 

Boron,  370. 

Bronchi,  411. 

Boscan,  Juan,  261. 

Bronchitis,  422. 

Boscovich. 

Bronze,  435. 

Bosjesman  Language,  68. 

Broussais,  420. 

Bossuet,  263. 

Brown,  Dr.,  83. 

Boston,  186. 

Brown,  Gen.,  274. 

Botanical  Gardening,  468. 

Bruce,  179,  226. 

Botanical  Terminology,  384. 

Bruises,  427. 

Botany,  383. 

Brunswick,  177. 

Botany  Bay,  194,  217. 

Brutus,  208,  252,  253. 

Botta,  259. 

Buckingham,  Duke  of,  265. 

Bottomry,  109. 

Bucolics,  287. 

Bourbon  Dynasty,  224. 

Budhu,  135. 

Bourbon,  183. 

Buenos  Ayres,  191,  240. 

Bourdaloue,  263. 

Bularchus,  522. 

Bougainville,  193. 

Bunker's  Hill,  235. 

Boustrophedon,  56. 

Burglary,  120. 

Bowditch,  Dr.,  276. 

Burgundy,  227. 

Bowsprit,  453. 

Burlamaqui,  263. 

Boyaux,  497. 

Burning  Lenses,  357. 

Boyer,  238. 

Burns,  Robert,  266. 

Boyle,  267. 

Burrampooter,  170. 

Brabant,  175. 

Bushel,  484. 

Brace  in  Music,  534. 

Bushuana,  182. 

Brachiopoda,  381. 

Bustamente,  Gen.,  237. 

Brahm,  133. 

Busts,  527. 

Brahma,  134. 

Butler,  150,  266. 

Brain,  408. 

Butlery,  472. 

Brandenburg,  177. 

Buttresses,  447. 

Brandy,  472. 

Byron,  Capt,  193. 

Brass,  434. 

Byron,  Lord,  266. 

Brazil,  189,  238. 

Byzantine  Empire,  209. 

Brazilian  mts.  189. 

Bread,  471. 

Cabal,  144. 

Breaking  the  Line,  513. 

Cabinet,  104,  113. 

Breakwater,  451. 

Cabinet  work,  480. 

Breastplate,  143,  488. 

Cabiri,  131. 

Breastwheel,  441. 

Cables,  456. 

Breccia,  397. 

Cable's  length,  512. 

Bremen,  177. 

Cabot,  John,  183. 

Breslau,  177. 

Cabral,  Alvarez,  189. 

Brian  Boroihm,  226. 

Cabul,  168. 

Bribery,  120. 

Cachexise,  424. 

Brick-making,  436. 

Cadence,  44. 

Bricoles,  501. 

Cadiz,  174. 

Bridges,  448,  449. 

Cadmium,  371. 

Bridgwater's  Canal,  448. 

Cadmus,  41,  206,  250. 

Brig,  454. 

Ceesalpinus,  405. 

Brigade,  499. 

Csesar,  208,  253. 

Brigandine,  488. 

Csestus,  537. 

Brigantine,  454. 

Caffraria,  182, 

Brilliant  points,  524. 

Caffre  Dialects,  68. 

Brindley,  267,  448. 

Cainan,  248. 

Bristol,  175. 

Cairo,  179. 

Britain,  175. 

Caisson,  449,  491. 

British  America,  185. 

Cakes,  471. 

Calamus,  516. 

Calavar,  312. 

Calbongas,  182. 

Calcareous  Stones,  485. 

Calcination,  416. 

Calcium,  370. 

Calculus,  337.  [323. 

Calculus  of  Probabilities,  81, 

Calculus  of  Variations,  338. 

Calcutta,  168. 

Calderon,  261. 

Calendar  Months,  200. 

Calibre,  490. 

Calicoes,  475. 

Calico  Printing,  475. 

Calidas,  257. 

Caliphs,  210. 

Calisthenics,  537,  540. 

Callography,  34,  279. 

Callography,  Ancient,  283. 

Callography,  Oriental,  288. 

Callography,  European,  293. 

Callography,  American,  310. 

Callotechnics,  35,  514. 

Calomel,  371,  415. 

Calorics,  361,  363. 

Calvert,  154. 

Calvin,  263. 

Calvinism,  155. 

Calyx,  385. 

Cambial  Laws,  110. 

Cambistry,  483. 

Cambric,  474. 

Cambridge,  175. 

Cambyses,  205. 

Cameo,  527. 

Camera  Obscura,  357,  361. 

Camillus,  208,  252. 

Camoens,  Louis  de,  261. 

Cams,  440. 

Canaan,  205. 

Canada,  234. 

Canals,  448,  450. 

Canal  of  Languedoc,  175. 

Canaries,  183. 

Candaules,  206. 

Cannoneer,  501. 

Canova,  260. 

Cantata,  281. 

Canterbury  Tales,  301. 

Canton,  1U9. 

Canute,  231,  264. 

Cape  Breton,  186. 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  217. 

Capetian  Dynasty,  223. 

Cape  Town,  182. 

Cape  Verd  Islands,  183. 

Capias,  121. 

Capillary  Attraction,  349. 

Capital,  123. 

Capital  Punishment,  103. 

Caponnier,  497. 

Captain,  499. 

Caraccas,  190, 239. 

Caranus,  207. 


INDEX. 


569 


Caravaggio,  260. 

Carbon,  370. 

Carburet,  369. 

Cardinal  Virtues,  87. 

Carding  Machine,  474. 

Cards,  538,  540. 

Caribbee  Language,  67. 

Carinthia,  177. 

Carnaria,  378. 

Carnatic  War,  215. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  177. 

Carpentry,  437. 

Carpet  Weaving,  476. 

Carpus,  407. 

Carracci,  260. 

Carriage,  Gun,  490. 

Carriages,  480. 

Carronade,  489. 

Carteret,  184. 

Carthage,  178,  205. 

Carthagena,  174. 

Cartouche,  50. 

Cartridges,  491. 

Carving,  529. 

Cascable,  489. 

Case,  518. 

Casemates,  496. 

Cash  Book,  484. 

Casimir  III.,  232. 

Caspium,  Mare,  168. 

Cassander,  207. 

Cassel,  176. 

Cassiopeia,  355. 

Cassius,  208,  253. 

Casting,  530. 

Castle  of  Indolence,  301. 

Castor  Oil,  415. 

Catalepsy,  423. 

Catapult,  488. 

Cataract,  429. 

Categorical  Propositions,  78. 

Categories,  77. 

Catharine  of  Russia,  232,272. 

Cathartics,  413. 

Cathedrals,  447. 

Catholic  League,  228. 

Cato,  253. 

Catoptrics,  356,  358. 

Cattle,  465. 

Caulicolse,  446. 

Cavalry,  499. 

Cavalry  Tactics,  502. 

Cavendish,  Sir  T.,  192. 

Cayenne,  190. 

Cazembe,  182. 

Cecrops,  206. 

Celebes,  217. 

Cellini,  260. 

Celtic  Languages,  64. 

Celsus,  254,  425. 

Centiloquio,  296. 

Central  America,  238. 

Central  Europe,  175,  227. 

Centre  of  Gravity,  347. 

Centrifugal  Force,  355. 


Centripetal  Force,  355. 

Century,  498. 

Cephalopoda,  381. 

Ceratinae,  394. 

Ceraunics,  361. 

Cerealia,  471. 

Cerebrum,  408. 

Certainties,  81. 

Cerumen,  429. 

Cervantes,  261. 

Cetacea,  379. 

Cetubum,  141. 

Cevennes,  174. 

Ceylon,  168. 

Chacabuco,  240. 

Chaldea,  166. 

Chaldee,  50. 

Chalicinse,  394. 

Champollion,  203. 

Chancery  Law,  99. 

Charade,  282. 

Charges  d' Affaires,  104. 

Chariot,  480. 

Charlemagne,  220,  223. 

Charlemagne   and  his   Peers, 

298. 

Charles  V,,  222. 
Charles  of  England,  225,  265. 
Charles  of  France,  262. 
Charles  of  Sweden,  231,  271. 
Charlotte  Town,  186. 
Charon,  130. 
Charter  Party,  109. 
Chase,  489,  518. 
Chateaubriand,  264. 
Chaucer,  266. 
Chelonia,  380. 
Chemical  Arts,  432. 
Chemistry,  16,  367. 
Cheops,  203. 
Cheselden,  267. 
Chess,  538,540. 
Chevaux-de-frise,  495. 
Chevron,  245. 
Chiaro,  Oscuro,  524. 
Chief,  in  Heraldry,  244,  245. 
Chili,  191,  240. 
Chimborazo,  Mt.,  190. 
China  Ware,  478. 
Chinese  Biography,  257. 
Chinese  Callography,  292. 
Chinese  Empire,  169. 
Chinese  Language,  54. 
Chinese  Architecture,  445. 
Chinese  Tartary,  170. 
Chinese  Wall,  169. 
Chin-India,  169,  215. 
Chippewayans,  185. 
Chirography,  517. 
Chirurgery,  425. 
Chloride,  369. 
Chlorine,  416. 
Chnoub,  130. 
Chocolate,  471. 
Choice  of  Hercules,  286. 


Choir,  447. 
Cholera,  424. 
Cholula,  188. 
Chondropterygii,  381. 
Chosru  and  Shirin,  291. 
Chreotechnics,  34,  459. 
Christabel,  304. 
Christ,  144. 
Christiad,  187. 
Christian  Church,  145. 
Christian  Era,  198. 
Christian  L,  230,  271. 
Christiania,  178. 
Christianity,  144. 
Christians,  145. 
Christians,  158. 
Christina,  231. 
Christopher,  271. 
Chromium,  371. 
Chronography,  34,  196. 
Chronography,  Ancient,  201 . 
Chronography,  Oriental,  211. 
Chronography,  European,  217. 
Chronography,  American,  233. 
Chronology,  198. 
Chronometers,  479. 
Chrysostom,  150. 
Chuquisaca,  191. 
Chute  d'un  Ange,  300. 
Chyle,  410. 
Chyme,  410. 
Cicero,  253. 
Cider,  472. 

Cid,  Tales  of  the,  296. 
Cimbebas,  182. 
Cimbrica  Chersonesus,  177. 
Cincinnati,  186. 
Cincinnatus,  208,  252. 
Circassia,  171. 
Circle,  329. 
Circuit  Courts,  114. 
Circumference,  329. 
Circumvallation,  497. 
Cirrhopoda. 
Civil  Code,  117. 
Civil  Code  of  Louisiana,  118. 
Civil  Engineering,  447. 
Cival  Law,  99. 
Clair-Obscuro,  524. 
Clapperton,  179. 
Clarendon,  Earl  of,  265. 
Classes,  in  Botany,  387. 
Classes  in  Nat.  Hist.  374. 
Classic  Architecture,  445. 
Classic  Mythology,  132. 
Classification  of  Knowledge,  28. 
Classification  Explained,  32. 
Clavicula,  407. 
Clefs,  535. 

Clemens  Alexandrinus,  150. 
Clemens  Romanus,  149. 
Clement,  258. 
Cleopatra,  250. 
L  Cleopatra,  Captive,  300. 
!  Climates,  163. 


570 


INDEX. 


Climax,  72. 

Clinics,  418. 

Clinton,  De  Witt,275. 

Clinton,  Geo.,  273. 

Clocks,  479. 

Clothing,  93,  472. 

Clovis,  5^23. 

Club-foot,  428. 

Coal  Measures,  399. 

Cobalt,  371. 

Cobbe,  181. 

Cochin  China,  169. 

Cochin  Chinese  Language,  54. 

Cochrane,  Lord,  277. 

Cock-pit,  511. 

Cocoon,  382,  476. 

Code,  99. 

Code  of  Honor,  89. 

Code  Napoleon,  117. 

Codex,  116. 

Codrus,  207. 

Coffer  Dam,  449. 

Cog  Wheels,  440. 

Cohesion,  369. 

Coins,  198,  483. 

Colbert,  262. 

Colbertism,  122. 

Colic,  424. 

Coligny,  262. 

Collatinus,  252. 

Colloquy,  282. 

Cologne,  177. 

Colombia,  239. 

Colombiade,  299. 

Colonel,  499. 

Colonization  Society,  217. 

Color  of  Minerals,  392. 

Coloring,  Art  of,  525. 

Colors,  Water,  525. 

Columbus,  183. 

Column,  444. 

Combattant,  246. 

Comedy,  281. 

Comets,  353. 

Commerce,  17,  459,  480. 

Commercial  Law,  105,  109. 

Commissary  General,  492. 

Commodore,  512. 

Common  Law,  99. 

Common  Roads,  449. 

Compass  Needle,  365. 

Composing,  518. 

Composite  Order,  446. 

Composition,  80. 

Compound  Proportion,  79. 

Compound  Proposition,  79. 

Compounds  in  Chemistry,  368. 

Conception,  78. 

Conchology,  381. 

Concionero  General,  296. 

Conde  Lucanor,  297. 

Condi,  262. 

Condiments,  420. 

Conditions  of  Existence,  374. 

Condorcet,  264. 


Conductors,  364. 
Cone,  330. 
Confectionary,  471. 
Confederation  of  the  Rhine,  229. 
Confession  of  Augsburgh,  155. 
Confucius,  135,  215,  257. 
Conglomerate,  397. 
Congo,  182. 

Congregationalists,  156. 
Congress,  112. 
Congruity,  74. 
Conic  Sections,  333,  335. 
Conjugal  Duties,  89. 
Conjugate  Hyperbolas,  336. 
Conjunction,  47. 
Conquest  of  Kasan,  309. 
Conrad,  228. 
Conscience,  88. 
Consentes,  132. 
Consolato  del  Mare,  109. 
Constantine,  146,  209,  253. 
Constantinople,  172,  209. 
Constellations,  354. 
Constitutio  Carolina,  117. 
Constitution,  99,  111. 
Constitutions  of  Clarendon,!  10. 
Constitutional  Law,  110. 
Construction,  17. 
Consuls,  105,  208. 
Consumption,  422. 
Consumption  of  Wealth,  125. 
Continental  Congress,  111,  235. 
Continents,  165. 
Contraband  Articles,  108. 
Contract,  119. 
Contradictories,  79. 
Contraries,  79. 
Conundrum,  282. 
Conventional  Law,  98. 

bnvex  Surface,  331. 

bnveyance,  17. 
Conviction,  74. 
Cook,  184, 193. 

bokery,  469,  470. 
Coordinates,  335. 

bpenhagen,  177. 

opernicus,  272. 

opper,  371,  434. 

bpperas,  371. 

Copper  Plate  Engraving,  519. 
Coptic  Church,  153. 
Coptic  Language,  49. 
Copula,  78. 
Cordilleras  Mts.,  188. 
Cordova,  174. 
Corea,  169. 
Corinne,  301. 
Corinth,  173. 

Corinthian  Order,  443,  446. 
Coriolanus,  208,  252. 
Cork,  175. 

brnea,  361. 
Corneille,  263. 
Cornice,  444. 
Cornish  Language,  65. 


Corol,  385. 

Corona,  446. 

Coronet,  246. 

Corporation,  118. 

Correggio,  260. 

Corrosive  Sublimate,  417. 

Cortez,  184,261,276. 

Corvette,  510. 

Cosine,  334. 

Cosmology,  33,  36. 

Cotopaxi  Mt,  190. 

Cotton,  465,  482. 

Cotton  Manufacture,  474. 

Couchant,  246. 

Couching,  429. 

Council  of  Chalcedon,  147. 

Council  of  Constance,  219. 

Council  of  Nice,  147. 

Council  of  Trent,  153. 

Counsellor,.  103. 

Counterpoint,  532. 

Counterscarp,  494. 

Countervallation,  497. 

Course  of  Literature,  279. 

Courts  of  Justice,  103. 

Covenanters,  156. 

Covert- way,  494,  496. 

Cowper,  William,  266. 

Cow  pox,  422. 

Cranium,  406. 

Cranks,  440. 

Cranmer,  266. 

Crape,  476. 

Cream  of  Tartar,  371. 

Creative  Arts,  514. 

Credit,  482. 

Creosus,  206. 

Cressy,  223. 

Criminal  Law,  99. 

Criticism,  37,  70. 

Croatia,  177. 

Croatian  Language,  65. 

Cronstadt,  178. 

Cross  Lights,  524. 

Crown,  246. 

Crown,  (Coin,)  483. 

Crows,  509. 

Crusades,  219. 

Crustacea,  382. 

Crystal,  391. 

Crystalline  Lens,  361. 

Crystal  Mts.,  182. 

Crystallography,  390. 

Ctenoidians,  381 . 

Cuama,  182. 

Cufic  Characters,  52. 

Cuirass,  488. 

Cullen,  William,  267,  420. 

Culprit  Fay,  311. 

Cultivation  of  Vegetables,  464. 

Culverts,  450. 

Curricle,  480. 

Curried,  476. 

Curtain,  496. 

Customs,  125. 


INDEX. 


571 


Cutlery,  478. 
Cuvier,  264. 
Cycle,  22. 
Cyclic  Poets,  284. 
Cycloidal  Pendulum,  346. 
Cycloidians,  381. 
Cyclops,  132. 
Cylinder,  330. 
Cylinder,  Steam,  442. 
Cylindrical  Projection,  332. 
Cymatium,  445. 
Cymbals,  480. 
Cynic  School,  21. 
Cyrene,  180. 
Cyreniac  School,  21. 
Cyropaedia,  92,  285. 
Czar,  232. 


Dacia,  172. 

Dactyl,  48. 

Dactyls,  446. 

Dagur,  135. 

Dahomy,  181. 

Dalmatia,  177. 

Damascus,  167. 

Damask,  476. 

Dampier,  193. 

Dancing1,  540. 

Daniel,  249. 

Danish  Callography,  308. 

Danish  Language,  64. 

Dante,  259. 

Danton,  262. 

Dantzic,  177. 

Danube,  176,  177. 

Dardanus,  206. 

Darfur,  181. 

Darius,  205,  250. 

Dauphiny,  174. 

Davila,  259. 

David,  202,  249. 

Davis,  John,  184. 

Davis's  Quadrant,  455. 

Davy,  Sir  H.,  267,  364. 

Dead  Reckoning,  457. 

Dead  Points,  524. 

Dearborn,  480. 

Dease,  184. 

Death  of  Abel,  306. 

Deborah,  249. 

Debouching,  507. 

Decalogue,  140,  142. 

Decatur,  274. 

Decimal  Fractions,  320. 

Decimal  Notation,  315. 

Declaration  of  Independence. 

235. 

Declination,  354. 
Defence  of  Places,  497. 
Defendant,  121. 
Defiladed,  495. 
Defiles,  506. 
Definitions,  78. 
De  Kalb,  274. 


Delagoa  Bay,  182. 

Delaware  Language,  67. 

Delhi,  168. 

Del  Norte,  River,  188. 

Delphi,  173. 

Delphine,  301. 

Demetrius,  250. 

Demilune,  494,  496. 

Democracy,  101. 

Democritus,  252,  404. 

Demosthenes,  251. 

Demotic  Characters,  50. 

Demur,  121. 

Denham,  179. 

Denmark,  177,  230. 

Denominate  Numbers,  318. 

Dentals,  43. 

Dentils,  446. 

Dentist,  429. 

Dentifrice,  429. 

Dermis,  409. 

Derne,  180. 

De  Ruyter,  268. 

Derschawin,  272. 

Descartes,  83,  264,  322. 

Descriptive  Astronomy,  352. 

Descriptive  Botany,  388. 

Descriptive  Geology,  401. 

Descriptive  Geometry,  327,331 

Descriptive  Mineralogy,  393. 

Descriptive  Poetry,  280. 

Detachment,  506. 

Detritus,  400. 

Deucalion,  206. 

Dew  Point,  367. 

Dewtas,  134. 

Dexter  Chief,  244. 

Dha  Argiouzat,  290. 

Diacritical  Signs,  51. 

Diagnostics,  418. 

Diagonal,  329. 

Dialogue,  282. 

Diameter,  329. 

Diana,  133. 

Diaphoretics,  413. 

Diaphragm,  409. 

Diarrhoea,  422. 

Diaz,  Bartholomew,  179,  261. 

Diatonic  Scale,  532. 

Dice,  538,  540. 

Dicotyledonous  Plants,  388. 

Didactic  Composition,  74. 

Didactic  Poetry,  280. 

Dido,  205. 

Didone  Abbandonata,  295. 

Diega  Cam,  179. 

Diet,  93. 

Dietetics.  420. 

Diet,  German,  176. 

Differential  Calculus,  338. 

Digestion,  416. 

Dilemma,  80. 

Diluvial  Formations,  400. 

Dionysiacs,  284. 

Dioptrics,  356,  359. 


Dip,  in  Geology,  398. 

Dip,  (Magnetic,)  365. 

Diplomacy,  104. 

Discount,  321. 

Discours,  282. 

Dislocation,  427. 

Dispensatory,  412. 

Disquisition,  282. 

Distillation,  416. 

Distemper  Painting,  525. 

Distribution  of  Terms,  78. 

Distribution  of  Wealth,  123. 

District  Courts,  114. 

Ditch,  493. 

Dithyrambs,  283. 

Divan,  289. 

Divina  Commedia,  294. 

Divinity,  145. 

Divisibility,  343. 

Division,  318. 

Dnieper,  178. 

Dniester,  178. 

Docks,  451. 

Doctrines  of  Christianity,  150. 

Doctrines  of  the  Jews,  142. 

Doctrines  of  the  Mohamedans, 

138. 

Doddridge,  266. 
Dofrafield  Mts.,  178. 
Doge,  220. 
Dolce,  Carlo,  260. 
Dolphins,  489, 509. 
Domenichino,  260. 
Domestic  Animals,  465. 
Domestic  Duties,  89. 
Domestic  Economy,  469. 
Domiculture,  469. 
Dominic  de  Guzman,  154. 
Domnus,  258. 
Don,  178. 
Donjon,  494. 
Don  Quixotte,  297. 
Don,  Roderick,  221. 
Doria,  259. 
Doric  Dialect,  56. 
Doric  Order,  443,  445. 
Dormant,  246. 
Double  Entry,  484. 
Double  Speeder,  475. 
Doubloon,  483. 
Douro,  174. 
Dover's  Powder,  415. 
Drains,  449,  463. 
Dragoons,  499. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  192. 
Dramatic  Poetry,  281. 
Drawbridge,  493. 
Drawing,  523. 
Drawing  Frame,  475. 
Dredging,  451. 
Dresden,  176. 
Dress  Making,  476. 
Dronthiem,  178. 
Dropsy,  424. 
Druids,  136. 


572 


INDEX. 


Dry  den,  John,  266. 
Dublin,  175. 
Ducat,  483. 
Duns  Scotus,  22, 265. 
Duodecimo,  521. 
Dutch  Language,  64. 
Dutchman's  Fireside,  312. 
Dutch  School,  523. 
Duties,  125. 
Dwarfs,  136. 
Dwight,  T.,  275. 
Dwina,  178. 
Dyke,  in  Geology,  398. 
Dynamics,  345,  347. 
Dynamic  Theory,  343. 
Dysentery,  422. 
Dyspepsia,  423. 


Ear,  409. 

Earth,  353. 

Earthy  Materials,  435. 

Eastern  Africa,  182. 

Easter,  143. 

East  India  Company,  215. 

East  Main,  185. 

East  Persia,  168. 

Ebionites,  146. 

Ebro,  174. 

Ecclesiastical  History,  145. 

Ecclesiastical  Law,  99. 

Echelons,  508. 

Echinodermata,  383. 

Echinus,  445. 

Eclectic  School,  21. 

Eclipse,  353. 

Ecliptic,  354. 

Edda,  308. 

Edentata,  379. 

Edict  of  Nantes,  155. 

Edict  of  Worms,  154. 

Edinburgh,  175. 

Edrisi,  255. 

Education,  92. 

Edward,  225,  264,  265. 

Edwards,  John,  275. 

Egbert,  224,  264. 

Egypt,  179. 

Egyptian  Alphabet,  49. 

Egyptian  Mythology,  130. 

Elbe,  176. 

Eleatic  School,  20. 

Electricity,  362,  363. 

Electric  Machine,  364. 

Electrics,  364. 

Electrode,  365. 

Electro-Magnetism,  366. 

Elegiac  Poetry,  280. 

Elements,  Chemical,  368. 

Elenchtic  Theology,  152. 

Elenchus  in  Orbe,  80. 

Elijah,  249. 

Eliot,  275. 

Elisha,  249. 

Elisont,  130. 


Elixir  Vitffi,  367. 
Elizabeth,  225,  232. 
Ellipse,  336. 
Ellipsis,  47. 
Elmanicus,  255. 
Elocution,  70. 
Elsinore,  177. 
Elysium,  132. 
Embargo,  107. 
Embraceny,  120. 
Embrasures,  495. 
Emetics,  413. 
Emissive  Theory,  356. 
Emmett,  T.  A.,  275. 
Emphasis,  44. 
Empire  of  Japan,  170. 
Enamel,  429. 
Encampment,  506. 
Encaustic  Painting,  522. 
Encyclopaedias,  26. 
Engineer,  447. 
Engineering,  493. 
English  Language,  62. 
Engraving,  517. 
Enigma,  282. 
Enoch,  248. 
Enos,  248. 
Entablature,  444. 
Enthymeme,  80. 
Entomology,  382. 
Entozoa,  383. 
Enunciation,  76. 
Envoys  Extraordinary,  104. 
Epea  Pteroenta,  43. 
Ephesiaca,  285. 
Epichirema,  80. 
Epic  Poetry,  280. 
Epicurean  Sect,  21. 
Epigtea,  393. 
Epiglottis,  411. 
Epigram,  281. 
Epigraphies,  198. 
Epilepsy,  424. 
Epilogue,  281. 
Epirus,  173. 
Epischeses,  424. 
Episcopalians,  156. 
Epitaphs,  280. 
Epopeia,  280. 
Epsom  Salts,  371,  415. 
Equador,  190,  239. 
Equation,  324. 
Equinoctial  Points,  354. 
Equilateral  Triangle,  328. 
Equilibrium  of  Fluids,  346. 
Equity,  99. 
Equipments,  491. 
Equivalents,  369. 
Equivocation,  80. 
Erasmus,  268. 
Eratosthenes,  161. 
Erethismi,  423. 
Eric,  231. 
Ermine,  245. 
Eruptive  Diseases,  422. 


Erythrseum  Mare,  167. 

Erz  Mountains,  176. 

Escarpment,  398. 

Escovar,  179. 

Escutcheon,  244. 

Esquimaux  Indians,  185,  233, 

Esquimaux  Language,  66. 

Essay,  282. 

Essenes,  144. 

Estate,  119. 

Este,  258. 

Estotiland,  183. 

Etching,  519. 

Ethelbald,  26'*. 

Ether,  414. 

Ethics,  87. 

Ethiopia,  178,  182. 

Ethnology,  32,  159. 

Etiology,  418. 

Etna,  173. 

Etymology,  44. 

Eucharist,  150. 

Euclassic  Biography,  248. 

Euclassic  Chronography,  201. 

Euclassic  Callography,  283. 

Euclid,  21,  252. 

Euclid's  Elements,  327. 

Eudoxus,  327. 

Euler,  270. 

Eulogy,  243. 

Euripides,  251. 

Europe,  171. 

European  Biography,  257. 

European  Callography,  293. 

European  Chronography,  217. 

European  Geography,  171. 

European  Languages,  55. 

Eusebius,  146,  150. 

Eustachius,  405. 

Eutogsea,  393. 

Evangelical  Union,  228. 

Evection,  355. 

Evelina,  305. 

Evidence,  81. 

Evidences  of  Christianity,  150. 

Evolution,  321. 

Evolutions  of  the  Line,  501 . 

Exanthemata,  422. 

Exchange  of  Wealth,  124. 

Excise,  125. 

Excitation,  75. 

Executive  Power,  113. 

Executors,  119. 

Exercise,  93. 

Exhortation,  75. 

Exordium,  75. 

Expedition  of  Igor,  309. 

Explication,  75. 

Explosion   of   Steam   Boilers, 

454. 

Extension,  343. 
Extensors,  408. 
Extreme  Unction,  153. 
Ezekiel,  249. 
Ezra,  141,  249. 


INDEX. 


573 


Faber,  129. 

Fabius,  252. 

Fables,  282. 

Fabricius,  252. 

Facade,  444. 

Fahrenheit,  270,  362. 

Fairies,  136. 

Fairweather,  Mount,  185. 

Fairy  Queen,  301. 

Fallacy,  80. 

Farce,  281. 

Farming1,  461. 

Farriery,  465. 

Fates,  133. 

Fault  in  Mines,  398,  435. 

Faunae,  376. 

Faust,  307. 

Febres,  421. 

Febrile  Diseases,  421. 

Feeders,  450. 

Fellatahs,  181. 

Fellenberg,  92. 

Fellowship,  321. 

Felting,  476. 

Fencing-,  539. 

Fencing-  Land,  463. 

Ferdinand  of  Germany,  269. 

Ferdinand  of  Spain,  221,  228. 

Ferdusi,  256. 

Fertilizing  the  Soil,  464. 

Fess,  244,  245. 

Feudal  Laws,  117. 

Feudal  System,  110. 

Fevers,  421. 

Fez,  180,  211. 

Fezzan,  180. 

Fibrin,  372. 

Fibula,  407. 

Fiefs,  117. 

Field  Fortifications,  494. 

Field  Sports,  538. 

Figures  of  Speech,  72. 

Figure  of  a  Syllogism,  79. 

Filial  Duties,  89. 

Fine  Arts,  17,514. 

Fingal  and  Temora,  302. 

Finland,  178. 

Fire  Arms,  489. 

Fisher,  A.  M.,  279. 

Fishing,  539. 

Flag  Ship,  512. 

Flanders,  175. 

Flanks,  496. 

Flasque,  245. 

Fleet,  508. 

Flemish  School,  523. 

Fleury,  262. 

Flexors,  408. 

Florence,  173. 

Florentine  School,  522. 

Florida,  237. 

Floridian  Language,  67. 

Florin,  483. 

Flower  Garden,  468. 

Fluid,  342. 


Fluorine,  370. 

Flute,  479. 

Flux,  392. 

Fluxions,  315,  337. 

Fly  Leaves,  520. 

Fohi,  215. 

Foils,  539.- 

Folio,  521. 

Fontaine,  263. 

Fontenelle,  263. 

Fontenoy,  223. 

Foremast,  453. 

Foresters,  312. 

Foreshortening,  524. 

Forging,  435. 

Formation,  in  Geology,  398. 

Form  of  plants,  385. 

Form,  (in  Printing,)  518. 

Formosa,  169. 

Fort,  493. 

Fortification,  493. 

Fossil,  389. 

Foundations,  444. 

Fountain,  467. 

Fractions,  319. 

Fracture,  427. 

France,  174. 

Francia,  Dr.,  241. 

Francis,  229,  262,  269. 

Franconian  dialect,  63. 

Frankfort,  177. 

Frankish  Empire,  227. 

Franklin,  Benjamin,  273,  362. 

Franklin,  Sir  John,  184. 

Franks,  223. 

Fraternal  Duties,  89. 

Frederick  Barbarossa,  228. 

Frederick  of  Denmark,  271. 

Frederic,  VI.,  230. 

Frederick  the  Great,  269. 

Frederick  William,  230. 

Frederickton,  186. 

Freetown,  181. 

French  and  Indian  Wars,  235. 

French  Callography,  298. 

French  Language,  60. 

French  Revolution,  224. 

Freres  Ennemis,  300. 

Fresco,  525. 

Friction,  347. 

Friendly  Islands,  195. 

Friendship,  90. 

Frieze,  444. 

Frigate,  510. 

Frisii,  176. 

Frobisher,  184. 

Fructification,  385. 

Fulton,  R.,  276. 

Furies,  133. 

Furnaces,  435. 

Furneaux,  193. 

Furniture,  477. 

Fuses,  491. 

Fusils,  246. 

Futtocks,  453. 

73 


Gaelic  Language,  64. 

Galaxy,  354. 

Galen,  252,  405,  419. 

Galicia,  177. 

Galilee,  1 67. 

Galileo,  259,  352. 

Galinea,  394. 

Gall,  83. 

Galley,  518. 

Galleys,  508. 

Gallia  Cisalpina,  173. 

Gallinaceje,  379. 

Gallon,  484. 

Galvanism,  364. 

Galvanometer,  366. 

Games  of  Chance  and  Skill,  540. 

Ganges,  168. 

Ganglia,  408. 

Ganoidians,  381. 

ranuputyus,  134. 

aronne,  174. 

arrison,  493. 

assendi,  264. 

ases,  349. 
Gasteropoda,  381. 
Gaston  de  Foix,  262. 
Gastrology,  285. 
Gates,  Horatio,  274. 
"auls,  174. 

auze,  475. 
Gay  a  Ciencia,  296 
Gazelle,  289. 
Jaznarides,  213. 
Jeber,  255. 
Gehenna,  139. 
Jelatin,  372. 
Jemara,  144. 
Gems,  478. 

enealogy,  243. 

enera,  374,  388. 

eneral,  Anatomy,  406. 
Geneva,  176. 

Genghis  Khan,  212,214,  216. 
Genii,  138. 
Genius,  73. 

Genlis,  Madame  de,  264. 
Genoa,  173,  220. 
Genseric,  209. 
Geognosy,  395. 
Geography,  18,  34,  160. 
Geography,  Asiatic,  165. 
~  eography,  European,  171. 

eography,  African,  178. 
Geography,  American,  183. 
•Jeography,  Oceanic,  192. 
Geology,  395. 

Geometrical  Progression,  321. 
Geometrical  Proportion,  320. 
Geometry,  327. 
George  of  England,  226,  265. 
Georgia,  171. 
xeorgics,  287. 
Geotactios,  498. 
German  Alphabet,  63. 
German  Callography,  306. 


574 


INDEX. 


German  Language,  63. 

German  School,  523.          [229. 

Germanic  Confederation,  176, 

Germany,  176,  227. 

Gerry,  Elbridge,  275. 

Gertrude  of  Wyoming,  303. 

Gesner,  375. 

Gesticulation,  76. 

Ghent,  Peace  of,  237. 

Ghibelines,  220. 

Ghiznec,  168. 

Gibbon,  Edward,  266. 

Gideon,  249. 

Gilanes,  179. 

Gilbert,  Dr.  362, 

Gil  Bias,  301. 

Gilding,  479. 

Gin,  472. 

Giorgione,  260. 

Giron  il  Cortese,  295. 

Glacis,  497. 

Gladiators,  537. 

Glasgow,  175. 

Glass,  371,  478. 

Glauber's  Salts,  371, 

Glossology,  33,  40. 

Glottis,  411. 

Glyphography,  530, 

Gneiss,  397. 

Gnomic  Poetry,  284. 

Gnostics,  146. 

Goa,  169. 

Godfrey,  of  Bouillon,  262. 

Godfrey,  T.,  276. 

Godfrey's  Quadrant,  455. 

Goethe,  270. 

Gold,  371. 

Golden  Bull,  110. 

Golden  Number,  200. 

Gondar,  181. 

Goniometer,  391. 

Gonneville,  192. 

Gonsalvo,  260. 

Gonzago,  240. 

Gorgons,  133. 

Gormo,  230. 

Gothic  Languages,  62. 

Gothic  Style  of  Architecture 

443,  447. 
Gottenberg,  178. 
Gottsched,  270. 
Gout,  422. 
Governors,  115. 
Governor  in  Machinery,  442. 
Gracchus,  253. 
Gracefulness,  74. 
Graces,  133. 
Grafting,  468. 
Grains,  465. 
GrallatoriEe,  379. 
Grammar,  17. 
Grammar,  Classified,  43. 
Grammar,  General,  42. 
Grandeur  de  Dieu,  299. 
Grandison,  Sir  C.,  305. 


Grand  Jury,  103. 
Grand  Tactics,  503. 
Grand  Year,  351. 
Granite,  397,  436. 
Granulation,  428, 
Graperies,  468. 
Grape  Shot,  491,      <    . 
Graphology,  43. 
Grasses,  465. 
Gratitude,  90. 
Graver,  519. 
[Gravitation,  343, 
Gravity,  348. 
Graywacke,  397. 
Great  Britain,  175. 
Great  Valley,  401. 
Grecian  Biography,  250. 
Grecian  Callography,  283, 
"reece,  172,  206. 

reek  Alphabet,  56. 
Greek  Catholic  Church,  153. 

reek  Language,  55. 

reene,  Nath.r  274. 

reen-houses,  467.. 
Greenland,  184. 
Gregorian  Calendar,  200. 
egory,  150,  258. 

renade,  491. 

rotius,  268. 

rounds  of  Judgment,  81. 
Guardant,  246. 
Guards,  506. 
Guatimala,  188,  238. 
Guatimozinr  237. 
Guebres,  131. 
Guelfs,  220=. 
Guerieke,  270. 
Guesclin,  262. 
Guiana,  190,239. 
Guicciardini,  259. 
Guido  Reni,  260. 
Guinea,  (coin,)  483. 
Guinea,  181. 
Guinea  Dialects,  67. 
Guise,  Henry  of,  262. 
Gules,  245. 
Gulistan,  291. 
Gun-deck,  510. 
Gunners,  501. 
Gunpowder,  488,  490. 
Gustavus  Vasa,  231,  271. 
Gutturals,  43. 
Gymnasium,  536, 
Gymnastics,  536, 539. 
Gypsum,  435. 

Hacon,  231. 
Hades,  132. 
Hoematica,  421. 
Haemorrhagice,  423. 
Hafiz,  256. 
Hagedorn,  270. 
Hagiographa,  141. 
Hague,  176. 
Hail  Columbia,  310. 


lainan,  169. 
Hales,  Alex.,  265. 
Hales,  Dr.,  199. 
Hale,  Sir  Matthew,  265. 
Halifax,  186. 
Halinea,  394. 
Haller,  268. 
Halo,  360. 

lalyards,  454. 

lamasah,  289. 

lamburg,  177. 
Hamilcar,  206. 

Hamilton,  Alex.,  274. 

Hancock,  John,  273. 
Handel,  271. 
Hannibal,  206. 

Hanno,  161. 

Hanover,  176. 

Hanseatic  League,  481. 

Hapsburg,  229. 

Harbor  Improvements,  450, 
Hardness  of  Minerals,  399. 

Hardware,  478. 

Harmattan,  164. 

Harmony,  533. 

Haroon  al  Rasheed,  213,  255. 

Harp,  479. 

Harquebuss,  489. 

Harriot,  322. 

Harrison,  W.  H.,  275. 

Hartag,  Dirk,  192. 

Hartshorn,  371. 

Harz  Mts.,  176. 

Harvard,  J.,  275. 

Harvey,  405. 

Hastati,  504. 

Hastings,  225. 

Hatchway,  453. 

Hats,  476. 

Hauberk. 

Hauy,  264,  390. 

Havana,  188. 

Hayden,  271. 

Hayti,  188,  238. 

Header,  436. 

Hearne,  184. 

Hebe,  133. 

Heber,  Reginald,  266. 

Hebrew  Alphabet,  51. 

Hebrew  Language,  50. 

Hebron,  205. 

Hegira,137. 

Helmet,  246,  488. 

Helminthology,  382. 

Helvetic  Republic,  227. 

Hengist,  224. 

Henry  of  England,  225,  265. 

Henry  of  France,  262. 

Henry,  Patrick,  273. 

Heoo-oo-tay,  216. 

Heptarchy,  224. 

Heraclidse,  206. 

Heraclitus,  252. 

Heraldry,  243. 

Hermann  and  Dorothea,  306. 


INDEX. 


575 


Hermes,  26,  43. 
Hermetic  Art,  367. 
Hernhuters,  158. 
Herodotus,  Ifil,  203,  251. 
Hcrophilus,  405,  418. 
Herpetology,  379. 
Herschell,  267. 
Hervas,  41. 
Hesiod,  251. 
Hesse  Cassel,  177. 
Hesse  Darmstadt,  177. 
Hezekiah,  202,  249. 
Hibernia,  175. 
Hicksites,  158. 
Hieratic  Characters,  50. 
Hieroglyphics,  49. 
Hillel,  249. 
Himmaleh  Mts.,  1 68. 
Hindoo  Architecture,  445. 
Hindoo  Biography,  256. 
Hindoo  Callography,  291. 
Hindoo  Mythology,  133. 
Hindoostan,  168,  214. 
Hindostanee  Language,  53. 
Hippocrates,    252,    327,    403, 

404,  418. 
Hispania,  173. 
Hispaniola,  History  of,  238. 
History,  18, 196. 
History  Ancient,  201. 
History  Oriental,  211. 
History  European,  217. 
History  American,  233. 
Histriones,  287. 
Hitopadesa,  292. 
Hoang-Ho,  169. 
Hobart,  275. 
Hobbes,  83. 

Hogarth,  William,  267. 
Hohern  Zollern,  230. 
Holbein,  268, 
Hold,  510. 
Holland,  176. 
Holstein,  177. 
Holy  rood,  447. 
Homer,  251. 
Homoeopathy,  420. 
Honorius,  209. 
Hopital,  262. 
Hopkinson,  T.,  275. 
Hoplistics,  487. 
Hoplitai,  504. 
Horace,  254. 
Horeb,  167. 

Horizontal  Projection,  331. 
Horology,  479. 
Horses,  465. 
Horse-power,  442. 
Hortensius,  253. 
Horticulture,  466. 
Horus,  131. 
Hosack,  Dr.  276. 
Hosea,  249. 
Hot-houses,  467. 
Hottentot  Language,  68. 


Hottentots,  182. 
Houris,  139. 

House-keeping,  469,  470. 
House  of  Commons,  111. 
Howitzer,  489. 
Hudson,  Henry,  184. 
Hudson's  Bay  Company,  234. 
Hugh  Capet,  223,  262. 
Huguenots,  155. 
Hulakoo  Khan,  213. 
Hull  of  a  Vessel,  453. 
Humboldt,  270. 
Hume,  83,  266. 
Hungary,  177. 
Hunter,  John,  267. 
Husbandry,  461. 
Huss,  154,  269. 
Hutchinson,  273. 
Hutton,  267. 
Huygens,  268. 
Hyalinea,  394. 
Hyc-sos,  203. 
Hyder  Ali,  215. 
Hydrics,  345,  348. 
Hydrogen,  369. 
Hydrophobia,  424. 
Hydrostatics,  348. 
Hygienics,  420. 
Hygrometer,  367. 
Hylurgy,  433. 
Hyperbola,  336. 
Hyperbole,  72. 
Hypochondriasis,  423. 
Hypogsea,  393. 
Hypothenuse,  328. 
Hypothetical  propositions,  78. 
Hysterics,  424. 

Iambus,  48. 

Icelandic  Language,  64. 

Iceland  Moss,  416. 

Ichthyology,  380, 

Idea,  78. 

Ideas,  82. 

Idiographic  Mineralogy,  391. 

Idiophysics,  34,  373. 

Idyl,  280. 

[gnatius,  149. 

Iliad,  284. 

Ilion,  206. 

Illyria,  177. 

Qlyrian  Language,  65, 

[llyricum,  172. 

[inagination,  86. 

[mitation,  74. 

[mitative  Arts,  514. 

[mperial  Canal,  169. 

Imprisonment,  120. 

[nd- American  Mythology,  136. 

Independents,  156. 

Independent  Tartary,  170. 

Index  Rerum,  13. 

Indians,  233. 

Indian  Wars,  235. 

Indiction,  200. 


Indies,  168. 

Indra,  134. 

Induction,  77,  81. 

Induction  Electric,  364. 

Inertia,  343. 

Inez  de  Castro,  298. 

Infallibility  of  the  Church,  153. 

Infant  Schools,  97. 

Infante,  222. 

Infantry,  499. 

Infantry  Tactics,  499. 

Inferior  Planets,  353. 

Infernal  Judges,  133. 

Inflammations,  421. 

Information,  74. 

Infusoria,  383. 

Innocent,  Pope,  258. 

Inoculation,  419. 

Inquisition,  154,  219. 

Insecta,  376,  382. 

Inspector  General,  505. 

Institutes,  116. 

Institutes  of  Medicine,  418. 

Insurance,  321. 

Intaglio,  527. 

Integral  Calculus,  340. 

Interest,  321. 

Internal  Fires,  4QO. 

International  Law,  105. 

Interrogation,  73. 

Interval,  533. 

Intrenchments,  494. 

Involution,  321. 

Iodine,  370. 

Ionian  Islands,  173. 

Ionic  Dialect,  56. 

Ionic  Order,  443,  446. 

Ionic  School,  20. 

Ipecacuanha,  414. 

Iphigenia,  307. 

Ireland,  175,  226. 

Irenaeus,  150. 

Iris,  361. 

Irish  Language,  65. 

Iron,  371. 

[rony,  72. 

troquois  Language,  66. 

[rawaddy,  169. 

Irritability,  403. 

Isaac,  140,  248. 

Isaiah,  249. 

Ishmael,  140. 

Isis,  1 30. 

Islam,  137. 

Ismail  Sophi,  213. 

Isocrates,  251. 

Isosceles  triangle,  328. 

Isoporrika,  346. 

Ispahan,  168. 

tsrael,  140. 

tsthmus  of  Suez,  178. 

ttalia  Liberata,  294. 

kalian  Biography,  258. 

kalian  Calligraphy,  294. 

Italian  Language,  58. 


576 


INDEX. 


Italia  Propria,  173. 

Jury,  .103. 

Lapland,  178. 

Italian  Republics,  220. 

ustice,  90. 

La  Plata,  191,240. 

Italic  School,  20. 

Justin  Martyr,U50. 

Larboard  Tack,  511. 

Italy,  173,  220. 

Justinian,  209,  254. 

Larceny,  120. 

Iturbide,  Augustin,  237. 

Jutland,  177. 

Lartius,  252. 

Ivanhoe,  305. 

fuvenal,  254. 

Larvse,  382. 

Larynx,  411. 

Jacob,  140,  240. 

Kali-Yug,  134,  199. 

Las  Partidas,  59. 

Jagellonida,  309. 

Kant,  83,  269. 

Lassa,  170. 

Jainas,  135. 

Karaites,  144. 

Latent  Caloric,  363. 

Jamaica,  188,  238. 

Keel,  453. 

Lateran  Council,  154. 

James  the  Greater,  145. 

keelson,  453. 

Latimer,  Hugh,  266. 

James  the  Less,  145. 

keepers,  365. 

Latin  Language,  57. 

James  of  England,  225,  265. 

ienmoo,  181. 

Latitude,  354,  458. 

James  of  Scotland,  226. 

Kenneth  Mac  Alpine,  226. 

Lattakoo,  182. 

Jamy,  256. 

Kepler,  270,  352. 

Laudanum,  415. 

Janizaries,  213. 

Kerat,  168. 

Lavalle,  Gen.,  278. 

Janus,  133. 

£errum  Khan,  214. 

Lavata,  268. 

Japanese  Language,  54. 
Jatas,  135. 

Khadijah,  137. 
Khaled,  255. 

Lavoisier,  264. 
Law,  98,  141. 

Jaundice,  424. 

EGiorasan,  213. 

Lawn,  474. 

Java,  192,  217. 

Kiang  Ku,  169. 

Lawrence,  James,  274. 

Javelin,  488. 

Kidneys,  411. 

Laws  of  Combination,  368. 

Jay,  John,  273. 

Kingdoms  of  Nature,  373. 

Laws  of  Crimes,  120. 

Jeddo,  170. 

Kingston,  186. 

Laws  of  Nations,  106,  107. 

Jefferson,  Thomas,  273. 

Kircher,  270. 

Laws  of  Oleron,  109. 

Jehan  Ghire,  257. 

Kitchen  Gardening,  468. 

Laws  of  Persons,  118. 

Jehosaphat,  249. 

Klopstock,  270. 

Laws  of  Procedure,  120. 

Jehu,  249. 
Jephthah,  249. 

Knees  of  Ships,  453. 
Knights  of  the  Round  Table, 

Laws  of  Property,  119. 
Lay  of  the  Last  Minstrel,  304, 

Jephthah's  Daughter,  311. 

298. 

Lazarilla  de  Tormes,  297. 

Jeroboam,  202,  249. 

Knistenaux,  185. 

Lead,  371,435. 

Jerome,  150,  269. 

Knots,  457. 

Leaden  Tablets,  516. 

Jerusalem,  167,209. 

Knowledge,  19. 

League  of  Smalcalden,  155. 

Jerusalem,  Delivered,  294. 

Korner,  270. 

Leather,  476. 

Jessieu,  264. 

Koran,  137. 

Leaves  of  Plants,  385. 

Jesuits,  154,219. 

Kosciusko,  232,  272. 

Lebbeus,  146. 

Jetteaux,  467. 

Krusenstern,  272. 

Le  Brut,  298. 

Jetties,  451. 

Kublay  Khan,  216. 

Ledger,  484. 

Jewish  Biography,  248. 

Lee,  R.  H.,  273. 

Jewish  Scriptures,  141. 

Labials,  43. 

Legato,  534. 

Jews,  140. 

Labrador,  185. 

Leger  Lines,  534. 

John,  Apostle,  1  46. 

Lace,  474. 

Leghorn,  173. 

John  of  England,  225,  265. 

Lacedsemon,  173. 

Legion,  498. 

John  of  Poland,  272. 
John,  Pope,  258. 

Lactantius,  150. 
Lacteals,  410. 

Legislative  Power,  102,  112. 
Legislatures,  115. 

Johnson,  273. 

Ladislaus,  232. 

Lehman,  395. 

Joinery,  437. 

La  Fayette,  263. 

Leibnitz,  270,  337. 

Jones,  John  Paul,  274. 

Lagrange,  264. 

Leila  and  Meinoun,  291. 

Jonson,  Ben,  266. 

Lahore,  169. 

Lemberg,  177. 

Joseph,  140,  248. 

Lamaism,  135. 

Lenses,  359. 

Josephus,  249. 

Lamartine,  264. 

Leo  I.,  258. 

Joshua,  141,  248. 

Lamech,  248. 

Leo  III.,  218. 

Josiah,  249. 

Lancaster,  Mr.,  93. 

Leopold,  227,  269, 

Jubilee  Year,  143. 

Lander,  John,  179. 

Leonides,207. 

Judaism,  140. 

Land  Tax,  125. 

Leon,  Louis  de,  261. 

Judas  Iscariot,  146. 

Landscape  Gardening,  467. 

Leon,  Ponce  de,  184. 

Judgment,  78. 

Language,  40. 

Leprosy,  424. 

Judges,  103,  113. 

Language,  Universal,  42. 

Lessing,  270. 

Judicial  Power,  1  1  3. 

Languages,  17. 

Letters,  282. 

Julian  Calendar,  200. 

Languedoc,  174. 

Leuwenhoek,  268. 

Julian  Period,  200. 

Langue  d'Oc,  60. 

Levant,  167. 

Jupiter,  132. 

Langue  d'Oui,  60. 

Lewis  of  France,  262. 

Jurisdiction,  104. 

La  Peyrouse,  263. 

Lexicology,  44. 

Jurisprudence,  17,  98. 

Laplace,  264. 

Lexington,  235. 

INDEX. 


577 


Leyden  Jar,  364. 
Lias,  399. 
Liberia,  181. 
Libraries,  23. 
Libya,  180. 
Libyan  Desert,  180. 
Lichtenfels,  185. 
Lieoo-pang,  216. 
Light,  356. 
Lights,  524. 
Lima,  190. 
Limber,  490. 
Lime,  436. 

Line  in  Geometry,  328. 
Linen  Manufacture,  474. 
Lines  of  Operation,  506. 
Linguistics,  40. 
Liniers,  240,  278. 
Linnseus,  271,  375,  384. 
Linwoods,  312. 
Lisbon,  174. 
Lister,  375. 
Literature,  24. 
Lithography,  517,  520. 
Liturgy,  156. 
Liver,  411. 
Liverpool,  175. 
Livingston,  273. 
Livy,  253. 
Loadstone,  365. 
Loango,  182. 
Lobelia,  414. 
Locke,  83. 
Locks,  448,  450. 
Locomotive  Engine,  450. 
Log,  457. 

Logarithms,  323,  326. 
Logic,  77. 
Log  Line,  455. 
Loke,  136. 

Lombardo-Venetia,  220. 
Lombards,  220. 
Lombard  School,  523. 
Lombardy,  173,  177. 
London,  175. 
Longimetry,  328. 
Longinus,  252. 
Longitude,  354,  458. 
Longomontanes,  271. 
Looms,  474. 
Lophobranchi,  381. 
Lorenz  Stark,  307. 
Lorraine,  Claude,  264. 
Lothaire,  228. 
Louis  IX.,  223. 
Louisburg,  234. 
Louis  d'Or,  483. 
Louisiana,  236. 
Lower  Guinea,  182. 
Lozenges,  246. 
Lubec,  177. 
Lucca,  173. 

Lucque,  Hernandez,  154. 
Lucretius,  254. 
Lugdunensis,  174. 


Luke,  146. 

Lunar  Caustic,  371,415. 

Lunation,  353. 

Lungs,  410. 

Lusiad,  297. 

Lusitania,  174. 

Lustre  of  Minerals,  392. 

Lutherans,  155. 

Luther,  Martin,  154,  269. 

Luxemberg,  175. 

Lycurgus,  207. 

Lydia,  206. 

Lyell,  396. 

Lymph,  410. 

Lyons,  174. 

Lyre,  479. 

Lyric  Poetry,  280. 

Lyrical  Ballads,  302. 

Lysander,  207,  251. 

Lysias,  251. 

Maccabees,  203. 
Macedonia,  207. 
Maceration,  416. 
Machetechnics,  34,  485. 
Machiavelli,  259. 
Machichoulis,  494. 
Machine,  438. 
Machinery,  438. 
Machine  Paper,  520. 
Mackenzie,  184. 
Mackenzie's  River,  185. 
Mackintosh,  266. 
Madagascar,  179,  183. 
Madarias,  183. 
Madison,  274. 
Madras,  168. 
Madrid,  174. 
Madrigal,  281. 
Maelstrom,  178. 
Maese,  176. 

Magadhi  Language,  53. 
Magadoxa,  183. 
Magazine,  510. 
Magdalena,  190. 
Magellan,  189,  192,261. 
Magic  Lantern,  361. 
Magna  Charta,  110. 
Magna  Groecia,  173. 
Magnesium,  370. 
Magnet,  362. 
Magnetism,  365. 
Mahmoud,  214. 
Mainmast,  453. 
Main  Spring,  479. 
Mahabharat,  214. 
Maize,  465. 
Malacca,  169. 
Malacology,  381. 
Malacoptenygii,  380. 
Malay  Language,  53,  68. 
Malaysia,  193. 
Malek  Shah,  213. 
Malte  Brun,  269. 
Mamelukes,  211. 


Mammalia,  376. 
Management  of  a  Discourse, 

T5« 

Manchester,  175. 
Manco  Capac,  239. 
Mandeville,  166. 
Mandingo  Language,  67. 
Mandingoes,  181. 
Manetho,  203,  250. 
Manganese,  371. 
Manks  Language,  65. 
Manheim,  176. 
Manoeuvres  of  Fleets,  512. 
Manslaughter,  120. 
Mantchoo,  216. 
Mantchooria,  170. 
Manual,  501. 
Manual  Exercise,  500. 
Manual  Labor  System,  97. 
Manufactures,  17,  459. 
Manure,  464. 
Marat,  262. 
Marathon,  207. 
Maravis,  182. 
Marcellus,  252. 
Marches,  506. 
Marco  Bozarris,  258. 
Mariana,  161. 
Marine  Deities,  133. 
Marine  Insurance,  109. 
Mariner's  Compass,  362. 
Marine  Telegraph,  521. 
Maritime  Law,  105,  108. 
Marius,  208,  253. 
Mark,  146. 
Maria  Theresa,  229. 
Marion,  Francis,  274. 
Margaret,  230. 
Marlborough,  Duke  of,  265. 
Marriage  of  Figaro,  300. 
Mars,  132. 
Marseilles,  174. 
Marsha],  103,  244. 
Marshall,  John,  273. 
Marshalling  of  Arms,  246. 
Marsupiala,  378. 
Martel,  Charles,  223. 
Martial  Law,  99,  115. 
Martial,  254. 

Martyrs,  Chateaubriand's,  299. 
Mary  of  England,  265. 
Maseles,  246. 
Masonry,  436. 
Masora,  141. 
Massaniello,  308. 
Massilon,  263. 
Mast,  453. 
Mastersingers,  307. 
Mastodon,  399. 
Matchlock,  489. 
Mathematical  Geography,  161. 
Mathematics,  16,  34,  314. 
Mather,  Cotton,  275. 
Matter,  342. 
Matthew,  146. 


578 


INDEX. 


Matthias,  228. 
Mauritius,  183. 
Mausolus,  206. 
Mavrocordato,  258. 
Maximilian,  228,  269. 
Maypu,  240. 
Mayer,  270. 
Mazology,  378. 
Mazarin,  262. 
Measles,  422. 
Measure,  in  Music,  534. 
Measure  of  Planes,  329. 
Mecca,  167. 
Mechanical  Arts,  432. 
Mechanical  Powers,  347. 
Mechanics,  345. 
Mecklenburg,  Schwerin,  177. 
Medals,  198. 

Medical  Jurisprudence,  404. 
Medici,  259. 

Medicine,  16,  402,  412,  418. 
Medina,  167. 
Medulla  Oblongata,  408. 
Megaric  School,  21. 
Megatherium,  399. 
Meghaduta,  292. 
Mehemet  Ali,  211. 
Melancthon,  155,  269. 
Mela,  Pomponius,  161. 
Melinda,  183. 
Melodrama,  281. 
Melody,  533. 
Memoirs,  243. 
Memory,  86. 
Memnon,  203. 
Memphis,  179. 
Mendana,  184, 193. 
Mendoza,  240,  261,  278. 
Menezis,  192. 
Mennonites,  157. 
Menou,  133. 
Mental  Philosophy,  82. 
Mental  Sciences,  17. 
Mercantile  Law,  99. 
Mercantile  Rules,  321. 
Mercantile  System,  122. 
Mercator,  268. 
Mercator's  Sailing,  457. 
Mercury,  132. 
Merovingian  Dynasty,  223. 
Mesopotamia,  166. 
Mesra,  138. 
Messenia,  172. 
Messiad,  306. 
Messiah,  144. 
Messiah,  Pope's,  302. 
Metalepsis,  73. 
Metallic  Chemistry,  370. 
Metallic  Materials,  434. 
Metallifactures,  478. 
Metallinea,  394. 
Metallurgy,  433,  435. 
Metamorphic  Rocks,  398. 
Metamorphoses,  287;    of  In- 
sects,  382. 


Metaphor,  72. 

Metaphysics,  36,  82. 

Metastasio,  259. 

Meteorology,  366. 

Metellus,  253. 

Methodists,  157. 

Method  of  Indivisibles,  337. 

Methuselah,  248. 

Meton,  252,  351. 

Metonic  Cycle,  200. 

Metonymy,  73. 

Metopes,  445. 

Metromanie,  300. 

Metternich,  269. 

Mexican  Languages,  67. 

Mexico,  188,  237. 

Mezzotinto  Engraving,  520. 

Miaco,  170. 

Mica  Slate,  397. 

Middle  Lat.  Sailing,  457.      . 

Middle  Tints,  524. 

Midshipmen,  511. 

Michael  Angelo,  260. 

Michaux,  384. 

Microcosm,  402. 

Microscope,  357. 

Midas,  206. 

Mieczyslas,  231. 

Milan,  220. 

Mills,  439. 

Miltiades,  251. 

Milton,  266. 

Mina,  260,  277. 

Minaret,  445. 

Mineral,  389. 

Mineralogy,  389. 

Minerva,  132. 

Mines,  494. 

Miniature,  522. 

Mining,  435. 

Ministers,  104. 

Minnesingers,  306. 

Minstrels,  242. 

Miranda,  Gen.,  239,  277. 

Miracles,  151. 

Mishna,  144. 

Missolonghi,  173. 

Missions,  148. 

Mississippi,  186. 

Missouri,  186. 

Mitchell,  S.  L.,  276. 

Mithras,  131. 

Mithridates,  41. 

Mitre,  143,  246. 

Mixed  Mathematics,  314,  342. 

Mizenmast,  453. 

Mizraim,  203. 

Mnemonics,  37. 

Moallacat,  289. 

Modal  Propositions,  78. 

Modelling,  528. 

Modena,  173. 

Moeris,  203. 

Moesia,  172. 

Mohamed,  137,  210. 


Mohamedanism,  137. 

Mohs,270. 

Moliere,  263. 

Mollusca,  381. 

Moloch,  132. 

Molucca,  Isles,  194. 

Mombas,  182. 

Momentum,  346. 

Monarchy,  101. 

Monastic  System,  148. 

Moneiital,  78. 

Money,  124. 

Monochrome,  522. 

Mongolia,  170. 

Monocotyledonous  Plants,  389. 

Monomachy,  309. 

Monopoly,  123. 

Monrovia,  181. 

Monsoons,  164,  366. 

Montanabbi,  255. 

Montaigne,  264. 

Montecuculi,  269. 

Montesquieu,  263. 

Montezuma,  237. 

Montevideo,  191,  241. 

Montgomery,  274. 

Month,  200. 

Montmorency,  262. 

Montreal,  186. 

Mood  in  Logic,  79. 

Mood  of  Verbs,  46. 

Moon,  353. 

Moors,  180,222. 

Moral  Beauty,  74. 

Moral  Law,  142. 

Moral  Philosophy,  87. 

Moral  Sense,  88. 

Moral  Sublimity,  73. 

Moravia,  177. 

Moravians,  158. 

Morea,  172. 

Morgan,  Daniel,  274. 

Morocco,  180,  212. 

Morphia,  372. 

Morris,  Robert,  273. 

Mortars,  489. 

Mortar,  436. 

Mortgage,  119. 

Mortices,  437. 

Morveau,  264. 

Mosaic  Work,  525. 

Mosambique,  217. 

Moscow,  178. 

Moses,  140,  248. 

Moslems,  137. 

Mosque,  139. 

Motasim,  255. 

Motazalites,  139. 

Motley  Assembly,  311. 

Mouldings,  445. 

Mounds,  493. 

Mount  Blanc,  176. 

Mourning  Bride,  304. 

Mourzouk,  180. 

Moxa,  428. 


INDEX. 


579 


Mozambique,  182. 

Mozart,  271. 

Muezzin,  139. 

Mufti,  139. 

Mule  Jenny,  474,  475. 

Multiplication,  318. 

Multiplication  Table,  316. 

Mumps,  422. 

Munich,  176. 

Municipal  Law,  116. 

Murat,  262. 

Murder,  120. 

Muriatic  Acid,  370. 

Murillo,  261. 

Muscat,  167. 

Muschenbrock,  268. 

Muscles,  407. 

Muses,  133. 

Music,  531. 

Musical  Composition,  535. 

Musical  Instruments,  479. 

Musical  Notation,  534. 

Musical  Productions,  535. 

Musk,  415. 

Muslins,  475. 

Mustapha,  213. 

Mutual  Instruction,  93,  97. 

Mutules,  445. 

Mylitta,  131. 

Myology,  407. 

Mysteries,  296. 

Mysteries  of  Udolpho,  305. 

Mythology,  129. 

Nabonassar,  204. 

Nabopolassar,  204. 

Naddodr,  171. 

Nadir  Shah,  214. 

Nankin,  169. 

Nantes,  174. 

Napier,  267. 

Napier's  Analogies,  335. 

Naples,  173. 

Napoli,  173. 

Narbonensis,  174. 

Narcotics,  414. 

Narragansett  War,  235. 

Narrative,  74. 

Nasals,  44. 

Nassir  Eddin,  256. 

Nathan,  249. 

Nation,  ]  05. 

National  Institute,  22,  23. 

Natural  History,  16,  373. 

Natural  Key,  534. 

Natural  Law,  98. 

Natural  Philosophy,  16,  342. 

Natural  Religion,  127. 

Natural  Theology,  150. 

Naufragio,  297. 

Naumachise,  537. 

Naval  Armament,  510. 

Naval  Engagements,  511. 

Naval  Signals,  509. 

Naval  Tactics,  508. 


Navarino,  173. 
Nave,  447. 
Navigation,  455. 
Navitactics,  508. 
Navitecture,  451. 
Navy,  508. 

Nebuchadnezzar,  204. 
Nebulce,  354. 
Necho,  204. 
Necker,  262. 
Necrology,  243. 
Negative  Electricity  >  364. 
Nehemiah,  249. 
Neith,  130. 
Nelson,  265. 
Nelson  River,  185. 
Nephthys,  131. 
Nepos,  243. 
Neptune,  132. 
Neptunion  Theory,  396. 
Nero,  253. 
Nerva,  253. 
Nerves,  408. 
Nervous  Fluid,  403. 
Nervous  Diseases,  423. 
Nestorian  Church,  153. 
Nestorius,  147. 
Netherlands,  176,  227, 
Neuralgia,  423. 
Neurology,  408. 
Neutrality,  108. 
New  Brunswick,  234 
Newfoundland,  234. 
New  Grenada,  190,  239. 
New  Guinea,  68,  194. 
New  Hernhut,  185. 
New  North  Wales,  185. 
New  Orleans,  186. 
New  South  Wales,  185. 
Newspapers,  517. 
New  Style,  200. 
New  Testament,  149. 
Newton,  267,  322,  337. 
New  World,  233. 
New  York,  186. 
New  Zealand,  194. 
Nicholas,  232. 
Nickel,  37k 
Nicolaitans,  146. 
Niger,  181. 
Nightmare,  423. 
Nigritia,  181. 
Nile,  179. 
Nimrod,  204. 
Nineveh,  166,  204. 
Nitre,  371. 
Nitric  Ether,  415. 
Nitrogen,  369. 
Niutche,  216. 
Noachian  Deluge,  200. 
Noah,  248. 
Nodes,  352. 
Noel,  179. 
Noetica,  30. 
Nominalists,  21. 


Nomology,  34,  98, 

Non-metallic  Chemistry,  368. 

Noology,  33. 

Normal  Surgery,  427. 

Norman  Lesley,  312. 

Nornas,  136. 

Northern  Africa,  179. 

North  America,  183. 

Northern  Europe,  177. 

Northern  War,  231. 

North  Georgian  Islands,  185. 

Norway,  178. 

Norwegian  Language,  64. 

Nosology,  418. 

Notation,  317. 

Nott,  135. 

Noun,  45. 

Nova  Zembla,  178. 

Nova  Scotia,  234. 

Novels,  116,  281. 

Novelty,  74. 

Novum  Organum,  29,  77. 

Nubia,  180. 

Numa  Pompilius,  207. 

Numeration,  317. 

Numerical  Equations,  326. 

Numismatics,  198. 

Oak,  437. 
Oberlin,  92. 
Obi,  171. 

Oblique  Angles,  328. 
Oblique  Attack,  507. 
Occam,  22. 
Occiput,  406. 
Oceaiiica,  192. 
Oceanic  Languages,  68. 
Oceanic  History,  217. 
Oceans,  164. 
Octave,  533. 
Octavo,  521. 
Oculist,  428. 
Odfer,  177. 
Odes,  280. 
Odoacer,  209,  220. 
Odyssey,  284. 
(Edipus  Tyrannus,  285. 
Oersted,  271,  366. 
Offerings,  143. 
Ogee,  445. 
Ogyges,  206. 
O'Higgins,  240,  278. 
Ohio  River,  186. 
Oil  Painting,  523. 
Olaf,  231. 
Oldenburg,  177. 
Old  Style,  200. 
Old  Testament,  141. 
Olivarez,  260. 
Olympia,  173. 
Omar,  210,  213,  255. 
Ontology,  36. 
Oolite,  399. 
Ootay,  216. 
Opera,  281,  533. 


380 


INDEX. 


Opliidia,  380. 

Ophiology,  379. 

Ophthalmia,  422. 

Opium,  415. 

Oporto,  174. 

Optics,  356. 

Or,  245. 

Oracles,  283. 

Orange,  Prince  of,  268. 

Orange  River,  182. 

Oration,  282. 

Oratorio,  533. 

Oratory,  70. 

Orbit,  352. 

Orchan,  212. 

Orchards,  468. 

Order  of  Battle,  512. 

Orders  in  Botany,  387. 

Orders  in  Nat.  Hist.,  374. 

Ordinaries,  245. 

Ordnance,  489. 

Orellana,  189. 

Organ,  479. 

Organic  Chemistry,  371. 

Organic  Remains,  375. 

Organization  of  Armies,  504. 

Organon,  77. 

Oriental  Architecture,  445. 

Oriental  Biography,  254. 

Oriental  Callography,  288. 

Oriental  Chronography,  210. 

Oriental  Languages,  49. 

Origen,  150. 

Orinoco,  190. 

Orion,  354. 

Orismology,  44. 

Orleans,  174. 

Orlop-Deck,  510. 

Ornaments,  Heraldic,  246- 

Ornithology,  379. 

Oromastes,  131. 

Orthoepy,  43. 

Orthographic  Projection,  332. 

Orthography,  43. 

Orthology,  43. 

Oryctognosy,  389. 

Osiris,  130. 

Osmerinea,  394. 

Osmia,  298. 

Osteology,  406. 

Ostirrichi,  229. 

Ostrogoths,  220. 

Osymandias,  203. 

Otaheite,  195. 

Other,  1 71. 

Othman,  210,  212,  255. 

Otho,  148,  220. 

Otho,  228. 

Otis,  James,  273. 

Oudenard,  226. 

Oudney,  179. 

Outliers,  398. 

Ovid,  254. 

Overshot  Wheel,  441. 

Owyhee,  Isle  of,  195. 


Oxalic  Acid,  417. 
Oxenstiern,  271. 
Oxford,  175. 
Oxide,  369. 
Oxygen,  369. 

Pecans,  283. 

Paez,  Gen.  239,  277. 

Pachydermata,  379. 

Paganism,  129. 

Pagoda,  445. 

Pagoda,  (Coin,)  483. 

Paine,  R.  T.,  276. 

Painting,  521. 

Paixhan  Gun,  501. 

Palaeotherium,  399. 

Palaestra,  537. 

Palatals,  43. 

Pale,  245. 

Paleontology,  395,  397. 

Palermo,  173. 

Palestine,  167. 

Palcy,  150. 

Palisades,  495. 

Palladio,  260. 

Pallas,  272. 

Palmipedes,  379. 

Palmyra,  167. 

Pampas,  191. 

Pancratium,  537. 

Pancreas,  411. 

Pandects,  116. 

Panegyric,  286,  288. 

Pantagruel,  301. 

Pantocracy,  101. 

Pantology,  13. 

Pantomime,  281. 

Papal  Power,  218. 

Paper,  516. 

Paper  Making,  520. 

Papilla,  409. 

Papyrus,  516. 

Parabola,  336. 

Paracelsus,  419. 

Parade,  496. 

Parade  Ground,  492. 

Paradise  Lost,  301. 

Paraguay,  191,  241. 

Paralipomcna,  284. 

Parallax,  356. 

Parallelogram  of  Forces,  346. 

Parallel  Sailing,  457. 

Paralysis,  423. 

Paramaribo,  190. 

Parapet,  494. 

Paraselena,  360. 

Parchment,  516. 

Paregoric,  415. 

Parental  Duties,  89. 

Parhelia,  360. 

Paris,  174. 

Park,  179. 

Parliamentary  Rules,  102. 

Parma,  173. 

Parry,  184. 


Parsee,  53 
Parsing,  47. 
Parthian  Empire,  205. 
Participle,  46. 
Partnerships,  118. 
Passant,  246. 
Passerinoe,  379. 
Passover,  143. 
Pastoral  Poetry,  280. 
Pastoral  Theology,  152. 
Pastor  Fido,  295. 
Pastourelles,  298. 
Patagonia,  192. 
Patella,  407. 
Pathology,  418. 
Patriarcha,  100. 
Patriarchs,  140,  147,  248. 
Patriotism,  90. 
Patristic  Theology,  149. 
Paul,  146. 

Paul  and  Virginia,  301. 
Pauses,  76. 

Paymaster  General,  492. 
Peale,  276. 
Pearlasb.,371. 
Pediment,  444. 
Pedro  I.,  277. 
Pehlvi,  53. 
Pekin,  169. 
Pelagius,  147,  221. 
Pelasgians,  206. 
Pelasgie  Languages,  55. 
Pella,  145. 
Peloponnesus,  172. 
Peloponnesian  War,  207. 
Peltastai,  504. 
Pelusium,  179. 
Penance,  153. 
Pend-Nameh,  291. 
Pendulum,  348. 
Penn,  William,  273. 
Pentateuch,  141. 
Pentathlon,  537. 
Pentecost,  143. 
Penumbra,  524. 
Pequot  Wars,  235. 
Perception,  85. 
Perceptive  Powers,  85. 
Percy,  265. 
Perfection  Divine,  91. 
Pericarp,  385. 
Pericles,  251. 
Pericranium,  407. 
Peripatetic  School,  21. 
Perihelion,  352. 
Perjury,  120. 
Pernambuco,  189. 
Peroration,  76. 
Perry,  O.  H.  274. 
Persecutions,  146. 
Persepolis,  168. 
Persia,  168,  213. 
Persian  Biography,  256. 
Persian  Callography,  290. 
Persian  Language,  53. 


INDEX. 


581 


Personal  Duties,  88. 

Personification,  73. 

Perspective,  523. 

Perspectograph,  524. 

Persuasion,  75. 

Peru,  190,  239. 

Peru-Bolivia,  240. 

Peruvian  Bark,  419. 

Pestalozzi,  268. 

Petard,  491. 

Peter  the  Great,  232,  272. 

Petit  Juries,  103. 

Petitio  Principii,  80. 

Petrarch,  259. 

Peutinger  Table,  161. 

Phaeton,  480. 
Phalanx,  498. 
Pharisees,  143. 
Pharmacology,  412. 
Pharmacopeia,  413. 
Pharmacy,  412,  416. 
Pharsalia,  Lucan's  286. 
Pharynx,  410. 
Phidias,  252. 
Philadelphia,  186. 
Philip  of  France,  262. 
Philip,  II.,  223. 
Philip,  146. 

Philip  of  Macedon,  207. 
Philippi,  172. 
Philippics,  286. 
Philippine  Islands,  194. 
Philo,  249. 
Philology,  40. 
Philopoemen,  251. 
Philosopher's  Stone,  367. 
Philosophy,  19. 
Philosophy,  Political,  100. 
Phipps,  273. 
Phlebotomy,  426. 
Phlegmasiae,  421. 
Phlogiston,  368. 
Phocion,  251. 
Phoenicia,  167,205. 
Phoenician  Language,  51. 
Phonetic  Characters,  49. 
Phonology,  43. 
Phosphorescence,  392. 
Phosphorus,  370. 
Phrenics,  82. 
Phrenology,  83. 
Phtha,  130. 
Phthisis,  422. 
Physical  Astronomy,  355. 
Physical  Education,  93. 
Physical  Geography,  162. 
Physical  Geology,  400. 
Physical  Optics,  359. 
Physician,  402. 
Physiconomy,  32,  313. 
Physics,  342. 
Phytology,  383. 
Phytonomy,  385. 
Piast,  231. 
Piastre,  483. 


Piazza,  444. 
Pickles,  471. 
Piers,  449. 
Pike,  Gen.,  274. 
Pilaster,  444. 
Pile,  444. 

Pinacography,  525. 
Pinacotheca,  525. 
Pinchbeck,  435. 
Pindar,  251. 
Pine,  437. 
Pinnacle,  447. 
Piracy,  109. 
Pisces,  376. 
Pisistratus,  251. 
Pistils,  385. 
Pistol,  489. 
Pistole,  483. 
Piston,  442. 
Pitt,  William,  265. 
Pittinea,  394. 
Pius,  Pope,  219, 258. 
Pizzarro,  261,  277. 
Placoidians,  381. 
Plaintiff,  121. 
Plane,  in  Geometry,  328. 
Plane  Trigonometry,  334. 
Planets,  352. 
Planimetry,  328. 
Plan  of  Operation,  505. 
Plantation,  467. 
Plants,  383. 

Plants,  Growth  of,  386. 
Plaster,  530. 
Plastic  Art,  527. 
Plate,  479. 
Platinum,  371. 
Plato,  21,  403. 
Plautus,  254. 
Plectognathi,  381, 
Plesiosaurus,  399. 
Pliny,  254. 
Plutarch,  243. 
Pluto,  132. 
Plymouth,  234. 
Pneumatics,  345,  349. 
Pneumatology,  36,  82. 
Pneumonitis,  422. 
Po,  173. 

Pochonchi  Language,  67. 
Poen-king,  215. 
Poetic  Foot,  48. 
Poetry,  18,  280. 
Poictiers,  223. 
Point,  in  Geometry,  328. 
Point  of  View,  523. 
Poisons,  417. 
Poland,  178. 
Polish  Callography,  309. 
Polish  Language,  65. 
Polite  Literature,  37. 
Politics,  98. 

Political  Economy,  121. 
Political  Philosophy,  100. 
Poll  Tax,  125. 
74 


Polo,  Marco,  166. 
Polybius,  251. 
Polycarp,  150. 
Polychromes,  522. 
Polyedron,  330. 
Polygon,  328. 
Polynesia,  194. 
Polypi,  383. 
Poly-olbion,  302. 
Polytheism,  130. 
Pomerania,  177. 
Pompeii,  209. 
Pompey,  208,  253. 
Pondicherry,  169. 
Poniatowski,  232,  272. 
Pontoons,  497. 
Pontoppidan,  271. 
Pope,  Alex.,  266. 
Pope  of  Rome,  147. 
Popes,  258. 
Porosity,  343. 
Porphyry,  397. 
Port  au  Prince,  188. 
Portcullis,  494. 
Porter,  472.       , 
Portfires,  491. 
Port-holes,  509. 
Portico,  444. 
Port  Royal,  43. 
'ortugal,  174,  222. 
3ortugal,  Sovereigns  of,  261. 
3ortuguese  Callography,  297. 
'ortuguese  Language,  60. 
Posen,  177. 

Positive  Electricity,  363. 
"•ostern,  497. 
?otamon,  21. 
Potash,  371. 

'otassium,  370. 
Potatoes,  465. 
Potence,  245,  508. 

'otemkin,  272. 
Potsdam,  177. 
Pottery,  478. 
Pound  Weight,  484. 
Pound  Sterling,  483. 
'oussin,  264. 
bwer-loom,  474. 
owers  of  a  Number,  321. 
owers,  Theory  of,  325. 
bzadas,  241. 
5racrit  Language,  53. 
'ractical  Astronomy,  355. 
Practical  Optics,  360. 
ragmatic  Sanction,  228. 
'rague,  177. 
^raxiteles,  252. 
'recipitate,  369. 
dedicate,  78. 
'reposition,  46. 
'resburg,  177. 
resbyterians,  156. 
'resbytery,  156. 
'rescriptive  Laws,  99. 
^resident  of  U.  S.,  113. 


582 


INDEX. 


Priam,  206. 

Priesthood,  142. 

Primage,  109. 

Primary  Rocks,  398.         [234. 

Prince  Edward's  Island,  186, 

Prince  Macchiavelli's,  100. 

Prince  William's  Land,  185. 

Principia,  Newton's,  352. 

Principes,  5U4. 

Principles  of  Adjudication,  103. 

Principles   of  Administration, 

104. 

Principles  of  Commerce,  481. 
Principles  of  Elocution,  76. 
Principles  of  Legislation,  102. 
Printing,  516,  518. 
Printing  Paper,  520. 
Privateer,  109. 
Privative  Terms,  78. 
Process,  121. 
Probabilities,  81. 
Production  of  Wealth,  122. 
Proem,  75. 
Profile,  522. 
Prolonge,  501. 
Prologue,  281. 
Prometheus  Bound,  285. 

Promise,  119. 

Pronoun,  46. 

Proof,  519. 

Propensities,  84. 

Property,  119. 

Prophets,  141,  249. 

Prophetical  Books,  141. 

Proposition,  78. 

Proserpina,  133. 

Prosody,  47. 

Protestants,  155. 

Prothonotary,  103. 

Protogine,  397. 

Provencal  60. 

Provence,  174. 

Proverb,  282. 

Prussia,  177, 229. 

Prussian  Blue,  371. 

Psammetichus,  204. 

Psiloi,  504. 

Psychology,  33,  69. 

Psychonomy,  32,  39. 

Pterodactylus,  399. 

Pteropoda,  381. 

Ptolemies,  204. 

Ptolemy,  161,  250,  252. 

Public  Education,  96. 

Pueyrredon,  241. 

Puffendorf,  106,  269. 

Pulaski,  272. 

Pulmonary  Artery,  409. 

Pultowa,  231. 

Pun,  282. 

Punctuation,  48. 

Punic  War,  208. 

Punishments,  103,  120. 

Pupa,  382. 

Pupil,  of  the  Eye,  361. 


Pure  Mathematics,  314. 
Purgatory,  153. 
Puritans,  157,  234. 
Putnam,  Israel,  274. 
Pygmalion,  205. 

yramid  in  Geometry,  330. 

yramids,  203,  445. 

yrenees,  174. 
'yrexiae,  421. 
"yritinea,  394. 

yrotechny,  490,  539. 

yrrhic,  48. 

'yrrho,  21. 
Pyrrhus,  207. 

ythagoros,  20,  327. 

ytheas,  161. 

Quadrant,  458. 
Quadratic  Equation,  324. 
iuadrivium,  28. 
CJuadrumana,  378. 
Quakers,  158. 
iuarrying,  436. 
Quarter  Deck,  453. 
Quarter-master,  492. 
Quarto,  521. 
Quebec,  186, 233. 
iuichua  Language,  67. 
Quicksilver,  371. 
Quiloa,"  182. 
Quincy,  Josiah,  273. 
Quinia,  414. 
Quinsy,  422. 
Quintilian,  253. 
Quiros,  193. 
Quito,  190,  239. 

Rabbinic  Language,  51. 
Rabbinists,  144. 
Rabelais,  264. 
Races  of  Men,  164. 
Rack,  in  Machinery,  440. 
Racine,  263. 
Radiated  Caloric,  363. 
Radical  Sign,  325. 
Radius,  in  Anatomy,  407. 
Radius,  in  Geometry,  329. 
Radius  Vectors,  355. 
Ragner  Lodbrog,  230. 
Rail-Roads,  449. 
Rainbow,  360. 
Raking,  512. 
Raleigh,  265. 
Ramayana,  292. 
Rampant,  246. 
Rampart,  496. 
Ramsay,  Dr.,  276. 
Randolph,  Peyton,  273. 
Raphael,  260. 
Rash,  422. 

Ratchet  Wheels,  440. 
Rattlings,  454. 
Ray,  375,  384. 
Realists,  21. 
Reasoning,  77. 


lebus,  282. 

Rectilinear  Figures,  329, 
ledan,  495. 
Redoubt,  495. 
Reflective  Powers,  86. 
Reflected  Lights,  524. 
Jeflectors,  358. 
Reformation,  148,  154,  219, 
left-action,  356,  359. 
legiment,  499. 
legiomontanus,  270. 
Jegne  Animal,  375. 
Regulus,  252. 
Rehoboam,  202,  249, 
Reid,  83. 
Relievos,  527. 
leligion,  127. 
Religious  Duties,  91. 
Religious  Education,  96. 
Remonstrants,  155. 
Repeating  Circle,  458. 
Replevin,  121. 
Representation,  100. 
Representatives,  112. 
Reptiles,  379. 
Republic,  101. 
Republic  of  Cracow,  178. 
Reserve,  507. 
Reservoirs,  450. 
Resinous  Electricity,  362. 
Resistibility,  343. 
Rest,  94.  - 

Restorationists,  157. 
Retina,  361. 
Retreat,  507. 
Revealed  Religion,  127. 
Revelation,  128. 
Revolution,  English,  225. 
Reynolds,  267. 
Rhazes,  255. 
Rhea,  103. 
Rheometry,  337. 
Rhetoric,  70. 
Rheumatism,  422. 
Rheutinea,  393. 
Rhine,  176. 
Rhodian  Laws,  109. 
Rhomboid,  329. 
Rhombus,  329. 
Rhone,  174. 
Rhyme,  48. 
Ribs  of  Ships,  453. 
Rice,  465. 
Richard,  225. 
Richard  of  England,  265. 
Richardson,  184. 
Richelieu,  262. 
Ricochet,  494. 
Ridicule,  74. 
Riding,  538. 
Ridley,  266. 
Riego,  260. 
Rienzi,  259. 
Riga,  178. 
Right  Ascension,  354. 


INDEX. 


583 


Rights  of  War  and  Peace,  106. 

Rigging  of  Ships,  453. 

Rimmon,  131. 

Rio  Janeiro,  189. 

Rittenhouse,  D.,  276. 

Rivadavia,  241. 

Rivera,  241. 

River  Improvements,  450. 

Roads,  448. 

Robbery,  120. 

Robertson,  266. 

Robespierre,  262. 

Rocky  Mts.,  186. 

Rodentia,  379. 

Rodolph,  227,  269. 

Rollin,  Charles,  263. 

Romaic  Dialect,  57. 

Roman  Biography,  252. 

Roman  Callography,  286. 

Roman  Catholic  Church,  153. 

Roman  History,  207. 

Roman  School,  523. 

Romance,  18,  281. 

Romance  of  the  Rose,  298. 

Romancero,  Gen.,  296. 

Romano,  258. 

Roman  Numerals,  316. 

Romanoff,  232. 

Romantic  Poetry,  280. 

Rome,  173,  207. 

Romulus,  207,  252. 

Root  of  a  Number,  321. 

Root  of  a  Plant,  384. 

Roots,  Theory  of,  325. 

Rosary,  469. 

Rosas,  241,278. 

Roses,  Wars  of  the,  225. 

Ross,  Capt.,  184.        . 

Rosetta  Stone,  50. 

Rouble,  483. 

Rouen,  174. 

Round  Bodies,  330. 

Roundlets,  245. 

Rousseau,  263. 

Rowing,  538. 

Rubens,  268. 

Rudder,  453. 

Rule  of  Three,  320. 

Rules  of  Position,  321. 

Ruminantia,  379. 

Runic  Alphabet,  62. 

Rupee,  483. 

Rural  Deities,  133. 

Rural  Economy,  461. 

Rush,  Dr.,  276. 

Russia,  178,  232. 

Russian  Alphabet,  66. 

Russian  America,  185. 

Russian  Church,  153. 

Russian  Language,  65. 

Sabbatical  Year,  143. 
Sabellius,  147. 
Sabianism,  137. 
Sabines,  207. 


Sacontala,  292. 

Sacraments,  150. 

Sacrum,  407. 

Sadducees,  144. 

Sadi,  256. 

Sadoc,  249. 

Saggars,  478. 

Sagrifizio,  295. 

Sahara,  180. 

Sailing,  538. 

Sailing-master,  511. 

Sails,  453. 

St.  Anthony's  Fire,  422. 

St.  Augustin,  148. 

St.  Bartholomew's  Eve,  224. 

St.  Boniface,  148. 

St.  Denis,  148. 

St.  Elias,  Mount,  185. 

St.  Lawrence  River,  185. 

St.  Patrick,  148. 

St.  Petersburg,  178. 

St.  Pierre,  264. 

St.  Salvador,  188. 

St.  Vitus's  Dance,  424. 

Saivas,  134. 

Saladin,  211. 

Salamis,  207. 

Sal  Ammoniac,  371. 

Salient,  246. 

Saliva,  411. 

Sallust,  253. 

Saltier,  245. 

Salts,  369. 

Salt  of  Lemons,  371. 

Salvator  Rosa,  260. 

Samanides,  213. 

Samarcand,  170. 

Samaria,  167. 

Samson,  249. 

Samuel,  249. 

Sanchoniathon,  250.  » 

Sanctorio,  362. 

Sanctuary,  142. 

Sandstone,  397,  436. 

Sandracottus,  213. 

Sandwich  Islands,  195. 

San  Martin,  240,  277. 

Sanscrit  Languages,  52,  53. 

Santa  Anna,  277. 

Santa  Cruz,  Gen.,  240,  278. 

Santander,  277. 

Santiago,  191. 

Sappers,  497. 

Sappho,  251. 

Saracens,  210. 

Sardanapalus,  204. 

Sardinia,  173. 

Sarmatia,  178. 

Saros,  351. 

Sarpi,  259. 

Saragossa,  174. 

Sarto,  260. 

Sate,  130. 

Satellites,  353. 

Satin,  476. 


Satiric  Poetry,  280. 

Saturn,  132,  133. 

Satyricon,  288. 

Saul,  202,  249. 

Sauria,  380. 

Saviour,  145. 

Savoy,  221. 

Saw-Gin,  473. 

Sawyers,  451. 

Saxe  Weimar,  177. 

Saxon  Alphabet,  63, 

Saxon  Language,  62. 

Saxony,  1 76. 

Scansores,  379. 

Scandinavia,  178. 

Scandinavian  Mythology,  135. 

Scantling,  437. 

Scape-Goat,  143. 

Scapements,  440. 

Scaptinea,  394. 

Scapula,  407. 

Scarfing,  437. 

Scarlet  Fever,  422. 

Scenography,  332. 

Sceptic  School,  21. 

Scheele,  271. 

Schildberger,  166. 

Schiller,  270. 

Schism  of  the  West,  219. 

Schlegel,  270. 

Scipio  Africanus,  208. 

Scipio  Asiaticus,  253. 

Scholastic  Philosophy,  21. 

School  of  the  Soldier,  499. 

Schools  of  Philosophy,  19. 

Schooner,  454. 

Schuyler,  274. 

Sclavonia,  177. 

Sclavonians,  232. 

Sclavonic  Languages,  65. 

Sclerotica,  361. 

Scolia,  284. 

Scorpion,  488. 

Scotia,  445. 

Scotland,  175,  226. 

Scott,  Sir  Walter,  266. 

Scribes,  144. 

Scrofula,  424. 

Sculpture,  527. 

Scurvy,  424. 

Seamanship,  456. 

Seals,  247. 

Seasoning,  437. 

Sebastian,  261. 

Secant,  329. 

Secondary  Rocks,  399. 

Secretaries,  104. 

Secretaries  of  Legation,  104. 

Secretive  Diseases,  424. 

Sectarian  Polity,  152. 

Sedatives,  414. 

Seeds,  385. 

Seghalien,  170. 

Segment,  329. 

Segur,  263. 


584 


INDEX. 


Seiant,  246. 

Sicilian  Vespers,  221. 

Seine,  174. 

Sicilies,  173. 

Seleucus,  205,  250. 

Sicyon,  206. 

Selenium,  370. 

Siderial  Astronomy,  354. 

Selim,  212. 

Sidney,  194,  265. 

Seljoohs,  212. 

Sienite,  397. 

Semaphore,  521. 

Sierra  Leone,  181,  217. 

Semitic  Languages,  50. 

Sieve  of  Eratosthenes,  316. 

Semiramis,  204. 

Sigfrid,  148. 

Senate,  112. 

Sigismund,  228,  232,  271. 

Senator,  112. 

Signals,  512. 

Seneca,  254. 

Signature,  520,  534. 

Senegambia,  181. 

Sihon,  170. 

Sennaar,  180. 

Silesia,  177. 

Sensation,  85. 

Siliceous  Stones,  435. 

Senses,  85. 

Silicon,  370. 

Sentiments,  84. 

Silk  Manufacture,  476. 

Septuagint,  141. 

Silloi,  285. 

Sequeira,  166. 

Silver,  371. 

Serapis,  131. 

Silvius,  405. 

Seraswatee,  133. 

Simile,  72. 

Serfs,  117. 

Simple  Equation,  324. 

Serjeant,  499. 

Simpson,  184. 

Servius  Tullius,  208. 

Simon,  141,  146. 

Sesostris,  203. 

Simon  Peter,  145. 

Seth,  248. 

Simoom,  164. 

Sette  Giornate,  295. 

Sinai,  Mt.,  167. 

Seven  Sacraments,  1  53. 

Sinciput,  406. 

Seven  Years'  War,  229. 

Sine,  334. 

Sexagesimal  Notation,  317. 
Sextant,  458. 

Singhasana,  292. 
Single  Entry,  484. 

Shading,  524. 

Sinister  Chief,  244. 

Shadows,  524. 

Sirocco,  164. 

Shaft,  in  Mines,  435. 

Sirventes,  298. 

Shaft,  in  Machines,  440. 

Sismondi,  268. 

Shahabodien,  214. 

Sitka,  185. 

Shah  Nameh,  290. 

Siva,  134. 

Shakspeare,  266. 

Skating,  538. 

Shaktus,  134. 

Skeleton,  406. 

Shastra,  133,  292. 

Sketch  Book,  312. 

Shechinah,  142. 

Skin,  409. 

Shee-hoang-tee,  215. 
Shee  King,  293. 

Skyldingians,  308. 
Skirmish,  507. 

Sheep,  466. 

Slave  Trade,  109. 

Sheer  plan,  452. 

Sliver,  475. 

Shee-tsong,  216. 
Shee-tsoo,  216. 

Sloops,  454. 
Slubbing,  475. 

Sheets,  454. 

Small  Pox,  422. 

Shells,  471. 

Sme,  130. 

Sheriff,  103. 

Smeaton,  John,  267. 

Shield,  244,  488. 

Smelting,  435. 

Shiites,  139. 

Smith,  Capt,  273. 

Ship,  454. 

Smith,  William,  275. 

Ship  Building,  451. 

Smyrna,  167. 

Ship  of  the  Line,  508. 

Snags,  451. 

Ships  of  War,  510. 

Snake  Root,  414. 

Shoa  Efat,  181. 

Soapstone,  436. 

Shooting,  539. 
Short  Hand,  51  8. 

Sobieski,  232,  272, 
Social  Compact,  100. 

Shot,  491. 

Social  Duties,  90. 

Shrouds,  454. 

Societies,  22. 

Siam,  169. 

Socinians,  157. 

Sibillants,  44. 

Socrates,  20. 

Siberia,  170. 

Socratic  School,  20. 

Sibylline  Leaves,  302. 

Sodium,  370. 

Sodom,  205. 

Soil,  464. 

Solar  System,  350. 

Solicitor,  103. 

Solid  Angles,  330. 

Solids,  328. 

Soliloquy,  282. 

Soliman,  211. 

Solomon,  202,  249, 256. 

Solmization,  532. 

Solon,  207. 

Somaulia,  183. 

Songaria,  170. 

Sonnet,  281. 

Sophistry,  80. 

Sophocles,  251. 

Sophonisba,  295. 

Sorbefacients,  413. 

Sorbonne,  263. 

Sorites,  80. 

Sorrows  of  Werter,  308. 

Sothic  Period,  351. 

Soudan,  181. 

Sound,  350. 

Sources,  134. 

Sources  of  Commerce,  482. 

South  America,  189. 

Souza,  238. 

Sovereign,  483. 

Sovereign  Pontiff,  218. 

Spain,  173. 

Spanish  Biography,  260. 

Spanish  Callography,  296. 

Spanish  Language,  59. 

Spanish  Succession,  222, 224. 

Spar  Deck,  510. 

Spasmi,  424. 

Spear,  488. 

Species,  374. 

Specific  Gravity,  349. 

Spectator,  305. 

Spectrum,  357. 

Speculum,  29. 

Spenser,  Edmund,  266. 

Sphere,  330. 

Spherical  Projections,  332. 

Spherical  Segment,  331. 

Spherical  Triangle,  331. 

Spherical  Trigonometry,  334. 

Sphragistics,  198,  247. 

Spinning  Jenny,  473. 

Spinning  Frame,  475. 

Spirit  of  the  Laws,  100. 

Spitzbergen,  178. 

Spondee,  48. 

Splanchnology,  410. 

Spleen,  411. 

Spurzheim,  83. 

Spy,  Cooper's,  312. 

Squadron,  502,  508. 

Stael,  Madame  de,  264. 

Staff,  in  Music,  534. 

Staff  Corps,  505. 

Stahl,  270. 

Stamboul,  212. 


INDEX. 


585 


Stamen,  385. 

Stanza,  280. 

Starboard,  511. 

Starlings,  449. 

Stars,  354. 

State  Rights,  114. 

Statesmanship,  98, 104. 

States  of  the  Church,  173. 

Statics,  345,  346. 

Statute,  99. 

Statutes,  115. 

Statistics,  160. 

Statistics  of  Europe,  171. 

Statues,  527. 

Stays,  454. 

Steamboat,  454. 

Steam  Engine,  439,  442. 

Steam  Navigation,  452. 

Steel,  434. 

Stem  of  a  Ship,  453. 

Stenography,  518. 

Stephen,  218,  258. 

Stereographic  Projection,  332. 

Stereometry,  328. 

Stereotype  Printing,  517,  519. 

Sterinea,  393. 

Stern  of  a  Ship,  453. 

Sternum,  407. 

Steuben,  274. 

Stewart,  83. 

Stimulants,  413. 

Stockholm,  178. 

Stocks,  in  Ship  Building,  453. 

Stoic,  21. 

Stomach,  410. 

Stone  Cutting,  436. 

Stone  Ware,  478. 

Strabo,  161,252. 

Strata,  398. 

Strategy,  503. 

Stretcher,  436. 

Strength  of  Materials,  437. 

Striking  Distance,  507. 

Strontium,  370. 

Structures  of  the  Body,  406. 

Stuart,  226,  276. 

Sturlason,  271. 

Stuttgard,  176. 

Style,  71. 

Styles  of  Architecture,  443. 

Styria,  177. 

Stylobate,  444. 

Stylus,  516. 

Subalterns,  79. 

Subcontraries,  79. 

Subject,  78. 

Sublimation,  416. 

Sublimity,  73. 

Subtraction,  318. 

Sucking  Pump,  349. 

Sucre,  Gen.,  277. 

Sugar  Cane,  465. 

Sugar  of  Lead,  371,  417. 

Sully,  Duke  of,  262. 

Sulphur,  370. 


Sumatra,  217. 
Summer  Houses,  467. 
Summit  Level,  450. 
Summons,  121. 
Sun,  352. 

Sunda  Islands,  193. 
Sunna,  139. 
Suphis,  203. 

Supremacy  of  the  Pope,  153. 
Supreme  Court,  114. 
Suwarrow,  272. 
Surajah  Dowlah,  215. 
Surface,  in  Geometry,  328. 
Surgery,  425. 
Surgeon  General,  492. 
Surveying,  449. 
Sweden,  178. 
Swedenborg,  271. 
Swedenborgians,  158. 
Swedish  Language,  64. 
Swedish  Callography,  308. 
Swedish  Revolution,  231. 
Sweetmeats,  471. 
Swerga,  134. 
Sweyn,  230. 
Swimming,  538. 
Swine,  466. 
Switch,  450. 
Switzerland,  176,  227. 
Sword,  488. 
Sword  Exercise,  503. 
Sydenham,  267,  419. 
Syllogism,  79. 
Symptomatology,  418. 
Syncope,  423. 
Synecdoche,  73. 
Synclinal  Axis,  398. 
Syndesmology,  407. 
Synod,  156. 
Synod  of  Dort,  155. 
Synonyms,  45. 
Syntax,  47. 
Synthetic  Method,  82. 
Syria,  167,205. 
Syriac  Language,  51. 
Systematic  Botany,  386. 
Systematic  Geology,  397. 
Systematic  Mineralogy,  393. 
Systematic  Theology,  152. 
System  of  Nature,  373. 
Syzigies,  355. 

Tabernacle,  142. 
Tabernacles,  Feast  of,  143. 
Tacitus,  253. 
Tack,  456. 
Tactics,  498. 
Talbot,  John,  265. 
Tales,  281. 
Talleyrand,  263. 
Talmud,  144. 
Tamerlane,  213. 
Tampico,  188. 
Tamul  Language,  53. 
Tananarivou,  183. 


Tangent,  329,  334. 
Tanning,  476. 
Tao-tzee,  135. 
Tarascan  Language,  67. 
Tare  and  Trett,  321. 
Targums,  144. 
Tariff,  123. 
Tarraconensis,  174. 
Tarsus,  407. 
Tartar  Languages,  52. 
Tartary,  170. 
Tartarus,  132. 
Tartuffe,  300. 
Task,  Cowper's,  303. 
Tasman,  192. 
Taste,  73. 
Tasso,  259. 
Taxation,  125. 
Taylor,  Brook,  338. 
Taytsong,  216. 
Taytsoo,  216. 
Technology,  32,  430. 
Tecum  Umam,  238. 
Teeth,  406,  429. 
Teheran,  168. 
Telegraph,  517,  521. 
Telemaque,  299. 
Telescope,  357. 
Tell,  William,  268. 
Temperature,  93. 
Tempering,  434. 
Tenaille,  497. 
Tendon,  407. 
Tenne,  245. 
Tenons,  437. 
Tense,  46. 
Teraphim,  527. 
Terence,  254. 
Term,  77. 
Terra  Firma,  239. 
Terre-pleine,  495. 
Terrestrial  Globes,  161. 
Territories,  U.  S.,  187. 
Tertiary  Rocks,  399. 
Tertullian,  150. 
Testament,  New,  149. 
Testament,  Old,  141. 
Tete-de-pont,  506. 
Tetrachords,  532. 
Tetrachys,  316. 
Teutonic  Knights,  229. 
Teutonic  Language,  62. 
Texas,  187,  237. 
Thales,  20,  327. 
Thanatopsis,  310. 
Thaut,  26,  41,250. 
Thebes,  173,  179. 
Thebaid,  287. 
Theiinae,  394. 
Thekla,  309. 
Theodicy,  36. 
Theodore,  232,  258. 
Theodoret,  150. 
Theogony,  284. 
Theology,  18,  34, 127, 144. 


586 


INDEX, 


Theory  of  Equations,  326. 
Theory  of  Government,  101. 
Theory  of  Music,  533. 
Therapeutics,  413. 
Thereology,  41 8. 
Theriaca,  285,  412. 
Thermo-Electricity,  366. 
Thespis,  285. 
Thessalonica,  172. 
Thessaly,  173. 
Thibet,  169. 
Thomas,  146. 
Thorax,  409. 
Thorwaldsen,  271. 
Thousand  Nights,  291. 
Thracia,  172. 
Thucydides,  251. 
Thummim,  143. 
Tiara,  246. 
Tiberius,  253. 
Tibia,  407. 
Tide  Mills,  441. 
Tides,  163. 

Tie  in  Carpentry,  437. 
Tigranes,  250. 
Tigre,  181. 
Tigre  Language,  681. 
Tilbury,  480. 
Tilly,  269. 
Timbuctoo,  181. 
Timothy,  146. 
Timothy  Grass,  465. 
Tin,  371,  435. 
Tinctures,  245. 
Tintoretto,  260. 
Tippoo  Saib,  215. 
Titans,  132. 
Title,  119. 
Titian,  260. 
Titus,  1461,  253. 
Tobacco,  465. 
Tobolsk,  171. 
Tograi,  255. 
Togrul  Beg,  212. 
Tompkins,  Daniel  D.,  275. 
Tone,  in  Coloring,  525. 
Tonics,  413. 
Topical  Surgery,  428. 
Topogr.  Geography,  164. 
Topography,  449. 
Tooti  Nameh,  291. 
Torricelli,  259,  346. 
Torrismondo,  295. 
Tort,  121. 
Tortoise,  493. 
Torus,  445. 
Touch,  365. 
Tournament,  537. 
Tourniquet,  426. 
Towers,  493. 
Toxicology,  417. 
Tracery,  447. 
Trachea,  411. 
Trade,  480. 
Trade-winds,  163,366. 


Tragedy,  281. 
Trajan,  253. 
Tranquebar,  169. 
Transepts,  447. 
Transit  Instruments,  355. 
Transition  Rocks,  398. 
Transoms,  490. 
Transubstantiation,  153. 
Trapezoid,  %329. 
Trap  Rock,  397. 
Traverse,  121. 
Traverses,  497. 
Traverse  Sailing,  457. 
Treaty,  99. 
Treaties,  115. 
Trepan,  427. 
Trestles,  449. 
Triangle,  334. 
Triarii,  504. 
Tribunes,  208. 
Tribonian,  254. 
Trieste,  177. 
Triglyphs,  445. 
Trigonometry,  314,  333. 
Tripoli,  180. 
Triremes,  508. 
Tristia,  287. 
Triumvirate,  208. 
Tristram  Shandy,  305. 
Trivium,  29. 
Trochee,  48. 
Trojan  War,  206. 
Tropes,  72. 
Tropical  Year,  353. 
Troubadours,  298. 
Trouveurs,  298. 
Trover,  121. 
Troy,  167,  206. 
Troy  Weight,  416. 
Trumpet,  479. 
Trumpets,  Feast  of,  143 
Tub  Wheel,  441. 
Tuggurt,  180. 
Tulunides,  211. 
Tunis,  180,  212. 
Tunnel,  450. 
Tupac  Amaru,  240. 
Turenne,  262. 
Turgot,  262. 
Turkey  in  Europe,  172. 
Turkish  Biography,  256. 
Turkish  Callography,  290. 
Turkish  Language,  52. 
Turnip,  465. 
Turnout,  450. 
Tuscan  Order,  446. 
Tuscany,  173,221, 
Twelve  Apostles,  145. 
Twelve  Tables,  116,  208. 
Two  Sicilies,  221. 
Tycho  Brahe,  271. 
Tychonic  System,  352. 
Tympanum,  409. 
Types,  518. 
Typhon,  131. 


Typhoons,  164. 
Typography,  517. 
Tyre,  205. 
Tyrol,  177. 

Ulcers,  428. 
Ulna,  407. 
Ultima  Thule,  161. 
Ulysses,  251. 
Ummerapoora,  169. 
Undershot  Wheel,  441. 
Undulatory  Theory,  357. 
Unison,  533. 
Unitarians,  157. 
United  Netherlands,  227. 
United  Provinces,  227. 
United  States,  186. 
Unity,  75. 

Universal  Bishop,  218. 
Universalists,  157. 
Universal  Gravitation,  346. 
Universal  Propositions,  79. 
Univocal  Term,  78. 
Unleavened  Bread,  143. 
Upangas,  133. 
Upavedas,  133. 
Upholstery,  480. 
Upper  Guinea,  181. 
Upsal,  Kings  of,  231. 
Uraguay,  191,241. 
Ural  Mountains,  170. 
Uranus,  132. 
Urim,  143. 
Ursa  Major,  354. 
Usher,  199. 
Usbecks,  170. 
Uses  of  Reason,  81. 
Usong  Hassan,  213. 
Usury  Laws,  124. 
Utility,  122. 
Utopia,  305. 
Uzziah,  249. 

Vaccination,  419. 
Vacuum,  350. 
Vair,  245. 
Vaishavas,  134. 
Valdivia,  240,  278. 
Valens,  209. 
Valentinian,  209. 
Valhalla,  135. 
Valkyrias,  136. 
Valve,  442. 
Vancouver,  184. 
Vandals,  221. 
Vandyck,  268. 
Vanishing  Point,  524. 
Van  Noort,  193. 
Van  Rensselaer,  274. 
Van  Tromp,  268. 
Varangians,  232. 
Variation,  365. 
Variola,  422. 
Varix,  428. 
Varro,  242. 


INDEX. 


587 


Vasco  De  Gama,  166, 179,261. 

Vassal,  11 7. 

Vatican,  24. 

Vattel,  106. 

Vedas,  133. 

Vega,  Garcilaso  de  la,  261. 

Vein,  409. 

Vein,  in  Geolooy,  398. 

Velasco,  311. 

Velasquez,  261. 

Velites,  504. 

Velvet,  476. 

Veneration  of  Images,  153. 

Veneering,  480. 

Venezuela,  190,  239. 

Venetian  School*  523. 

Venice,  173. 

Ventricle,  409, 

Venus,  133,220. 

Verb,  46. 

Vermilion,  371. 

Verandahs,  445. 

Verdigris,  37L 

Vermes,  376. 

Vernet,  264. 

Verse,  280. 

Versification,  47. 

Vertebra,  407. 

Vertebrata,  378. 

Vertical  Projection,  331. 

Vespasian,  253. 

Vestiture,  472. 

Vesuvius,  173. 

Viatecture,  447. 

Vicar  of  Wakefield,  305. 

Vicramaditya,  214. 

Victoria,  265. 

Vienna,  177. 

Vieta,  322. 

Vieyra,  154. 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  260. 

Vindelicia,  177. 

Violin,  479. 

Virgil,  253. 

Virtue,  87. 

Viscera,  410. 
Visconti,  259. 
Vishnu,  134. 

Visigoths,  220,  221. 

Vision,  73. 

Vision  of  Judgment,  311. 

Vistula,  177. 

Visual  Rays,  523. 

Vitrefactures,  478. 

Vitreous  Electricity,  362. 

Vitreous  Humor,  361. 

Vitriol,  Oil  of,  369. 

Vitriols,  371. 

Vitruvius,  254,  345. 

Vladimir,  232. 

Vladislaus,  272. 

Voice,  411. 

Voice  of  Nature,  311. 

Voices  of  the  Night,  311. 

Volga,  170,  178. 


oltaic  Circle,  365. 
oltaire,  263. 
oltigeurs,  499. 
olutes,  446. 
oo-tee,  216. 
rihatcatha,  292. 
ulcan,  132. 

ulcanian  Theory,  396. 
ulgar  Fractions,  319. 
'ulnar  Surgery,  426. 


Valdemar,  230. 

Valdenses,  154. 

Valid,  211. 

iVallachian  Language,  59. 

Wall  of  Antonine,  175. 

Vail  of  Hadrian,  175. 

Valpole,  Robert,  265. 

Var,  17. 

Varakah,  137. 

barren,  274. 

Warsaw,  178. 

Warwick,  265. 

Washington,  236,  274,  275. 

Waste  Book,  484. 

Waste  Wiers,  450. 

Watches,  479. 

Waterloo,  224. 

Water  Power,  440. 

Water  Sports,  538. 

Watt,  James,  267. 

Watts,  Isaac,  266. 

Wax  Figures,  529. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  274. 

Wealden  Rocks,  399. 

Wealth,  122. 

Wealth  of  Nations,  122. 

Weather-gage,  511. 

Weber,  271. 

Wedgewood,  362. 

Weeks,  199. 

Welch  Language,  64. 

Welding,  434. 

Wellington,  265. 

Werner,  270,  396. 

West,  Benj.,  276. 

Western  Africa,  181. 

Western  Asia,  205. 

West  Indies,  188. 

West  Indies,  History  of,  238. 

Westphalia,  177. 

Whiskey,  472. 

White,  W. 

Whitesmith,  435. 

Whooping  Cough,  424. 

Wickliffe,  John,  154. 

Wieland,  270. 

Will,  87,  119. 

William  of  England,  225,  265 

William  of  Orange,  227,  268. 

Willoughby,  171. 

Windmill,  441. 

Wind  Power,  441. 

Winds,  133. 


Vindward,  456,  511. 
Vine,  472. 
Ving  Dam,  451. 
Vinthrop,  John,  273. 
iVirtemberg,  176. 
Vise  Men  of  Greece,  251. 
Vistar,  276. 
Vit,  74.. 

iVittenagemote,  110. 
Witt,  John  de,  268. 
iVool,  482. 

Voollen  Manufacture,  475. 
^Volfe,  234. 
Wollaston,  364. 
Volsey,  265. 
tVord,  Compound,  44. 
Works  and  Days,  284. 
Vorship  of  Images,  148. 
Worship  of  Saints,  153. 
Wounds,  427. 
Wren,  Christopher,  267. 
Writing,  517. 
Writing  Paper,  520. 
Written  Laws,  99. 
Wulstan,  171. 

Cavier,  Francis,  154. 
Xenophon,  251. 
Xerxes,  205,  250. 
Ximenes,260.    • 
Xylography,  518,  519. 

Yard  Measure,  484. 
Yards  of  Ships,  453. 
Year,  22. 
Yegros,  241. 
Yenisei,  171. 
Ymir,  135. 
York,  175, 
Young,  Thomas,  267. 
Ypsilanti,  258. 

Zaire,  182,  300. 
Zanguebar,  182. 
Zanguebar  Dialects,  68. 
Zarco,  179. 
Zecchin,  483. 
Zechariah,  249. 
Zedekiah,  249. 
Zend,  52. 
Zendavesta,  26. 
Zenith,  356. 
Zenophanes,  20. 
Zeno,  21,  251. 
Zerubbabel,  249. 
Zinc,  371,  435. 
Zinzendorf,158,311. 
Zodiac,  354. 
Zone  of  a  Sphere,  330. 
Zones,  163. 
Zoology,  375. 
Zoonomy,  377. 
Zoroaster,  26,  250. 
Zuinglius,  268. 
Zummaraga,  154. 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 


Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 
.2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  callmg 

/51  (V)  642-6753 
.  Vyear  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bring.ng 

books  to  NRLF 

.  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made 
4  days  prior  to  due  date 


SEWTONILL 


DD20  1M  3-02 


YC  22528 


